CHAPTER THREE

GAS-POWER CYCLES

1
 Introduction
 Thermodynamic cycles can be primarily classified based on their
utility such as for power generation, refrigeration etc.

 Based on this thermodynamic cycles can be categorized as;

(i) Power cycles,

(ii) Refrigeration and heat pump cycles.

(i) Power cycles: Thermodynamic cycles which are used in devices

producing power are called power cycles. Power production can be
had by using working fluid either in vapor form or in gaseous form.
When vapour is the working fluid then they are called vapor power
cycles, 2
 Conti..
• whereas in case of working fluid being gas these are called gas
power cycles. hus, power cycles shall be of two types,
(a) Vapour power cycle,
(b) Gas power cycle.
 Vapour power cycles can be further classified as,
1. Carnot vapour power cycle
2. Rankine cycle
3. Reheat cycle
4. Regenerative cycle.
 Gas power cycles can be classified as,
1. Carnot gas power cycle
2. Otto cycle
3. Diesel cycle
4. Dual cycle 3
 Cont..
5. Stirling cycle
6. Ericsson cycle
7. Brayton cycle
 The devices or systems used to produce a refrigeration effect are
called refrigerators, air conditioners, or heat pumps, and the
cycles they operate on are called refrigeration cycles.

4
 Cont’d
 Heat engines are categorized as internal combustion and external
combustion engines, depending on how the heat is supplied to
the working fluid.

 In external combustion engines (such as steam power plants), heat

is supplied to the working fluid from an external source such as a
furnace, a geothermal well, a nuclear reactor, or even the sun.

 In internal combustion engines (such as automobile engines), this is

done by burning the fuel within the system boundaries.

 In this chapter, various gas power cycles are analyzed under

some simplifying assumptions. 5
 Basic Considerations In The Analysis of Power Cycles
 The cycles encountered in actual devices are difficult to analyze
because of the presence of complicating effects, such as friction,
and the absence of sufficient time for establishment of the
equilibrium conditions during the cycle.

 To make an analytical study of a cycle feasible, we have to keep the

complexities at a manageable level and utilize some idealizations.

 When the actual cycle is stripped of all the internal

irreversibility's and complexities, we end up with a cycle that
resembles the actual cycle closely but is made up totally of
internally reversible processes. Such a cycle is called an ideal cycle.
6
 Cont’d
 The idealizations and simplifications commonly employed in the
analysis of power cycles can be summarized as follows:

1. The cycle does not involve any friction. Therefore, the working fluid
does not experience any pressure drop as it flows in pipes or devices such
as heat exchangers.

2. All expansion and compression processes take place in a quasi

equilibrium manner.

3. The pipes connecting the various components of a system are well

insulated, and heat transfer through them is negligible.

7
 Cont’d
 Another commonly utilized simplification in the analysis of power
cycles is neglecting the changes in kinetic and potential energies
of the working fluid. The only devices where the changes in
kinetic energy are significant are the nozzles and diffusers, which
are specifically designed to create large changes in velocity.

8
 Use of property diagrams in analyzing power cycles
 Property diagrams such as the P-v and T-s
diagrams are valuable aids in the analysis of
thermodynamic processes.
 On both the P-v and T-s diagrams, the area
enclosed by the process curves of a cycle
represents the net work produced during
the cycle (figures below), which is also
equivalent to the net heat transfer for that
cycle.
 The T-s diagram is particularly useful as a
visual aid in the analysis of ideal power cycles.
 An ideal power cycle does not involve any
internal irreversibility's, and so the only effect
that can change the entropy of the working
fluid during a process is heat transfer.
9
 Cont’d
 On a T-s diagram, a heat-addition process proceeds in the direction
of increasing entropy, a heat-rejection process proceeds in the
direction of decreasing entropy, and an isentropic (internally
reversible, adiabatic) process proceeds at constant entropy.

10
 Cont’d
 The area under the process curve on a T-s diagram represents
the heat transfer for that process.

 The area under the heat addition process on a T-s diagram is a

geometric measure of the total heat supplied during the cycle 𝒒𝒊𝒏 ,
and the area under the heat rejection process is a measure of the
total heat rejected 𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕 .

11
 Cont’d
 The difference between these two (the area enclosed by the
cyclic curve) is the net heat transfer, which is also the net work
produced during the cycle.

 Therefore, on a T-s diagram, the ratio of the area enclosed by the

cyclic curve to the area under the heat-addition process curve
represents the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

 Any modification that increases the ratio of these two areas will
also increase the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒘𝒏𝒆𝒕
𝜼𝒕𝒉 = 𝒐𝒓 𝜼𝒕𝒉 =
𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝒒𝒊𝒏
12
 AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS
 The actual gas power cycles are complex. To reduce the analysis
to a manageable level, we utilize the following approximations,
commonly known as the air-standard assumptions:

1. The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed

loop and always behaves as an ideal gas.

2. All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.

3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process

from an external source.

4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process that

restores the working fluid to its initial state.
13
14
 Cont’d
5. Another assumption that is often utilized to simplify the analysis even

more is that air has constant specific heats whose values are

determined at room temperature (25°C, or 77°F). When this assumption

is utilized, the air-standard assumptions are called the cold-air-standard

assumptions.

 A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are applicable is

frequently referred to as an air-standard cycle.

15
 AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES
 Despite its simplicity, the reciprocating engine (basically a

piston–cylinder device) is one of the rare inventions that has

proved to be very versatile and to have a wide rang of

applications.

 It is the powerhouse of the vast majority of automobiles, trucks,

light aircraft, ships, and electric power generators, as well as

many other devices which use gas as a working substance.

16
 Cont’d
Parts of an engine:

17
 Cont’d
Basic IC Engine Terminologies

18
 Cont’d
1. Top-Dead-Center (TDC) (Top-Center (TC)):- Position of the piston
when it stops at the furthest point away from the crankshaft.

 Head-End-Dead-Center(HEDC)for horizontally opposed engines,

radial engines.

 When an occurrence in a cycle happens before TDC, it is often

abbreviated bTDC. When the occurrence happens after TDC, it will be
abbreviated aTDC.

2. Clearance volume(𝑉𝑐 ):- the minimum volume in the cylinder when

the piston is at TDC.

19
 Cont’d
3. Bottom-Dead-Center (BDC): Position of the piston when it stops at
the point closest to the crankshaft. Some sources call this Crank-End-
Dead-Center (CEDC) because it is not always at the bottom of the engine.
Some sources call this point Bottom-Center (BC).

 During an engine cycle things can happen before Bottom-dead-center,

bBDC, and after bottom-dead-center, aBDC.

4. Bore (D, b): Diameter of the cylinder or diameter of the piston face,
which is the same minus a very small clearance.

5. Stroke (S): Movement distance of the piston from one extreme position
to the other: TDC to BDC or BDC to TDC.
20
 Cont’d
6. Displacement or Displacement Volume (V): Volume displaced by the
piston as it travels through one stroke. Some literature calls this swept
𝝅
volume. 𝑽 = 𝒃𝟐 𝒔 Where V = volume of cylinder,
𝟒

b = bore of cylinder, s = stroke

The total volume of the cylinder = clearance volume + swept volume

= (𝑽𝑪 + 𝑽)

7. Engine capacity(𝑽𝒕 ): The capacity of any engine is the sum of the

𝜋 2
swept volumes of all its cylinders. 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑏 𝑠𝑛 where “n” the number of
4

cylinders employed.
21
 Cont’d
8. Compression ratio (CR, r): Compression ratio is a measure of how far
the intake air-fuel mixture taken-in during the intake stroke is
compressed in the cylinder during the compression stroke.

𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 + 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑐

𝐶𝑅 = 𝑟 = =
𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑐

9. Mean effective pressure (MEP): It is a fictitious pressure that, if it

acted on the piston during the entire power stroke, would produce the
same amount of net work as that produced during the actual cycle.

That is, 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑀𝐸𝑃 × 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 = 𝑀𝐸𝑃 × 𝑉𝑠

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
Or 𝑀𝐸𝑃 = (𝑘𝑃𝑎) 22
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
23
 Cont’d
10. The thermal efficiency of a cycle, also denoted by 𝜂𝑡ℎ , is a measure of

the ability to convert heat energy into work.

𝑊 𝑄𝑆 − 𝑄𝑅 𝑄𝑅
𝜂𝑡ℎ = = =1−
𝑄𝑆 𝑄𝑆 𝑄𝑆

 Where 𝑄𝑅 is the heat rejected and 𝑄𝑆 is heat supplied.

24
 Cont’d
Types of Internal combustion (IC) engines

1. Spark Ignition (SI) Engine.

2. Compression Ignition (CI) Engine.

25
COMPARISON BETWEEN SI AND CI

26
Cont’d

27
 Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle For Spark-Ignition Engines
 Is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines.

 It is named after Nikolaus A. Otto, who built a successful four-

stroke engine in 1876 in Germany using the principles proposed by
Frenchman Beau de Rochas in 1862.

 In most spark-ignition engines, the piston executes four complete

strokes (two mechanical cycles) within the cylinder, and the
crankshaft completes two revolutions for each thermodynamic
cycle. These engines are called four-stroke internal combustion
engines.

28
 Cont’d
 The Otto cycle (also sometimes called the Constant Volume cycle) is

plotted on a pressure (P) - volume (V ) and on a temperature (T) -

entropy (S) diagrams shown below.

29
 Cont’d
 The ideal Otto cycle consists of four internal reversible processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression 2-3 Constant volume heat addition

3-4 Isentropic expansion 4-1 Constant volume heat rejection

30
 Cont’d
 ENERGY ANALYSIS

 The Otto cycle is executed in a closed system and the working fluid
is air according to the air-standard assumption. Also, changes in
kinetic and potential energies are negligible.

 No heat transfer is involved in the two isentropic processes. The

energy balances for these two processes are:
𝒘𝟏𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 − 𝒖𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝟑𝟒 = 𝒖𝟒 − 𝒖𝟑

 𝒘𝟏𝟐 is negative since work is needed to compress the air in the

cylinder and 𝒘𝟑𝟒 is positive since air does work to the
surroundings during its expansion.
31
 Cont’d
 In the constant volume heat addition and heat rejection process, no
work interaction is involved since no volume change occurs.

 The energy balances for these two processes are:

𝒒𝟐𝟑 = 𝒖𝟑 − 𝒖𝟐 = 𝑸𝑺 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒒𝟒𝟏 = 𝒖𝟏 − 𝒖𝟒 = 𝑸𝑹

 𝒒𝟐𝟑 is positive since heat is added to the air and 𝒒𝟒𝟏 is negative
since heat is rejected to the surroundings.

 We know that the heat added or removed from the Working fluid

during a process at constant volume can be written as: 𝑸 = 𝒏𝑪𝒗 ∆𝑻

 Where, n is the number of moles of the Working fluid, 𝑪𝒗 is the heat

capacity at constant volume, and ∆T the change in temperature
32
during the process.
 Cont’d
 Hence; 𝑄𝑆 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣 𝑇4 − 𝑇1

 Therefore, the thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle becomes

𝑊 𝑄𝑅
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =1−
𝑄𝑆 𝑄𝑆

𝑛𝐶𝑣 𝑇4 − 𝑇1 𝑇4 − 𝑇1
𝜂𝑡ℎ =1− =1−
𝑛𝐶𝑣 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 𝑇3 − 𝑇2

 As in this case the Working fluid is treated as pure air, we can write
for the adiabatic compression (process 1-2).

𝛾−1
𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝑉1
𝑇1 𝑉1 = 𝑇2 𝑉2 ⟹ 𝑇2 = 𝑇1
𝑉2 33
 Cont’d
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
 And for the adiabatic expansion 3-4: 𝑇3 𝑉3 = 𝑇4 𝑉4

𝑉4 𝛾−1 𝐶𝑃
⟹ 𝑇3 = 𝑇4 Where γ is the heat capacity ratio defined as: 𝛾 =
𝑉3 𝐶𝑉

 But 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉4 = 𝑉1

 Therefore; 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟 𝛾−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇3 = 𝑇4 𝑟 𝛾−1

𝑉1 𝑉4
 Where 𝑟 = = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐. Hence;
𝑉2 𝑉3

𝑇4 − 𝑇1
𝑇3 − 𝑇2 = 𝑟 𝛾−1 𝑇4 − 𝑇1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜂𝑂 = 1 −
𝑇3 − 𝑇2

1
𝜂𝑂 = 1 − 34
𝑟 𝛾−1
 Cont’d
 The thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle increases with both

the compression ratio and the specific heat ratio.

 This is also true for actual spark-ignition internal combustion

engines.

 For a given compression ratio, the thermal efficiency of an actual

spark-ignition engine is less than that of an ideal Otto cycle

because of the irreversibility's, such as friction, and other factors

such as incomplete combustion. 35

 The working fluid in actual engines contains larger molecules such
as carbon dioxide, the specific heat ratio decreases with
temperature, there is heat loss to the surroundings, there is
frictional loss, which are some of the reasons that the actual cycles
have lower thermal efficiencies than the ideal Otto cycle.

 The thermal efficiencies of actual spark-ignition engines range

36
from about 25 to 30 percent.
 Example 1
The Ideal Otto Cycle
1. An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the beginning of
the compression process, air is at 100 𝒌𝑷𝒂 and 𝟏𝟕°𝑪, and 800 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈
of heat is transferred to air during the constant-volume heat-addition
process. Accounting for the variation of specific heats of air with
temperature, determine

a) The maximum temperature and pressure that occur during the

cycle,

b) The net work output,

c) The thermal efficiency, and

37
d) The mean effective pressure for the cycle.
Conti..

38
Conti..

39
Conti..

40
Conti…

41
 DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES

 The Diesel cycle is plotted on P-V and T-S diagrams as shown.

42
 Cont’d
• This cycle consists of a reversible adiabatic (isentropic)
compression of the WS (process 1-2), followed by an isobaric heating
(process 2-3), then a reversible adiabatic (isentropic) expansion of the
working substance (WS) (process 3-4), and ended with an isochoric
cooling which returns the system back to its original state (process 4-1).

 We can write the heat supplied at constant pressure as;

𝑄𝑆 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃 𝑇3 − 𝑇2

 And the heat rejected (at constant volume) as,

𝑄𝑅 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 𝑇4 − 𝑇1

43
 Cont’d
 Therefore, the thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle becomes

𝑄𝑅
𝜂𝑡ℎ =1−
𝑄𝑆

𝑛𝐶𝑣 𝑇4 − 𝑇1 1 𝑇4 − 𝑇1
𝜂𝐷 = 1 − ⇒ 𝜂𝐷 = 1 −
𝑛𝐶𝑃 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 𝛾 𝑇3 − 𝑇2

 As for the Diesel engine the Working Substance is again treated as

pure air, we can write for the isentropic compression 1-2 that:

𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝑉1 𝛾−1

𝑇1 𝑉1 = 𝑇2 𝑉2 ⇒ 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 ⇒ 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟 𝛾−1
𝑉2

44
 Cont’d
 For the isobaric heating 2-3 that:

𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉3
= ⇒ 𝑇3 = 𝑇2 ⇒ 𝑇3 = 𝑇2 𝑟𝑐
𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑉2
⇒ 𝑇3 = 𝑇1 𝑟 𝛾−1 𝑟𝑐

𝑉3
Where 𝑟𝑐 = is the expansion ratio during heating (also called cut-off-
𝑉2

ratio).

 And for the isentropic expansion 3-4 that:

𝛾−1
𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝑉3
𝑇3 𝑉3 = 𝑇4 𝑉4 ⇒ 𝑇4 = 𝑇3
𝑉4
𝛾−1
𝛾−1
𝑉3
⇒ 𝑇4 = 𝑇1 𝑟 𝑟𝑐 45
𝑉4
 Cont’d
 We can write the above equation in an analogous form as:

𝛾−1 𝑉3 𝑉2 𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝑟𝑐 𝛾−1

𝑇4 = 𝑇1 𝑟 𝑟𝑐 ⇒ 𝑇4 = 𝑇1 𝑟 𝑟𝑐 ⇒ 𝑇4 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑐 𝛾
𝑉2 𝑉4 𝑟

 Thus

1 𝑇4 − 𝑇1 1 𝑇1 𝑟𝑐 𝛾 − 𝑇1
𝜂𝐷 = 1 − =1−
𝛾 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 𝛾 𝑇1 𝑟 𝛾−1 𝑟𝑐 − 𝑇1 𝑟 𝛾−1

1 𝑇1 𝑟𝑐 𝛾 − 1 1 𝑟𝑐 𝛾 − 1
𝜂𝐷 = 1 − 𝛾−1
= 1 − 𝛾−1
𝛾 𝑇1 𝑟 𝑟𝑐 − 1 𝛾𝑟 𝑟𝑐 − 1

46
 Cont’d
 It can be noted that the ignition for the Diesel internal combustion

engines is done by using a higher compression of the fuel, rather

than by using a spark plug as in the case of gasoline powered Otto cycle

engines.

 Therefore, the ignition for Diesel engines is sometimes called a "slow

speed compression ignition", in contrast to the "spark ignition" of the

Otto engines.

47
 Example 2
The Ideal Diesel Cycle
An ideal Diesel cycle with air as the working fluid has a compression ratio
of 18 and a cutoff ratio of 2. At the beginning of the compression process,
the working fluid is at 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎, 80°F, and 117 𝑖𝑛3 . Utilizing the cold-air
standard assumptions, determine

(a) The temperature and pressure of air at the end of each process,

(b) The net work output and the thermal efficiency, and

(c) The mean effective pressure.

48
Conti..

49
Conti..

50
Conti..

51
Conti..

52
 BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR GAS-
TURBINE ENGINES
 The Brayton cycle was first proposed by George Brayton for use in
the reciprocating oil-burning engine that he developed around 1870.

 Today, it is used for gas turbines only where both the

compression and expansion processes take place in rotating
machinery.

 Gas turbines usually operate on an open cycle. Fresh air at ambient

conditions is drawn into the compressor, where its temperature and
pressure are raised.

53
 Cont’d
 The high pressure air proceeds into the combustion chamber, where

the fuel is burned at constant pressure.

 The resulting high-temperature gases then enter the turbine, where

they expand to the atmospheric pressure while producing power.

 The exhaust gases leaving the turbine are thrown out (not

recirculated), causing the cycle to be classified as an open cycle.

54
Cont’d

55
 Cont’d
 The open gas-turbine cycle described above can be modeled as a
closed cycle, as shown in the figure, by utilizing the air-standard
assumptions.

 Here the compression and expansion processes remain the same,

but the combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure
heat-addition process from an external source, and the exhaust
process is replaced by a constant pressure heat-rejection process to
the ambient air.

 The ideal cycle that the working fluid undergoes in this closed loop
is the Brayton cycle, which is made up of four internally reversible
56
processes:
 Cont’d
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor), 2-3 Constant-pressure
heat addition, 3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine), 4-1 Constant-
pressure heat rejection

 The T-s and P-v diagrams of an ideal Brayton cycle are shown also in
the fig. Notice that all four processes of the Brayton cycle are
executed in steady flow devices; thus, they should be analyzed as
57
steady-flow processes.
 Cont’d
 When the changes in kinetic and potential energies are neglected,
the energy balance for a steady-flow process can be expressed, on
unit mass basis as:
𝑞𝑖𝑛 − 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑤𝑖𝑛 − 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 − ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡

 Therefore, heat transfers to and from the working fluid are

𝑞𝑖𝑛 = ℎ3 − ℎ2 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ4 − ℎ1 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇4 − 𝑇1

 Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle under the
cold-air standard assumptions becomes.

58
 Cont’d
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 − 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝜂𝑡ℎ =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑

𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 − 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇4 − 𝑇1 𝑇4 − 𝑇1
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =1−
𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 𝑇3 − 𝑇2
For isentropic processes, we have;

𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝛾 𝑇3 𝑃3 𝛾
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑇4 𝑃4

𝑇2 𝑇3
But, 𝑃2 = 𝑃3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃1 = 𝑃4 . 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, =
𝑇1 𝑇4

59
 Cont’d
𝑇4 𝑇1
And we can write, 𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − =1 −
𝑇3 𝑇2

𝛾−1
𝑇4 𝑇1 𝑉2 1
= = =
𝑇3 𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑟 𝛾−1

1 𝛾−1
𝛾−1 𝛾
𝑇1 1 𝑉2 𝑃1 1 𝑃2
= 𝛾−1 = = = 𝛾−1 , 𝑟𝑝 =
𝑇2 𝑟 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝛾
𝑃1
𝑟𝑝

1
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝛾−1
𝑟𝑝 𝛾
60
 Cont’d
 The above equation shows that under the cold-air-standard assumptions,
the thermal efficiency of an ideal Brayton cycle depends on the
pressure ratio of the gas turbine and the specific heat ratio of the
working fluid.

 The thermal efficiency increases with both of these parameters, which

is also the case for actual gas turbines. A plot of thermal efficiency
versus the pressure ratio is given for γ = 1.4, which is the specific-heat-
ratio value of air at room temperature.

61
Cont’d

62
 DEVELOPMENT OF GAS TURBINES

1. Increasing the turbine inlet (or firing) temperatures

2. Increasing the efficiencies of turbomachinery components:

3. Adding modifications to the basic cycle:

63
 Example 3
The Simple Ideal Brayton Cycle
A gas-turbine power plant operating on an ideal Brayton cycle has a
pressure ratio of 8. The gas temperature is 300K at the compressor inlet
and 1300K at the turbine inlet. Utilizing the air-standard assumptions,
determine

a) The gas temperature at the exits of the compressor and the turbine,

b) The back work ratio, and

c) The thermal efficiency

64
Conti...

65
Cont..

66
Cont..

67
 Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Idealized
Ones

 Where, states 2a and 4a are the actual exit states of the compressor
and the turbine, respectively, and 2s and 4s are the corresponding
states for the isentropic case, as illustrated in the figure.

68
 Example 4
An Actual Gas-Turbine Cycle

1. Assuming a compressor efficiency of 80 percent and a turbine

efficiency of 85 percent, determine

a) The back work ratio,

b) The thermal efficiency, and

c) The turbine exit temperature of the gas-turbine cycle discussed in the

example above.
69
Cont’d

70
Conti..

71
Conti..

72
Cont..

73
 Reading Assignment

 The Brayton Cycle With Regeneration

74
 IDEAL JET-PROPULSION CYCLES
 Gas-turbine engines are widely used to power aircraft because they
are light and compact and have a high power-to-weight ratio.

 Aircraft gas turbines operate on an open cycle called a jet-

propulsion cycle.

 The ideal jet propulsion cycle differs from the simple ideal Brayton
cycle in that the gases are not expanded to the ambient pressure in
the turbine. Instead, they are expanded to a pressure such that the
power produced by the turbine is just sufficient to drive the
compressor and the auxiliary equipment, such as a small
generator and hydraulic pumps. 75
 Cont’d
 That is, the net work output of a jet propulsion cycle is zero.

 The gases that exit the turbine at a relatively high pressure are
subsequently accelerated in a nozzle to provide the thrust to propel
the aircraft.

 Aircraft gas turbines operate at higher pressure ratios (typically

between 10 and 25), and the fluid passes through a diffuser first,
where it is decelerated and its pressure is increased before it enters
the compressor.

76
Cont’d

77
Cont’d

78
 Cont’d
 In accordance with the assumptions of an air-standard analysis,
the working fluid is air modeled as an ideal gas. The diffuser,
compressor, turbine, and nozzle processes are isentropic, and the
combustor operates at constant pressure.

Process 1–2 shows the pressure rise that occurs in the diffuser as the air
decelerates isentropically through this component.

Process 2–3 is an isentropic compression.

Process 3–4 is a constant-pressure heat addition.

Process 4–5 is an isentropic expansion through the turbine during

which work is developed.
79
 Cont’d
Process 5–6 is an isentropic expansion through the nozzle in which the
air accelerates and the pressure decreases.

 The thrust developed in a turbojet engine is the unbalanced force

that is caused by the difference in the momentum of the low-velocity
air entering the engine and the high-velocity exhaust gases leaving
the engine, and it is determined from Newton’s second law.

 The pressures at the inlet and the exit of a turbojet engine are
identical (the ambient pressure); Thus, the net thrust developed by
the engine is

80
 Cont’d
 For an aircraft cruising in still air, 𝑽𝒊𝒏𝒍𝒆𝒕 is the aircraft velocity.

 In reality, the mass flow rates of the gases at the engine exit and the
inlet are different, the difference being equal to the combustion
rate of the fuel.

 However, the air–fuel mass ratio used in jet propulsion engines is

usually very high, making this difference very small.

 Thus, 𝒎 in the above equation is taken as the mass flow rate of air
through the engine.

 For an aircraft cruising at a constant speed, the thrust is used to

overcome air drag, and the net force acting on the body of the
81
aircraft is zero.
 Cont’d
 Commercial airplanes save fuel by flying at higher altitudes during
long trips since air at higher altitudes is thinner and exerts a
smaller drag force on aircraft.

 The power developed from the thrust of the engine is called the
propulsive power 𝑾𝑷 , which is the propulsive force (thrust) times
the distance this force acts on the aircraft per unit time, that is, the
thrust times the aircraft velocity.

82
Cont’d

83
 Cont’d
 The net work developed by a turbojet engine is zero. Thus, we
cannot define the efficiency of a turbojet engine in the same way as
stationary gas turbine engines.

 The desired output in a turbojet engine is the power produced to

propel the aircraft 𝑾𝑷 , and the required input is the heating value
of the fuel 𝑸𝒊𝒏 . The ratio of these two quantities is called the
propulsive efficiency and is given by;

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑊ሶ 𝑃
𝜂𝑃 = =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑄ሶ 𝑖𝑛

 𝜼𝑷 is a measure of how efficiently the thermal energy released

84
during the combustion process is converted to propulsive energy.
 Example 5
The Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycle
A turbojet aircraft is flying with a velocity of 320 𝑚/𝑠 at an altitude of
9150 𝑚, where the ambient conditions are 32 𝑘𝑃𝑎 and −32°𝐶. The
pressure ratio across the compressor is 12, and the temperature at the
turbine inlet is 1400 𝐾. Air enters the compressor at a rate of 60 𝑘𝑔/𝑠,
and the jet fuel has a heating value of 42,700 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔. Assuming ideal
operation for all components and constant specific heats for air at room
temperature, determine

a) The velocity of the exhaust gases,

b) The propulsive power developed, and

c) The rate of fuel consumption. 85

Solution

86
Conti..

87
Thank YOU !