LECTURE NOTES ON

COURSE: AIRCRAFT PROPULSION:21AE52

COURSE CODE: 21AE52

5th Sem
Department of Aeronautical Engineering
Acharya Institute of Technology
Bengaluru-560107

Prepared by:
Dr. Swetha S
Head of the Department
Acharya Institute of Technology
AIRCRAFT PROPULSION:21AE52 MODULE-1

Course Objectives
1. Understand the basic principle and theory of aircraft propulsion.
2. Understand the purpose of a centrifugal, axial compressors, axial and
radial turbines
3. Acquire knowledge of importance of nozzles & inlets and combustion
chamber.

Course Outcomes
CO1: Describe the basic principles of aircraft propulsion.
CO2: Explain the types of propeller and the gas turbine engine
CO3: Describe the components of gas turbine engine
CO4: Evaluate the performance propeller & aviation fuel
CO5: Analyze the performance of nozzles & inlets and combustion chamber

Syllabus Module-1
Introduction: Review of thermodynamic principles, Principles of aircraft
propulsion, Types of power plants, Working principles of internal
combustion engine, Two - stroke and four - stroke piston engines, Gas-
turbine engines, Cycle analysis of reciprocating engines and jet engines,
advantages and disadvantages.

Recommended Text Books

1. Bhaskar Roy, “Aircraft propulsion”, Elsevier (2011), ISBN-13:
9788131214213.
2. 2. V. Ganesan, “Gas Turbines”, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2010, New Delhi,
India, ISBN: 0070681929.

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Introduction: Review of thermodynamic principles

Thermodynamics in physics is a branch that deals with heat, work and

temperature, and their relation to energy, radiation and physical properties
of matter.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

• The Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if any two objects are in
thermal equilibrium with the third object at the given time, then the
heat transfer among the objects is "zero." This principle is often referred
to as the “zeroth principle.”

• When a body, ‘A’, is in thermal equilibrium with another body, ‘b’, and
also separately in thermal equilibrium with a body ‘, C’, then body, ‘B’
and ‘C’, will also be in thermal equilibrium with each other. This
statement defines the zeroth law of thermodynamics. The law is based
on temperature measurement.

Thermodynamics First Law

• The most important law of physics is the conservation of energy. The

first law of thermodynamics states that energy can move from one
physical state to another during molecular interaction, but the total
energy remains the same and cannot be destroyed.

• ΔE = q + w

• Example: The melting of the ice cube is a classic example of the first
law of thermodynamics occurring in our daily lives.

• Plants convert the radiant energy of sunlight to chemical energy

through photosynthesis. We eat plants and convert the chemical energy
into kinetic energy while we swim, walk, breathe, and scroll through
this page.
• Switching on light may seem to produce energy, but it is electrical
energy that is converted.
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Thermodynamics Second Law

• The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of any

independent or isolated system always increases, and the actual
process of work moves in the direction of low energy quality. (Heat
cannot move from a reservoir of lower temperature to a reservoir of
higher temperature in a cyclic process).

• For a spontaneous process, the entropy of the universe increases.

• For a spontaneous process, ΔSuniverse > 0.

• For a spontaneous process, ΔSsystem + ΔSsurroundings > 0

• Example: The second law clearly explains that it is impossible to convert

heat energy to mechanical energy with 100 per cent efficiency. For
example, if we look at the piston in an engine, the gas is heated to
increase its pressure and drive the piston. However, even as the piston
moves, there is always some leftover heat in the gas that cannot be used
for carrying out any other work. Heat is wasted, and it has to be
discarded.

• There are two statements on the second law of thermodynamics, and

they are

• Kelvin- lank Statement

• Clausius Statement

Thermodynamics Third Law:

• The third law of thermodynamics states that as the temperature

reaches absolute zero, the entropy of a system tends to reach constant
value. Therefore, the entropy of a system is zero at absolute zero
temperature.

• Example: vapors of water are the gaseous forms of water at high

temperatures.

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Thermodynamic Systems:

System
A thermodynamic system is a specific portion of matter with a definite
boundary on which our attention is focused. The system boundary may be
real or imaginary, fixed or deformable.
There are three types of systems:

 Isolated System – An isolated system cannot exchange energy and

mass with its surroundings. The universe is considered an isolated
system.
 Closed System – Across the boundary of the closed system, the
transfer of energy takes place but the transfer of mass doesn’t take
place. Refrigerator, compression of gas in the piston-cylinder assembly
are examples of closed systems.
 Open System – In an open system, the mass and energy both may be
transferred between the system and surroundings. A steam turbine is
an example of an open system.
Interactions of thermodynamic systems
Type of system Mass flow Work Heat
Isolated System X X X
Open System ✓ ✓ ✓
Closed System X ✓ ✓

Surrounding
Everything outside the system that has a direct influence on the behaviour of
the system is known as a surrounding.

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Thermodynamic Process
A system undergoes a thermodynamic process when there is some energetic
change within the system that is associated with changes in pressure, volume
and internal energy.
There are four types of thermodynamic processes that have their unique
properties, and they are:

 Adiabatic Process – A process where no heat transfers into or out of

the system occurs.
 Isochoric Process – A process where no change in volume occurs and
the system does no work.
 Isobaric Process – A process in which no change in pressure occurs.
 Isothermal Process – A process in which no change in temperature
occurs.

Thermodynamic Equilibrium
At a given state, all properties of a system have fixed values. Thus, if the value
of even one property changes, the system’s state changes to a different one.
In a system that is in equilibrium, no changes in the value of properties occur
when it is isolated from its surroundings.

 When the temperature is the same throughout the entire system, we

consider the system to be in thermal equilibrium.
 When there is no change in pressure at any point of the system, we
consider the system to be in mechanical equilibrium.
 When the chemical composition of a system does not vary with time, we
consider the system to be in chemical equilibrium.
 Phase equilibrium in a two-phase system is when the mass of each
phase reaches an equilibrium level.
A thermodynamic system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if it is
in chemical equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium and thermal equilibrium
and the relevant parameters cease to vary with time.

Thermodynamic Properties
Thermodynamic properties are defined as characteristic features of a system,
capable of specifying the system’s state. Thermodynamic properties may
be extensive or intensive.

 Intensive properties are properties that do not depend on the quantity

of matter. Pressure and temperature are intensive properties.
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 In the case of extensive properties, their values depend on the mass of

the system. Volume, energy, and enthalpy are extensive properties.

What is Enthalpy?
Enthalpy is the measurement of energy in a thermodynamic system. The
quantity of enthalpy equals the total heat content of a system, equivalent to
the system’s internal energy plus the product of volume and pressure.
Mathematically, the enthalpy, H, equals the sum of the internal energy,
E, and the product of the pressure, P, and volume, V, of the system.
H=E + PV

What is Entropy?
Entropy is a thermodynamic quantity whose value depends on the physical
state or condition of a system. In other words, it is a thermodynamic function
used to measure the randomness or disorder.
For example, the entropy of a solid, where the particles are not free to move,
is less than the entropy of a gas, where the particles will fill the container.
Heat Engine:
The term "engine" is typically defined as any device that transforms the
chemical energy inside a combustible fuel into mechanical energy that can be
used to do work or A machine that converts heat into mechanical energy is
known as heat engine. Heat engines may be classified according to the place
where combustion takes place. The two most common types of engines are
the external combustion engine and the more famous internal combustion
engine. External combustion engines were developed first. The modern steam
engine was pioneered by inventors Thomas Savery, Thomas Newcomen, and
James Watt.
External combustion:
An external combustion engine works by using an external heat source (like
burning coal) to heat a working fluid (like water). As the temperature of the
fluid increases, the fluid expands, and this expansion is harnessed and used
to do work (like moving a vehicle).
Ex: Steam Engine, Steam Turbines etc.
What are external combustion engines used for?
External combustion engines, like any combustion engine, are used to
transform the energy inside a combustible fuel into usable work. The steam
engine is a classic example of an external combustion engine. Many of the
first steam engines used coal to heat water, transforming it into steam, and
the steam pressure was then used to spin the wheel on a train, or for many
other uses.
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What are the two types of external combustion engines?

The two types of external combustion engines are single phase and dual
phase. Single-phase external combustion engines use a working fluid that
does not change phase; it remains either a liquid or a gas throughout the
engine's cycle. Dual-phase external combustion engines utilize a phase
change, in which the working fluid is turned from a liquid to gas and then
back into a liquid.
Internal combustion engine (IC)
The gas temperature and pressure gets increased due to the combustion of
fuel and it will push the piston downward direction. Piston reciprocates inside
the cylinder and it converts reciprocating motion to rotary motion through
mechanical linkages and deliver power to rotating output shaft. Engines are
classified into two types, viz., IC engine, and external combustion (EC) engine.

In IC engines, the combustion of fuel takes place inside, whereas in EC

engines the fuel combustion takes place outside the cylinder. The advantages
of IC engine are higher BTE, more horsepower developed per unit weight and
low cost compared to that of external combustion engine. Based on the
ignition method, the internal combustion engines are further classified into
two types, i.e., Spark Ignition engine (SI engine) and Compression
Ignition engine (CI engine).
Ex: Steam Engine, Steam Turbines etc.
The varies differences between the internal combustion engine and the
external combustion engine is as follows:
 The internal combustion of fuel takes place inside the working cylinder.
Whereas the external combustion of fuel takes place outside the
working cylinder.

 The working fluid used in the internal combustion engine is maybe

Petrol, Diesel & Various types of gases. Whereas the Working fluid used
in the external combustion engine is maybe steam.

 The internal combustion engine requires less space. As compared to the

external combustion engine it requires a large space than the i.c engine.

 The capital cost of the internal combustion engine is relatively low. But
the capital cost of the external combustion engine is relatively high.

 Starting of this internal combustion engine is easy & quick. As

compared to the external combustion engine, the starting of the engine
requires time.

 In the internal combustion engine, thermal efficiency is high. Whereas

in the external combustion engine, thermal Efficiency is low.

 The power developed in an internal combustion engine is per unit

weight of these engines is high. As compared to the power developed in

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an external combustion engine is per unit weight of these engines is

low.

 An Internal combustion engine does not require a boiler or other

components, thus it is light and compact. Whereas the external
combustion engine requires a boiler and other components to transfer
energy, thus it is heavy.

 The internal combustion engine has an efficiency of about 35-45 %. As

compared to the external combustion engine has an efficiency of about
15-25 %.

 The Fuel cost of the internal combustion engine is relatively high. As

compared to the fuel cost of the external combustion engine is relatively
low.

Types of Aerospace Propulsion

Air Breathing Systems:

Broadly grouped as Reciprocating & Jet Propulsion Engines.

 Reciprocating Engines: A reciprocating engine, also often known as a

piston engine, is typically a heat engine that uses one or more
reciprocating pistons to convert high temperature and high pressure
into a rotating motion.
 Gas Turbine Engines: A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine,
is a type of continuous flow internal combustion engine.
 Ram Jets, Pulse Jets & Scram Jets: All these vehicles run with the help
of jet engines which are air breathing engines. The jet engines are
further classified into Turbojets, Turbofans, Turboprops, Pulsejets,
Ramjets, Scramjets

Non Air Breathing Systems: Rockets

 These are not air-breathing and can operate outside of the atmosphere.
However, the principle of thrust generation is the same, i.e., the thrust
is equal to the time rate of change of momentum of the gases exiting
the nozzle.

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Brayton cycle:

The Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cycle used in some heat engines.

Notably, it is used for gas turbine engines and some jet engines. The Brayton
cycle depicts the air-standard model of a gas turbine cycle.

A simple gas turbine engine is comprised of three main components: a

compressor, a combustor, and a turbine. According to the principle of the
Brayton cycle, air is compressed in the turbine compressor. The air is then
mixed with fuel, and burned under constant pressure conditions in the
combustor. The resulting hot gas is allowed to expand through a turbine
engine to perform work. Most of the work produced in the turbine engine is
used to run the compressor and the rest is available to run auxiliary
equipment and produce power. The gas turbine engine is used in a wide range
of applications. Common uses include stationary power generation plants
(electric utilities) and mobile power generation engines (ships and aircraft). In
power plant applications, the power output of the turbine engine is used to
provide shaft power to drive a generator, a helicopter rotor, etc. A jet engine
powered aircraft is propelled by the reaction thrust of the exiting gas stream.
The turbine engine provides just enough power to drive the compressor and
produce the auxiliary power. The gas stream acquires more energy in the cycle
than is needed to drive the compressor. The remaining available energy is
used to propel the aircraft forward.

A schematic of the Brayton (simple gas turbine) cycle is given in Figure 1.

Low-pressure air is drawn into a compressor (state 1) where it is compressed
to a higher pressure (state 2). Fuel is added to the compressed air and the
mixture is burnt in a combustion chamber. The resulting hot gases enter the
turbine (state 3) and expand to state 4. The Brayton cycle consists of four
basic processes:

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Working principle of Gas Turbine Engine

 A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of continuous

flow internal combustion engine. The main parts common to all gas
turbine engines are a rotating gas compressor, a combustor, a
compressor-driving turbine.
 The basic operation of the gas turbine is a Brayton cycle with air as
the working fluid: atmospheric air flows through the compressor that
brings it to higher pressure; energy is then added by spraying fuel into
the air and igniting it so that the combustion generates a high-
temperature flow; this high-temperature pressurized gas enters a
turbine, producing a shaft work output in the process, used to drive the
compressor; the unused energy comes out in the exhaust gases that
can be repurposed for external work, such as directly
producing thrust in a turbojet engine, or rotating a second,
independent turbine (known as a power turbine) that can be connected
to a fan, propeller, or electrical generator.
 The purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so that the most
desirable split of energy between the thrust and the shaft work is
achieved. The fourth step of the Brayton cycle (cooling of the working
fluid) is omitted, as gas turbines are open systems that do not reuse the
same air.
 Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical
generators, pumps, gas compressors, and tanks.

Principles of Jet Propulsion

 Jet propulsion is a practical application of Sir Isaac Newton's third law

of motion, which states that, “for every force acting on a body there is
an opposite and equal reaction.”
 For aircraft propulsion, the “body” is atmospheric air that is caused to
accelerate as it passes through the engine.
 The force required to give this acceleration has an equal effect in the
opposite direction acting on the apparatus producing the acceleration.
 A jet engine produces thrust in a similar way to the engine/propeller
combination. Both propel the aircraft by thrusting a large weight of air
backwards, one in the form of a large air slipstream at comparatively
low speed and the other in the form of a jet of gas at very high speed.

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Working principles of Internal combustion engine:

Combustion, also known as burning, is the basic chemical process of

releasing energy from a fuel and air mixture. In an internal combustion
engine (ICE), the ignition and combustion of the fuel occurs within the engine
itself. The engine then partially converts the energy from the combustion to
work. The engine consists of a fixed cylinder and a moving piston. The
expanding combustion gases push the piston, which in turn rotates the
crankshaft. Ultimately, through a system of gears in the powertrain, this
motion drives the vehicle’s wheels.

There are two kinds of internal combustion engines currently in production:

the spark ignition gasoline engine and the compression ignition diesel engine.
Most of these are four-stroke cycle engines, meaning four piston strokes are
needed to complete a cycle. The cycle includes four distinct processes: intake,
compression, combustion and power stroke, and exhaust.

Spark ignition gasoline and compression ignition diesel engines differ in how
they supply and ignite the fuel. In a spark ignition engine, the fuel is mixed
with air and then inducted into the cylinder during the intake process. After
the piston compresses the fuel-air mixture, the spark ignites it, causing
combustion. The expansion of the combustion gases pushes the piston during
the power stroke. In a diesel engine, only air is inducted into the engine and
then compressed. Diesel engines then spray the fuel into the hot compressed
air at a suitable, measured rate, causing it to ignite.

Petrol Engine

 Petrol engines are internal combustion engines which have spark-

ignition. They run on relatively volatile fuels such as petrol.
 In these engines, air and fuel are generally mixed post-compression.
 Petrol engines work on the Otto cycle, which consists of two isochoric
processes and two isentropic processes.
 In petrol engines, air and petrol are usually mixed in a carburettor
before being introduced to the cylinder.
 Once the air and petrol are compressed, the fuel is ignited via an electric
spark.

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Diesel Engine

 The Diesel engine is also an internal combustion engine which is also

known as the compression-ignition engine. It is named after Rudolf
Diesel.
 In these engines, the fuel is injected into a combustion chamber and is
then ignited by the high temperature of the air in the chamber.
 The high temperature of the air in the cylinder is due to the adiabatic
compression. These engines only compress the air and not the fuel.
 When injected into the combustion chamber, the Diesel fuel undergoes
spontaneous ignition.
 These engines work on the Diesel cycle, which consists of a constant
pressure process, a constant volume process, and two isentropic
processes.

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Difference between Petrol and Diesel Engine

Apart from the type of fuel used, the engines are also divided on the basis of
a lot of things, such as the presence of a spark plug in Petrol engines and a
fuel injector in Diesel engines. We also know that lighter vehicles such as
motorcycles, scooters, and cars typically use petrol in their engines whereas
Diesel is used in much heavier machinery such as tractors, trucks, and buses.
Thus, the types of fuel used also plays a major role in defining the major
difference between Petrol and Diesel engines. More differences between these
types of engines are listed in the tabular column below.

Difference Between Petrol and Diesel Engine

Diesel Engine Petrol Engine
These engines work on the Diesel cycle Works on the Otto cycle
The fuel is mixed with air inside the
Air and the fuel are mixed in a carburettor
cylinder
Ignition is achieved with the help of the
Fuel is ignited with an electric spark
hot, compressed air.
High compression ratio Relatively low compression ratio
Relatively low amounts of power are
High power production
produced in a Petrol engine
These engines work with fuels that have Highly volatile fuels are used in these
low volatilities internal combustion engines
Generally used in heavy vehicles such Used in light vehicles such as motorcycles
as trucks and buses and cars.
Relatively low fuel consumption High fuel consumption.
Comparatively low initial cost and
High initial and maintenance costs
maintenance cost

Four Stroke Engine

A four-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine that utilises four
distinct piston strokes (intake, compression, power, and exhaust) to complete
one operating cycle. A complete operation in a four-stroke engine requires two
revolutions (7200) of the crankshaft. In this article, let’s study the four-stroke
engine.

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Parts of a Four Stroke Engine

Piston: In an engine, a piston transfers the expanding forces of gas to

the mechanical rotation of the crankshaft through a connecting rod.

Crankshaft: A crankshaft is a part that converts the reciprocating

motion to rotational motion.

Connecting Rod: It transfers motion from a piston to a crankshaft,

acting as a lever arm

Flywheel: The flywheel is a rotating mechanical device that is used to

store energy.

Inlet and Outlet Valves: It allows us to enter fresh air with fuel & to exit
the spent air-fuel mixture from the cylinder.

Spark Plug: It is a device that delivers electric current to the

combustion chamber, which ignites the air-fuel mixture leading to
the abrupt gas expansion.

Four Stroke Engine Cycle

The four strokes of the engine go by the following names:

Suction/Intake Stroke

Intake stroke occurs when the air-fuel mixture is introduced to the

combustion chamber. In this stroke, the piston moves from TDC (Top Dead
Center – the farthest position of the piston to the crankshaft) to BDC (Bottom
Dead Center – the nearest position of the piston to the crankshaft.) The
movement of the piston towards the BDC creates a low-pressure area in the
cylinder. The inlet valve remains to open a few degrees of crankshaft rotation
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after BDC. The intake valve then closes, and the air-fuel mixture is sealed in
the cylinder
 Key points
 Inlet Valve – Open
 Outlet Valve – Closed
 Crankshaft Rotation – 1800

Compression Stroke
In compression stroke, the trapped air-fuel mixture is compressed inside the
cylinder. During the stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC, compressing
the air-fuel mixture. The momentum of the flywheel helps the piston move
forward. Compressing the air-fuel mixture allows more energy to be released
when the charge is ignited. The charge is the volume of compressed air-fuel
mixture trapped inside the combustion chamber ready for ignition. The inlet
and outlet valves must be closed to ensure that the cylinder is sealed,
resulting in compression.
 Key points
 Inlet Valve – Closed
 Outlet Valve – Closed
 Crankshaft Rotation – 1800 (Total 3600)

Power/Combustion Stroke
The second rotation of the crankshaft begins when it completes a full rotation
during the compression stroke. The power stroke occurs when the
compressed air-fuel mixture is ignited with the help of a spark plug. Ignition
or Combustion is the rapid, oxidizing chemical reaction in which a fuel
chemically combines with oxygen in the atmosphere and releases energy in
the form of heat. The hot expanding gases force the piston head away from
the cylinder head.
 Key points
 Inlet Valve – Closed
 Outlet Valve – Closed
 Crankshaft Rotation – 1800 (Total 5400)

Exhaust Stroke
As the piston reaches BDC during the power stroke, combustion is complete,
and the cylinder is filled with exhaust gases. The exhaust valves open during
this stroke, and the inertia of the flywheel and other moving parts push the
piston back to TDC, forcing the exhaust gases through the open exhaust
valve. At the end of the exhaust stroke, the piston is at TDC, and one operating
cycle has been completed.
 Key points
 Inlet Valve – Closed
 Outlet Valve – Open
 Crankshaft Rotation – 1800 (Total 7200)

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Otto Cycle:
 The fuel used in the Otto cycle is Petrol fuel.
 The heat addition takes place at a constant volume process and It is also
known as the Isochoric process.

Diesel Cycle:
 The fuel used in the diesel cycle is diesel fuel.
 In the diesel cycle, the heat addition takes place at constant pressure
and It is also known as the Isobaric Process.

Otto Cycle Diesel Cycle

1-2: Isentropic Compression 1-2: Isentropic Compression

2-3: Heat Addition at constant 2-3: Heat Addition at constant

volume Pressure

3-4: Isentropic Expansion 3-4: Isentropic Expansion

4-1: Heat rejection at constant 4-1: Heat rejection at constant

volume processes. volume processes.

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Difference Between Otto Cycle and Diesel Cycle

Sl No. Otto Cycle Diesel Cycle

Otto cycle has low thermal The diesel cycle has high
1.
efficiency. thermal efficiency.

It has a low compression But This one works on a high

2.
ratio. compression ratio.

Otto cycle is also called a The diesel cycle is called a

3.
Constant volume cycle. constant pressure cycle.

Otto cycle system is light in The diesel cycle is heavy in

4.
weight. But weight.

In the diesel engine, the

The explosion process takes
explosion process takes place
5. place at constant volume
at a constant pressure
process and
process.

The Spark Plug is used here A fuel injector is used here for
6.
for igniting the charge. igniting the charge.

A mixture of air and fuel is Only air is entered in suction

7.
entered in suction stroke. stroke.

Here the working fuel is The working fuel is used as

8.
used as Petrol. Diesel.

Diesel cycle engines are not

Otto cycle engine is the
9. high-speed engine
high-speed engines.
comparatively Otto cycle.

The engine starting is easy But here it is difficult

10.
in cold weather too. comparatively Otto cycle.

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Comparison Between a 2-stroke engine and a 4-stroke engine

1. A 4-stroke engine weighs 50% heavier than a 2-stroke engine.

2. A 4-stroke engine is more efficient than a 2-stroke engine because fuel
is consumed once every 4 strokes.
3. A 2-stroke engine creates more torque at a higher RPM, while a 4-stroke
engine creates a higher torque at a lower RPM.
4. A 4-stroke engine is quieter than a 2-stroke engine.
5. 2-stroke engines tend to wear out fast because they are designed to run
at a higher RPM.
6. 2-stroke engines are easier to fix because of their simple construction.
4-stroke engines have complex designs with more parts, making them
more expensive, and repairs cost more.
7. Two-stroke engines are typically found in smaller applications such as
chainsaws, boat motors, and dirt bikes. Four-stroke engines are found in go-
karts, lawnmowers, and combustion engines in your car.

Two-Stroke Engine:
 A Two-stroke Engine is a type of internal combustion engine that
completes one rotation of the crankshaft in two motions of the piston.
It completes the entire cycle of rotation in one stroke of the piston.
 In an internal combustion engine, the crankshaft is moved with the help
of pistons. To rotate the crankshaft, the pistons, have to go through a
cycle of events called the stroking of the engine. During the stroking of
an engine first, the piston intakes the fuel inside the piston chamber
and compresses it. The piston head then expands due to the
combustion of the fuel and then the exhaust is released.
 A two-stroke engine completes this entire process in two rotations to
move the crankshaft in one complete rotation.
 Two-stroke petrol engines are commonly found in smaller, lightweight
applications such as chainsaws, mopeds, outboard boat motors, and
some motorcycles. They are known for their simplicity and high power-
to-weight ratio but tend to be less fuel-efficient and emit more
pollutants. Two-stroke diesel engines are typically used in larger
applications, such as some marine vessels, industrial machinery, and
certain types of generators. They are known for their durability,
efficiency, and ability to produce high torque at low RPMs.

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The below image shows a two-stroke engine in the cross-section.

Two-Stroke Engine Parts

 The different parts are listed as follows:
 Piston: The piston moves by the forces generated by the combustion of
the gasses. The piston converts this chemical energy into
mechanical energy for the crankshaft.
 Crankshaft: It is connected to the pistons and converts the reciprocal
motion of the pistons into the rotational motion which drives the driving
gears.
 Connecting Rod: It connects the piston head to the crankshaft.
 Inlet Port: It is the opening for fuel and air mixture to come inside the
piston chamber.
 Exhaust Port: It is the opening for the exhaust fumes which opens
during the down stroke.
 Spark Plug: Spark plug is the device inside the piston chamber that
causes the combustion of the fuel-air mixture.
 Two-Stroke Engine Working Principle
 The two-stroke engine works in two strokes which are as follows:
 Upstroke: During the upstroke, the piston compresses the air-fuel
mixture into the upper part of the piston chamber where the spark plug
ignites the fuel-air mixture. The ignition of the intake gasses causes the
piston to move down to the centre of the piston chamber which opens
the inlet port and fresh air comes into the piston chamber forcing the
exhaust gasses out through the exhaust port.
 Down stroke: During the down stroke, the piston is in the centre of the
chamber and due to the momentum gained during the upstroke, it

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again moves to the upper part of the chamber while compressing the
fuel-air mixture and the whole cycle is repeated.
 These two strokes combine to move the crankshaft through one full
rotation.
 Difference between Two-Stroke and Four-Stroke Engine
 The following table shows the difference between two-stroke and four-
stroke engines.
 Parameter  Two-Stroke Engine  Four-Stroke Engine
 Number of strokes  2 strokes  4 strokes
per cycle
 Intake stroke  During upward stroke  Separate intake stroke
 Compression stroke  During downward stroke  Separate compression
stroke
 Power stroke  During upward stroke  Separate power stroke
 Exhaust stroke  During downward stroke  Separate exhaust stroke
 Weight  Lighter weight  Heavier weight
 Emissions  Produces more emissions  Produces less emissions
 Fuel/air mixture  Pre-mixed fuel/air  Separate fuel and air
mixture intake
 Lubrication  Oil is mixed with fuel  Oil is separated from
fuel
 Efficiency  Lower efficiency  Higher efficiency
 Applications  Small engines,  Cars, trucks,
motorcycles, chainsaws motorboats

Advantages and Disadvantages of Two-Stroke Engine

The advantages and disadvantages of a two-stroke engine are as follows.
Advantages
 A two-stroke engine is a simple construction as it does not have any
valves.
 The two-stroke engine is less expensive to operate.
 It is cheaper to operate.
 It is light in weight and thus is mostly used in bikes.
Disadvantages
 The parts can wear and tear at a faster rate if they are not properly
lubricated.
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 It produces a lot of pollution as an unburnt air-fuel mixture can just

pass through the exhaust port.
 It produces a lot of noise during its operation.
 The oil of a two-stroke engine is expensive and a large amount is
required due to most of the oil being wasted.
Applications of Two-Stroke Engine
 Two-stroke engines are applied in a number of real-life applications
such as:
 Used in Motorcycles, Mopeds, scooters, and snowmobiles which have
less engine capacity and are cheaper to run.
 Used in handheld mechanical appliances like chainsaws due to their
design which allows them to operate without the need for a reservoir.

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Jet engines:
 Jet engines are the engines that propel modern aircraft. They are
required to power commercial aircraft, military jets, and even
spacecraft. Anyone interested in aviation, engineering, or technology
should understand how jet engines work. There are six different types
of jet engines.
How Do Jet Engines Work?
 Jet engines operate by drawing air from the atmosphere, compressing
it, and then injecting it with fuel. The resulting combustion produces a
high-velocity exhaust stream, propelling the aircraft forward. The six
types of jet engines operate on slightly different principles and each has
its own set of advantages and disadvantages.
Importance of Jet Engines:
 Modern air travel has been transformed by jet engines, which have
made it faster, more efficient, and more accessible. They’ve also had an
impact on military aviation, allowing for faster and more agile fighter
jets. Jet engines have also been used in spacecraft and other fast
vehicles, allowing for space travel and exploration.
History of Jet Engines:
 The concept of jet propulsion was developed in the early twentieth
century, but the first practical jet engines were not developed until the
1930s. Frank Whittle in the United Kingdom and Hans von Ohain in
Germany invented the first jet engines. To generate thrust, these
engines used a centrifugal compressor and a combustion chamber.
Evolution of Jet Engines:
 Following WWII, jet engines began to evolve rapidly. In the 1940s, a
more efficient axial compressor and a larger combustion chamber were
used in the development of the turbojet engine. This enabled faster
speeds and a greater range.
 The turboprop engine, which was developed in the 1950s for use in
slower aircraft, used a gas turbine to drive a propeller. The turbofan
engine, which was developed in the 1960s, combined the best
characteristics of turbojet and turboprop engines.
 It used a larger fan to bypass more air around the combustion chamber,
increasing thrust while consuming less fuel. The ramjet engine, which
was developed in the 1960s, used the aircraft’s high speed to compress
the air for combustion, eliminating the need for a compressor.
Modern Jet Engines:
 Jet engines of today are highly advanced and efficient. They’re used in
everything from commercial airplanes to military fighter jets to
spacecraft. Modern jet engines are engineered to be as efficient, reliable,
and safe as possible.

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 They incorporate advanced materials and manufacturing techniques to

reduce weight and increase durability, and they use computer-
controlled systems to monitor and adjust performance in real time.
 Jet engines have a long history of constant innovation and
improvement. The development of various types of jet engines has
enabled the modern world to accomplish feats that were previously
thought to be impossible, such as commercial air travel and space
exploration. We can expect even more impressive advances in jet engine
design and performance as technology advances.

Gas- turbine engines: Types of engines showing arrangement of parts

Turbojet engine

Fig: The turbojet engine

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Fig: The turbojet engine with afterburner

Working principle:

• The turbojet engine is a reaction engine. In a reaction engine, expanding

gases push hard against the front of the engine.
• Turbojet engine derives its thrust by accelerating a mass of air through
the core engine.
• The air taken in from an opening in the front of the engine is
compressed to about 3-12 times its original pressure in a centrifugal or
axial compressor.
• Fuel is added to the air and burned in a combustion chamber to raise
the temperature of the mixer to about 11000C. The resulting hot air is
passed through a turbine, which drives the compressor.
• If the turbine and compressor are efficient, the pressure at the turbine
discharge will be nearly twice the atmospheric pressure.
• This excess pressure is sent to the nozzle to produce a high velocity
stream of gas which produces the thrust. Thus all the propulsive force
produced by a jet engine is derived from exhaust gases.
• An afterburner (or a reheat) is an additional component added to some
jet engines. Primarily those on military supersonic aircrafts.
• Its purpose is to provide a temporary increase in thrust at the time of
supersonic flight as well as takeoff.

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• On military aircraft, the extra thrust is also useful for combat

situations. This is achieved by injecting additional fuel into the jet pipe
downstream of (after) the turbine.

Characteristics:

• Low thrust at low forward speed.

• Relatively high, thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC) at low altitude
and airspeeds, a disadvantage that decreases as altitude and airspeed
increase.
• Long takeoff roll.
• Small frontal area, resulting in low drag and reduced ground clearance
problems.
• Lightest specific weight.
• Ability to take advantage of high ram pressure ratios.

Advantages:

• The power to weight ratio of a turbojet engine is about 4 times that of a

propeller system having reciprocating engines.
• It is simple, easy to maintain and requires lower lubricating oil
consumption. Furthermore, complete absence of liquid cooling results
in reduced frontal area.
• There is no limit to the power output which can obtained from a turbojet
while the piston engines have reached almost their peak power and
further increase will be at the cost of complexity and greater engine
weight and frontal area of the aircraft.
• The speed of the turbojet engine is not limited by the propeller and it
can attain higher flight speeds than engine propeller aircrafts.

Disadvantages:

• The fuel economy at low operational speeds is extremely poor.

• It has low take-off thrust and hence poor starting characteristics.

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Turboprop engine

Fig: Turboprop engine

Working principle:

• A turboprop engine is a jet engine attached to a propeller. The turbine

at the back is turned by the hot gases and this turns a shaft that drives
the propeller.
• Like the turbojet engine, the turboprop engine consists of a compressor,
combustion chamber and turbine, which than creates the power to
drive the compressor.
• Compared to a turbojet engine, the turboprop engine has better
propulsion efficiency. Modern turboprop engines are equipped with
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propellers that have a smaller diameter but a larger number of blades

for efficient operation at much higher flight speeds.
• Turboprop engine drives its propulsion by conversion of gas stream
energy into mechanical power to drive the compressor, accessories, etc.
• A free turbine is incorporated in the turboprop engine. The shaft in
which the free turbine is mounted drives the propeller through the
propeller reduction gear system.
• Approximately 90% of thrust comes from propeller and about only 10%
comes from the exhaust gases.

Characteristics:

• High propulsive efficiency at low airspeeds, which results in shorter

takeoff rolls but fall rapidly as airspeed increases.
• More complicated design and heavier weight than a turbojet.
• Lowest TSFC.
• Large frontal area of propeller and engine combination that necessitates
longer landing gears for low wing air planes but does not necessarily
increase parasitic drag.
• Possibility of efficient reverse thrust.

Advantages:

• Turboprop engines have a higher thrust at take-off and better fuel

economy.
• The frontal area is less than propeller engines so that drag is reduced.

• The turboprop can operate economically over a wide range of speeds

ranging from low speeds where pure jet engine is uneconomical to high
speeds of about 800 km/h where the propeller engine efficiency is low.
• It is easy to maintain and has lower vibrations and noise.
• The power output is not limited as in the case of propeller engines.
• The multi shaft arrangement allows a great flexibility of operation over
a wide range of speeds.

Disadvantages:

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• The main disadvantage is that at high speeds, due to shocks and flow
separation. The propeller efficiency decreases rapidly, thereby, putting
up a maximum speed limit on the engine.
• It requires a reduction gear which increases the cost and also consumes
certain amount of energy developed by the turbine in addition to
requiring more space.

Turbofan engine

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Working principle:

• A turbofan engine has a large fan at the front, which sucks in air. Most
of the air flows around outside of core engine, making it quieter and
giving more thrust at low speeds.
• In a turbojet engine, all the air entering the intake passes through the
gas generator, which is composed of the compressor, the combustion
chamber and the turbine.

However, in a turbofan engine only a portion of the incoming air goes

into the combustion chamber.
• The remaining air or fan air (or secondary air) either leaves separately
from the primary engine air, or ducted back to mix with the primary air
through the engine core at the rear.
• The objective of bypass system is to increase thrust without increasing
fuel consumption. This is achieved by increasing the total air mass flow
and reducing the velocity within the same total energy supply.
• The increased efficiency of a turbofan engine is combined with a
substantial noise reduction, typically 10-20%, which is a very
important consideration.
• Turbofan engines are generally classified based on the bypass ratio i.e,
low bypass (1:1), medium bypass (2-3:1) and high bypass (4:1 or
greater).
• In a low bypass engine, the fan and compressor sections handle
approximately the same mass of air flow. However, the fan discharge is
generally higher than the compressor discharge.
• A medium bypass engine produces thrust ratio which is approximately
the same as its bypass ratio. The fan of medium bypass ratio engine
has a larger diameter compared to that on a low bypass engine of
comparable power.
• A high bypass turbofan engine utilizes even wider diameter fan in order
to push more air. In this type of engine about 80% of the thrust is
provided by the fan and remaining only 20% by the core engine.

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Characteristics:

• Increased thrust at forward speeds similar to turboprop results in a

relatively short takeoff. However, unlike the turboprop, the turbofan
thrust is not penalized with increasing airspeed, up to approximately
Mach 1 with current fan designs.
• Weight falls between turbojet and turboprop.
• Ground clearances are less than turboprop but not as good as turbojet.
• TSFC and specific weight falls between turbojet and turboprop,
resulting in increased operating economy and aircraft range over the
turbojet.
• Considerable noise level reduction of 10 to 20 percent over the turbojet
reduces acoustic fatigue in surrounding aircraft parts and is less
objectionable to the people on the ground.

• Higher thrust at lower airspeeds.

• Lower TSFC.
• Shorter take-off distance.
• Considerable noise reduction.

Disadvantages:

• Higher specific weight.

• Larger frontal area.
• Inefficient at high altitudes.

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Turboshaft engine

Fig: Turboshaft engine

Working principle:

• This is another form of gas turbine engine that operates similar to a

turboprop engine.
• A gas turbine engine that delivers power through a shaft to operate
something other than a propeller is referred to as a turboshaft engine.
This type of engine is used to power helicopters. It does not drive a
propeller.

• The turboshaft engine is designed so that the speed of the helicopter

rotor is independent of the rotating speed of the gas generator. This

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permits the rotor speed to be kept constant even when the speed of the
generator is varied to modulate the amount of power produced.
• Turboshaft engine derives its propulsion by conversion of gas stream
energy into mechanical power to drive the compressor, accessories, etc.
like that of a turboprop engine.
• The shaft, on which the free turbine is mounted, drives the rotor of a
helicopter through the reduction gearbox.

Advantages:

• Freedom from vibration-permits lighter propeller sections and

mounting structure.
• Available supply of compressed air.
• Decreased fire hazard – less volatile fuels are used.
• Lower specific weight.
• Lower oil consumption.

Disadvantages:

• High specific fuel consumption at low air speeds – applies chiefly to

pure jet engines have performance comparable to reciprocating engines.
• Inefficient operation at low power levels.
• Slow acceleration from minimum to maximum power level – this
condition applies chiefly to turbojet engines. Turboprop and turbofan
engines are able to accelerate quite rapidly.
• High starting power requirements.
• High cost manufacture.
• Susceptibility to damage by foreign material – such material is readily
drawn into the air inlet.

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Ramjet Engines
Ramjet engines are a type of air-breathing jet engine that operates on the
supersonic combustion principle. There are no rotating components in
these engines, such as turbines or compressors. Instead, they rely on the
engine’s forward motion to compress incoming air.
Components of Ramjet Engines

A ramjet engine’s basic components include an inlet, a combustion chamber,

and a nozzle. The inlet is intended to slow down and compress incoming air,
whereas the combustion chamber is where fuel is burned to produce a high-
speed exhaust. Finally, the high-speed exhaust is converted into thrust by the
nozzle.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Ramjet Engines

The simplicity of ramjet engines is one of their most significant advantages.

They are easier to maintain and more reliable than other types of engines
because they do not have any rotating components. They are also highly
efficient at high speeds, making them ideal for use in hypersonic aircraft.

Ramjet engines, on the other hand, have a limited operating range. They can
only travel at supersonic speeds and are therefore unsuitable for subsonic
flight. Furthermore, they necessitate the use of a separate engine to accelerate
them to the required speed before they can begin operating, adding to their
complexity.

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Scramjet Engines
Scramjet engines are a type of air-breathing jet engine that generates thrust
through supersonic combustion. They are built to operate at extremely high
speeds, typically greater than Mach 5. Scramjets, unlike traditional jet
engines, lack rotating parts and a compressor. Instead, they rely on the
aircraft’s forward motion to compress the air entering the engine.
Components of Scramjet Engines

The combustor, which is where the fuel is mixed with the incoming air and
burned at supersonic speeds, is the most important component of a scramjet
engine. The combustion process produces a significant amount of heat, which
is used to increase the velocity of the exhaust gases, thereby providing the
required thrust.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Scramjet Engines

Scramjet engines have several advantages over other types of jet engines,
including the ability to travel at extremely high speeds and altitudes. They are
also more efficient than traditional jet engines because they do not require an
oxidizer. However, due to their size and complexity, they are not yet suitable
for widespread commercial use.

Despite their limitations, scramjet engines hold tremendous promise for

future aerospace applications such as hypersonic flight and space
exploration. Continuous research and development in this field are aimed at
improving their performance and reliability, with the ultimate goal of making
hypersonic flight a practical reality.

Examples

Several experimental aircraft, such as the Boeing X-51 and the HIFiRE
vehicles developed by the US and Australian militaries, have been developed
to test scramjet technology.
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Pulsejet Engines
Pulsejet engines are the most basic and inefficient of all jet engines. They have
no moving parts and generate a pulsating thrust through bursts of
combustion. Because of their small size and low cost, these engines are
frequently used in model aircraft and rockets.
Components of Pulsejet Engines

A combustion chamber, an intake valve, an exhaust valve, and a fuel injection

system comprise pulsejet engines. A carburetor is typically used in fuel
injection systems to mix the fuel with air before it enters the combustion
chamber.
The combustion chamber is a metal tube that contains a spark plug, which
ignites the fuel mixture. The exhaust valve causes the thrust by releasing hot
gases from the combustion chamber.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Pulsejet Engines

The main benefit of pulsejet engines is their ease of use and low cost. They
also have a high thrust-to-weight ratio, which makes them ideal for small,
light aircraft. However, pulsejet engines are extremely loud and produce a
great deal of vibration. They are also inefficient with fuel and are not suitable
for long flights. Pulsejet engines are mostly used for recreational purposes
rather than commercial aviation.

Examples

Due to their low efficiency and high noise levels, pulsejet engines are rarely
used in modern aircraft. They have, however, been used in the past for
military purposes, such as the German V-1 flying bomb during World War II.
In addition, pulsejet engines have been tested in small unmanned aerial
vehicles and model aircraft.
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Comparison of Jet Engines

Performance Comparison: Turbojet engines provide tremendous
acceleration and speed, but their efficiency decreases as altitude
increases. Turboprop engines are best suited for low-altitude flights
and have high bypass ratios, making them quieter and more fuel
efficient. Meanwhile, turbofan engines are designed for long-range
flights and have low bypass ratios, making them quieter and more
fuel efficient.

They’re good at what they’re good at. Scramjet engines are even faster, but
they are still in the experimental stage and are not commercially available.
Due to their poor performance and fuel efficiency, pulsejet engines are simple
in design and have limited applications.

Efficiency Comparison: The most fuel-efficient of the six engines are

turbofans, followed by turboprops and turbojets. Ramjet engines are
less efficient because they cannot operate at low speeds. Scramjet
engines have the potential to be extremely efficient, but they are still
in the early stages of development.

Cost Comparison: The most expensive engines are turbofans, followed

by turboprops and turbojets. Because of their complexity, ramjet
engines are also expensive, whereas pulsejet engines are relatively
inexpensive but have limited applications.

Jet engines are critical components of the aviation, military, and space
industries. They have revolutionized air travel, making it more efficient and
faster. Jet engines’ efficiency and power have also made them the preferred
choice for military aircraft.

The future of jet engines appears bright as technology advances, allowing for
the development of more powerful and efficient engines. There is a growing
emphasis on sustainability, with the goal of lowering emissions and noise
pollution.

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