GAS POWER CYCLES

The objectives of this Chapter is to:

→ Evaluate the performance of gas power cycles for which the working fluid remains a gas
throughout the entire cycle.
→ Develop simplifying assumptions applicable to gas power cycles.
→ Review the operation of reciprocating engines.
→ Analyze both closed and open gas power cycles.
→ Solve problems based on the Otto, Diesel, Stirling, and Ericsson cycles.
→ Solve problems based on the Brayton cycle; the Brayton cycle with regeneration; and the
Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating, and regeneration.
→ Analyze jet-propulsion cycles.
→ Perform second-law analysis of gas power cycles.

Two important areas of application for thermodynamics are power generation and refrigeration.
Both are usually accomplished by systems that operate on a thermodynamic cycle.
Thermodynamic cycles can be divided into two general categories: power cycles and refrigeration
cycles.
The devices or systems used to produce a net power output are often called Engines, and the
thermodynamic cycles they operate on are called power cycles. The devices or systems used to
produce a refrigeration effect are called refrigerators, air conditioners, or heat pumps, and the
cycles they operate on are called refrigeration cycles.
Thermodynamic cycles can also be categorized as gas cycles and vapor cycles, depending on the
phase of the working fluid. In gas cycles, the working fluid remains in the gaseous phase
throughout the entire cycle, whereas in vapor cycles the working fluid exists in the vapor phase
during one part of the cycle and in the liquid phase during another part.

A cycle is defined as a repeated series of operations occurring in a certain order. It may be repeated
by repeating the processes in the same order. The cycle may be of imaginary perfect engine or
actual engine.
The imaginary perfect engine is called ideal cycle and the actual engine is called actual cycle.
In ideal cycle all accidental heat losses are prevented and the working substance is assumed to
behave like a perfect working substance.

Thermodynamic cycles can also be categorized as gas cycles and vapor cycles, depending on the
phase of the working fluid. In gas cycles, the working fluid remains in the gaseous phase
throughout the entire cycle, whereas in vapor cycles the working fluid exists in the vapor phase
during one part of the cycle and in the liquid phase during another part.
Thermodynamic cycles can be categorized as closed and open cycles. In closed cycles, the working
fluid is returned to the initial state at the end of the cycle and is recirculated. In open cycles, the
working fluid is renewed at the end of each cycle instead of being recirculated.
In automobile engines, the combustion gases are exhausted and replaced by fresh air–fuel mixture
at the end of each cycle. The engine operates on a mechanical cycle, but the working fluid does
not go through a complete thermodynamic cycle.
Heat engines are categorized as internal combustion and external combustion engines, depending
on how the heat is supplied to the working fluid.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

In external combustion engines (such as steam power plants), heat is supplied to the working fluid
from an external source such as a furnace, a geothermal well, a nuclear reactor, or even the sun. In
internal combustion engines (such as automobile engines), this is done by burning the fuel within
the system boundaries.

Basic Considerations in the Analysis of Power Cycles

The cycles encountered in actual devices are difficult to analyze because of the presence of
complicating effects, such as
→ friction, and
→ Absence of sufficient time for establishment of the equilibrium conditions during the cycle.

When the actual cycle is stripped of all the internal irreversibilities and complexities, we end up
with a cycle that resembles the actual cycle closely but is made up totally of internally reversible
processes. Such a cycle is called an ideal cycle

The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle, the ideal cycle for spark-ignition automobile engines, for
example, increases with the compression ratio. This is also the case for actual automobile engines.
The numerical values obtained from the analysis of an ideal cycle, however, are not necessarily
representative of the actual cycles, and care should be exercised in their interpretation.

Heat engines are designed for the purpose of converting thermal energy to work, and their
performance is expressed in terms of the thermal efficiency, ղ𝑡ℎ , which is the ratio of the net work
produced by the engine to the total heat input:

The following assumptions are commonly employed in the analysis of idealizations and
simplifications of power cycles:
 The cycle does not involve any friction. Therefore, the working fluid does not experience
any pressure drop as it flows in pipes or devices such as heat exchangers.
 All expansion and compression processes take place in a quasi-equilibrium manner.
 The pipes connecting the various components of a system are well insulated, and heat
transfer through them is negligible.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

Neglecting the changes in kinetic and potential energies of the working fluid is another commonly
utilized simplification in the analysis of power cycles. This is a reasonable assumption since in
devices that involve shaft work, such as turbines, compressors, and pumps, the kinetic and
potential energy terms are usually very small relative to the other terms in the energy equation.
Fluid velocities encountered in devices such as condensers, boilers, and mixing chambers are
typically low, and the fluid streams experience little change in their velocities, again making
kinetic energy changes negligible.
The only devices where the changes in kinetic energy are significant are the nozzles and diffusers,
which are specifically designed to create large changes in velocity

P-v and T-s diagrams, the area enclosed by the process curve represents the net work of the cycle.

On both the P-v and T-s diagrams, the area enclosed by the process curves of a cycle represents
the net work produced during the cycle which is also equivalent to the net heat transfer for that
cycle.
The T-s diagram is particularly useful as a visual aid in the analysis of ideal power cycles. An ideal
power cycle does not involve any internal irreversibilities, and so the only effect that can change
the entropy of the working fluid during a process is heat transfer.
On a T-s diagram, a heat-addition process proceeds in the direction of increasing entropy, a heat
rejection process proceeds in the direction of decreasing entropy, and an isentropic (internally
reversible, adiabatic) process proceeds at constant entropy.
The area under the process curve on a T-s diagram represents the heat transfer for that process.
The heat addition process on a T-s diagram is a geometric measure of the total heat supplied during
the cycle, 𝑄𝑖𝑛 , and the area under the heat rejection process is a measure of the total heat rejected
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 .
The difference between these two (the area enclosed by the cyclic curve) is the net heat transfer,
which is also the net work produced during the cycle. Therefore, on a T-s diagram, the ratio of the
area enclosed by the cyclic curve to the area under the heat-addition process curve represents the
thermal efficiency of the cycle. Any modification that increases the ratio of these two areas will
also increase the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

THE CARNOT CYCLE

This cycle has the highest possible efficiency and consists of four simple operations namely,
1. Isothermal expansion
2. Adiabatic expansion
3. Isothermal compression
4. Adiabatic compression.
The condition of the Carnot cycle may be imagined to occur in the following way:
One kg of air is enclosed in the cylinder which (except at the end) is made of perfect nonconducting
material. A source of heat ‘H’ is supposed to provide unlimited quantity of heat, nonconducting
cover ‘C’ and a sump ‘S’ which is of infinite capacity so that its temperature remains unchanged
irrespective of the fact how much heat is supplied to it. The temperature of source H is 𝑇1 and the
same is of the working substance. The working substance while rejecting heat to sump ‘S’ has the
temperature. 𝑇2 i.e., the same as that of sump S.

Four stages of the Carnot cycle on P-V and Carnot T-S diagram
Stage 1;
Line 1-2 represents the isothermal expansion which takes place at temperature 𝑇1 when source of
heat H is applied to the end of cylinder. Heat supplied in this case is given by 𝑹𝑻𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 𝒓 and
where r is the ratio of expansion.
Stage 2;
Line 2-3 represents the application of non-conducting cover to the end of the cylinder. This is
followed by the adiabatic expansion and the temperature falls from 𝑇1 to 𝑇2 .

Stage 3;
Line 3-4 represents the isothermal compression which takes place when sump ‘S’ is applied to the
end of cylinder. Heat is rejected during this operation whose value is given by 𝑹𝑻𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 𝒓; where
r is the ratio of compression.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

Stage 4;
Line 4-1 represents repeated application of non-conducting cover and adiabatic compression due
to which temperature increases from 𝑇2 to 𝑇1 .

It may be noted that ratio of expansion during isotherm 1-2 and ratio of compression during
isotherm 3-4 must be equal to get a closed cycle.

Now according to law of conservation of energy,

Heat supplied = work done + heat rejected
Work supplied = Heat supplied – heat rejected
Work supplied = RT1 . log e r - RT2 . log e r
work done R loge r(T1 − T2 ) T1 − T2 T
Efficiency of the cycle = Heat supplied = = = 1 - T2
RT1 .loge r T1 1
From above equation, it is quite obvious that if temperature T2 decreases, efficiency increases and
it becomes 100%. If T2 becomes absolute zero which, of course is impossible to attain.
Furthermore, it is not possible to produce an engine that should work on Carnot’s cycle as it would
necessitate the piston to travel very slowly during first portion of the forward stroke (isothermal
expansion) and to travel more quickly during the remainder of the stroke (adiabatic expansion)
which however is not practicable.

Example
A Carnot engine working between 400°C and 40°C produces 130 kJ of work. Determine:
(i) The engine thermal efficiency.
(ii) The heat added.
(iii) The entropy changes during heat rejection process.
Solution
Temperature, T1 = T2 = 400 + 273 = 673k
Temperature T3 = T4 = 40 + 273 = 313k
Work produced = 130kJ
Then,
673−313
(i) Engine thermal efficiency, ղth = 673 = 0.535 or 53.5%

(ii) Heat added

work done
From; ղcarnot = Heat added
130
0.535 = Heat added
130
Heat added = 0.535 = 243kJ
(iii) Entropy change during heat rejection
process (S3 - S4 );
From;
Heat supplied = work done + heat rejected
Heat rejected = Heat supplied – Work done
Heat rejected = 243 – 130 = 113kJ

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

Also, Heat rejected = 113kJ= T3 (S3 – S4 )
113 113
(S3 – S4 ) = = 313 = 0.361 kJ/k
T3

AIR STANDARD EFFICIENCY

In gas power cycles, the working fluid remains a gas throughout the entire cycle. Spark-ignition
engines, diesel engines, and conventional gas turbines are familiar examples of devices that operate
on gas cycles.
In all these engines, energy is provided by burning a fuel within the system boundaries. They are
internal combustion engines. Because of this combustion process, the composition of the working
fluid changes from air and fuel to combustion products during the course of the cycle.
However, considering that air is predominantly nitrogen that undergoes hardly any chemical
reactions in the combustion chamber, the working fluid closely resembles air at all times.

To compare the effects of different cycles, it is of paramount importance that the effect of the
calorific value of the fuel is altogether eliminated and this can be achieved by considering air
(which is assumed to behave as a perfect gas) as the working substance in the engine cylinder. The
efficiency of engine using air as the working medium is known as an “Air standard efficiency”.
This efficiency is often called ideal efficiency.
The actual efficiency of a cycle is always less than the air-standard efficiency of that cycle under
ideal conditions. This is taken into account by introducing a new term “Relative efficiency” which
is defined as:
Actual thermal Efficiency
ղRelative =
Air Standard Efficiency
The analysis of all air standard cycles is based upon the following assumptions:
 The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed loop and always behaves as
an ideal gas.
 All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
 The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external source
 The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process that restores the working fluid to
its initial state.
 The gas in the engine cylinder is a perfect gas i.e., it obeys the gas laws and has constant
specific heats.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

 The physical constants of the gas in the cylinder are the same as those of air at moderate
temperatures i.e., the molecular weight of cylinder gas is 29. Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg-K, CV = 0.718
kJ/kg-K.
 The compression and expansion processes are adiabatic and they take place without internal
friction, i.e., these processes are isentropic.
 No chemical reaction takes place in the cylinder. Heat is supplied or rejected by bringing a hot
body or a cold body in contact with cylinder at appropriate points during the process.

Another assumption that is often used to simplify the analysis is that air has constant specific heats
whose values are determined at room temperature (25°C, or 77°F). When this assumption is used,
the air-standard assumptions are called the cold-air-standard assumptions.
A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are applicable is frequently referred to as an air-
standard cycle.

Example
An air-standard cycle is executed in a closed system and is composed of the following four
processes:
1-2 →Isentropic compression from 100 kPa and 27°C to 1 MPa
2-3 →P = constant heat addition in amount of 2800 kJ/kg
3-4 →v = constant heat rejection to 100 kPa
4-1 →P = constant heat rejection to initial state
(i) Show the cycle on P-v and T-s diagrams.
(ii) Calculate the maximum temperature in the cycle.
(iii) Determine the thermal efficiency.
Assume constant specific heats at room temperature.

SOLUTION
The four processes of an air-standard cycle are described. The cycle is to be shown on P-v and T-
s diagrams, and the maximum temperature in the cycle and the thermal efficiency are to be
determined.
Assumptions
 The air-standard assumptions are applicable.
 Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
 Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats.

Properties
The properties of air at room temperature are;
𝐶𝑝 = 1.005 kJ/kg K,
𝐶𝑣 = 0.718 kJ/kg K, and k = 1.4

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

(i) Show the cycle on P-v and T-s diagrams.

(ii) Calculate the maximum temperature in the cycle.

From the ideal gas isentropic relations and energy balance,
𝑘−1 1.4−1
𝑃2 𝑘 1000𝑘𝑃𝑎 1.4
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 (𝑃 ) = 300k ( 100𝑘𝑃𝑎 ) = 579.2 K
1

But, 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = ℎ3 - ℎ2 = 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇1 )

2800 kJ/kg = 1.005 kJ/kg K (𝑇3 − 579.2)

2800 kJ/kg
𝑇3 = 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (1.005 kJ/kg) + 579.2K = 3360K

(iii) Determine the thermal efficiency.

The temperature at state 4 is determined from the ideal gas relation for a fixed mass,
𝑃3 𝑉3 𝑃4 𝑉4
= where 𝑉3 = 𝑉4 = V for internal combustion Engines
𝑇3 𝑇4

𝑃3 𝑃 𝑃4 𝑇3 100𝑘𝑃𝑎 (3360𝐾)
= 𝑇4 ; 𝑇4 = = = 336K
𝑇3 4 𝑃3 1000𝑘𝑃𝑎

Total amount of heat rejected from the cycle,

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄34,𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑄41,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (𝑈3 − 𝑈4 ) + (ℎ4 + ℎ1 )

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ) + 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ) =

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0.718kJ/Kg.k (3360 – 336)K + 1.005kJ/Kg.k (336 – 300)K

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2212KJ/Kg
Then, thermal efficiency is determined from the equation,
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 2212KJ/Kg
ղth = 1 − = 1 - 2800𝐾𝐽/𝐾𝑔 = 0.210 or 21.0%
𝑄𝑖𝑛

ղ𝐭𝐡 = 0.210 or 21.0%

Discussion;
 The assumption of constant specific heats at room temperature is not realistic in this case
since the temperature changes involved are too large.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Internal combustion engines are where the release of energy by combustion takes place within the
confines of the engine. Examples of such engines include cars, trucks etc and they employ a fluid
which remains gaseous throughout.
It is the powerhouse of the vast majority of automobiles, trucks, light aircraft, ships, and electric
power generators, as well as many other devices.

The basic components of a internal combustion engine is shown above. The piston reciprocates in
the cylinder between two fixed positions called the Top Dead Center (TDC), the position of the
piston when it forms the smallest volume in the cylinder and the Bottom Dead Center (BDC) the
position of the piston when it forms the largest volume in the cylinder.
The distance between the TDC and the BDC is the largest distance that the piston can travel in one
direction, and it is called the stroke of the engine. The diameter of the piston is called the bore.
The air or air–fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder through the intake valve, and the combustion
products are expelled from the cylinder through the exhaust valve.

Displacement and clearance volumes of internal combustion engine.

The minimum volume formed in the cylinder when the piston is at TDC is called the clearance
volume. The volume displaced by the piston as it moves between TDC and BDC is called the
displacement volume.
The ratio of the maximum volume formed in the cylinder to the minimum (clearance) volume is
called the compression ratio, r of the engine:
𝑉 𝑉
Compression ratio, r = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝐵𝐷𝐶
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝐷𝐶

Note that the compression ratio is a volume ratio and should not be confused with the pressure
ratio.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) is a fictitious pressure that, if it acted on the piston during the
entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of net work as that produced during the actual
cycle.

The net work output of a cycle is equivalent to the product of the mean effective pressure and the
displacement volume.
That is, 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = MEP × Piston area × Stroke = MEP × Displacement volume
𝑊
MEP = 𝑉 −𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑉
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛
The mean effective pressure can be used as a parameter to compare the performances of internal
combustion engines of equal size. The engine with a larger value of MEP delivers more net work
per cycle and thus performs better.
Internal combustion engines are classified depending on how the combustion process in the
cylinder is initiated;
 Spark-ignition (SI) engines or
 compression-ignition (CI) engines

In SI engines, the combustion of the air–fuel mixture is initiated by a spark plug. While
In CI engines, the air–fuel mixture is self-ignited as a result of compressing the mixture above its
self-ignition temperature.

THE OTTO CYCLE (Gasoline Engine)/ Spark-Ignition Engines

The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines. It is named after Nikolaus
A. Otto, who built a successful four-stroke engine in 1876 in Germany using the cycle proposed
by Frenchman Beau de Rochas in 1862.
In most spark-ignition engines, the piston executes four complete strokes (two mechanical cycles)
within the cylinder, and the crankshaft completes two revolutions for each thermodynamic cycle.
These engines are called four-stroke internal combustion engines. A schematic of each stroke
is shown below as well as a P-V diagram for an actual four-stroke spark-ignition engine.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

 Actual four-stroke spark-ignition engine

Ideal Otto cycle

Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines and their P-V diagrams.
Initially, both the intake and the exhaust valves are closed, and the piston is at its lowest position
(BDC).
Compression stroke,
During the Compression stroke; the piston moves upward, compressing the air–fuel mixture.
Shortly before the piston reaches its highest position (TDC),
Expansion/ Power stroke,
During the expansion stroke, the spark plug fires and the mixture ignites, increasing the pressure
and temperature of the system. The high-pressure gases force the piston down, which in turn forces
the crankshaft to rotate, producing a useful work output during the expansion or power stroke.
Exhaust stroke;
Towards the end of expansion stroke, the exhaust valve opens and the combustion gases that are
above the atmospheric pressure rush out of the cylinder through the open exhaust valve. This
process is called exhaust blowdown, and most combustion gases leave the cylinder by the time
the piston reaches BDC. The cylinder is still filled by the exhaust gases at a lower pressure at BDC.
The piston then moves upward one more time, purging the exhaust gases through the exhaust valve
(the exhaust stroke),
Intake stroke,
After purging the exhaust gases through the exhaust valve during the exhaust stroke, the piston
moves downwards, drawing in fresh air–fuel mixture through the intake valve (the intake stroke).

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

Note that the pressure in the cylinder is slightly above the atmospheric value during the exhaust
stroke and slightly below during the intake stroke.

P-V diagram of Otto cycle representing the Gasoline Engine Cycle operating in 4 strokes
Intake Stroke, e→a:
The intake valve opens and the mixture of air and gasoline vapour flows into the cylinder as the
piston descends as shown above. This is a quasistatic isobaric process (dP = 0) where the volume
increases from 𝑉1 to 𝑉2. With 𝑉2 = r𝑉1, where r→ is the compression ratio.
Compression stroke, a→ b;
Intake valve closes and the mixture is compressed approximately adiabatically from volume, 𝑉2 to
volume 𝑉1 as the temperature rises from 𝑇𝑎 to 𝑇𝑏 as shown above. The processes can be represented
by the adiabatic expression;

𝑇𝑎 𝑉2 𝛾−1 = 𝑇𝑏 𝑉1 𝛾−1 …………………………….. (i)

Ignition and power stroke; b → c → d;
Mixture is ignited by a spark plug (path b→ c) ejecting heat 𝑄ℎ into the system. This process
occurs in a very short period of time and is not one of the strokes of the cycle. During this time,
the temperature and pressure increases rapidly. However, the volume remains approximately
constant because of the short time interval and as a result, approximately no work is done on the
gas.
The heat input along path b → c, therefore occurs at constant volume (isochoric) with
𝑄ℎ = 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑏 ) ……………………………………. (ii)
During power stroke (path c → d), the maxture expands approximately adiabatically back to 𝑉2
pushing on the piston and doing some work. In this case, the temperature drops from 𝑇𝑐 to 𝑇𝑑
according to the adiabatic expression;

𝑇𝑑 𝑉2 𝛾−1 = 𝑇𝑐 𝑉2 𝛾−1 ……………………………………. (iii)

The work done in this process is the area under the cd.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

Exhaust Stroke d → a → e;
Exhaust valve opens allowing the gas to cool at nearly constant volume down to temperature 𝑇𝑎
as the pressure drops. During this interval, the volume remains approximately constant (isochoric)
as heat 𝑄𝑐 is ejected into the invironment where;
𝑄𝑐 = 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇𝑑 − 𝑇𝑎 ) ………………………………… (iv)
Along path a → e, the combustion products are pushed out (isobarically) as the volume decreases
from 𝑉2 to 𝑉1 leaving the cylinder for the next intake stroke.
The thermal efficiency of this idealized engine is thus given by
𝑄 𝐶 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝜀 = 1 - 𝑄 𝑐 = 1 - 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇𝑑− 𝑇 𝑎)
ℎ 𝑣 𝑐 𝑏

But from equations (i) and (iii)

𝑇𝑑 𝑉2 𝛾−1 - 𝑇𝑎 𝑉2 𝛾−1 = 𝑇𝑐 𝑉2 𝛾−1 - 𝑇𝑏 𝑉1 𝛾−1

𝑉 𝛾−1 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
(𝑇𝑑 − 𝑇𝑎 )𝑉2 𝛾−1 = (𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑏 )𝑉1 𝛾−1 or ( 2 ) = (𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑏 )
𝑉 1 𝑑 𝑎

𝑉
The ratio 𝑉2 is called the compression ratio (𝑟𝑐 ); so
1

𝑉 𝛾−1 1
𝜀 = 1 - (𝑉2 ) = 1 - 𝑟 𝛾−1 …………………………….. (v)
1 𝑐

Equation (v) shows that the efficiency increases as the compression ratio (𝑟𝑐 ) increases. For typical
compression ratios of 8(for most engines), and with 𝛾= 1.4 (for air), we predict the theoretical
1
efficiency of 1 - 81.4−1 = 56% for an engine operating in the ideolized otto cycle.

Note;
 It is important to have a high compression as possible. It is noted that increasing the
compression ratio increases the temperature during the adiabatic compression of the air-
fuel mixture causing the mixture to explode spontaneously during compression before
ignition. This is pre-ignition or detonation and causes knocking, damaging the engine.
 Pre-ignition lower the value of compression ratio (𝑟𝑐 ) to about 7 particularly for unleaded
low octane petro thereby lowering its efficiency.
Two-Stroke Engines
In two-stroke engines, all four functions described above are executed in just two strokes: the
power stroke and the compression stroke.
In two stroke engines, the crankcase is sealed, and the outward motion of the piston is used to
slightly pressurize the air–fuel mixture in the crankcase as shown below;

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

The intake and exhaust valves are replaced by openings in the lower portion of the cylinder wall.
During the latter part of the power stroke, the piston uncovers first the exhaust port, allowing the
exhaust gases to be partially expelled, and then the intake port, allowing the fresh air–fuel mixture
to rush in and drive most of the remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder. This mixture is then
compressed as the piston moves upward during the compression stroke and is subsequently ignited
by a spark plug.
The two-stroke engines are generally less efficient than their four-stroke counterparts because of
the incomplete expulsion of the exhaust gases and the partial expulsion of the fresh air–fuel
mixture with the exhaust gases.
However, they are relatively simple and inexpensive, and they have high power-to-weight and
power-to-volume ratios, which make them suitable for applications requiring small size and weight
such as for motorcycles, chain saws, and lawn mowers.
Example
An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the beginning of the compression process, air
is at 100 kPa and 17°C, and 800 kJ/kg of heat is transferred to air during the constant-volume heat-
addition process. Accounting for the variation of specific heats of air with temperature, determine;
a) The maximum temperature and pressure that occur during the cycle,
b) The net work output,
c) The thermal efficiency, and
d) The mean effective pressure for the cycle.
e) The power output from the cycle, in kW, for an engine speed of 4000 rpm (rev/min).
Assume that this cycle is operated on an engine that has four cylinders with a total
displacement volume of 1.6 L.

Solution
Assumptions
→ The air-standard assumptions are applicable.
→ Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
→ The variation of specific heats with temperature is to be accounted for.

Analysis
Note that the air contained in the cylinder forms a closed system.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

P-V diagram for the Otto cycle
a) The maximum temperature and pressure that occur during the cycle
The maximum temperature and pressure in an Otto cycle occur at the end of the constant-
volume heat-addition process (state 3).
To determine the temperature and pressure of air at the end of the isentropic compression
process (State 2),
𝑇1 = 290K, 𝑈1 = 206.91Kj/kg, 𝑉𝑟1 = 676.1
Process 1-2 (isentropic compression of an ideal gas):
𝑉𝑟2 𝑉 1 𝑉𝑟1 676.1
= 𝑉2 = 𝑟 → 𝑉𝑟2 = = = 84.51 → 𝑇2 = 652.4 K, 𝑢2 = 475.11 kJ/kg
𝑉𝑟1 1 𝑟 8

𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇2 𝑇 𝑉 652.4 K
= , 𝑃2 = = 𝑃1 (𝑇2 ).(𝑉1 ) = 100 kPa( 290 K )(8) = 1799.7 kPa
𝑇2 𝑇1 𝑇1 𝑉2 1 2

Process 2-3 (constant-volume heat addition):

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑢3 - 𝑢2
800 kJ/kg = 𝑢3 − 475.11 kJ/kg
𝑢3 = 1275.11 kJ/kg → 𝑻𝟑 = 1575.1 K, 𝑉𝑟3 = 6.108
Maximum temperature, 𝑻𝟑 = 1575.1 K
𝑃3 𝑉3 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑇3 𝑇 𝑉 1575.1 K
= ; 𝑃3 = = 𝑃2 (𝑇3 ).(𝑉2 ) = 1.7997 MPa ( 652.4 K )(1) = 4.345 MPa
𝑇3 𝑇2 𝑇2 𝑉3 2 3

Maximum pressure, 𝑷𝟑 = 4.345 MPa

b) The net work output
The net work output for the cycle is determined either by finding the boundary (Pdv) work
involved in each process by integration and adding them or by finding the net heat transfer that
is equivalent to the net work done during the cycle.
First we need to find the internal energy of the air at state 4:
Process 3-4 (isentropic expansion of an ideal gas):

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

 𝑉𝑟4 𝑉4
= =r → 𝑉𝑟4 = r𝑉𝑟3 = (8)(6.108) = 48.86 4, 𝑇4 = 795.6 K, 𝑢4 = 588.74 kJ/kg
𝑉𝑟3 𝑉3

Process 4-1 (constant-volume heat rejection):

−𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑢1 - 𝑢4
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑢4 - 𝑢1 = 588.74 − 206.91 = 381.83 kJ/kg
Thus,
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 - 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 800 − 381.83 = 418.17 kJ/kg
Therefore,
Net work output, 𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑸𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 418.17 kJ/kg

c) The thermal efficiency,

The thermal efficiency of the cycle is determined from its definition:
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 _4_1_8_.1_7_ _k_J_/k_g
ղth = = = 0.523 or 52.3%
𝑄𝑖𝑛 800 kJ/kg

Under the cold-air-standard assumptions (constant specific heat values at room

temperature), the thermal efficiency would be
1
Otto thermal efficiency, ղ𝐭𝐡,𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐨 = 1 - 𝑟 𝑘−1 = 1 - 𝑟 1−𝑘 = 1 - 8)1−1.4 = 0.565 or 56.5%

d) The mean effective pressure for the cycle.

From,
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
MEP = 𝑉 −𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑉 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑉1 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡1
1 2 𝑉1 − 𝑉1 (1− )
𝑟 𝑟
𝑅𝑇1 (0.287𝑘𝑃𝑎.𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔.𝑘)(290𝐾)
But, 𝑉1 = = = 0.8323𝑚3 /kg
𝑃1 100 kPa
Therefore,
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 418.17𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔 1 𝑘𝑃𝑎.𝑚3
MEP = = 1 = 1 . = 574 kPa
𝑉1 (1− ) 0.8323𝑚3 /kg(1− ) 1𝐾𝐽
𝑟 8

Mean effective pressure, MEP = 574 kPa

e) The power output from the cycle, in kW

The total air mass taken by all four cylinders when they are charged is;
𝑉𝑑 0.0016𝑚3
M= = 0.8323𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔 = 0.001922kg
𝑉1

The net work produced by the cycle is;

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = m𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (0.001922kg)(418.17𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔) = 0.8037KJ
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0.8037KJ

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

 The net work produced per thermodynamic cycle is 0.8037 kJ/cycle.

Note that there are two revolutions per thermodynamic cycle (𝑛𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 2 rev/cycle) in a four stroke
engine (or in the ideal Otto cycle including intake and exhaust strokes), the power produced by the
engine is determined from
𝑊 .𝑛 (0.8037𝐾𝐽/𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)(4000 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑚𝑖𝑛) 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ( 60 𝑠 ) = 26.8 kW
𝑟𝑒𝑣 2 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

Discussion,
If we analyzed a two-stroke engine operating on an ideal Otto cycle with the same values, the
power output would be calculated as
𝑊 .𝑛 (0.8037𝐾𝐽/𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)(4000 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑚𝑖𝑛) 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ( 60 𝑠 ) = 53.6 kW
𝑟𝑒𝑣 1 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

Note that there is one revolution in one thermodynamic cycle in two-stroke engines

The Diesel Engine/ Compression-Ignition (CI) Engines

The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for Compression Ignition (CI) internal combustion engines. The
CI engine was first proposed by Rudolph Diesel in the 1890s. It is very similar to the Spark Ignition
(SI) engine, differing mainly in the method of initiating combustion.
In spark-ignition engines (also known as gasoline engines), the air–fuel mixture is compressed to
a temperature that is below the auto ignition temperature of the fuel, and the combustion process
is initiated by firing a spark plug.
In CI engines (also known as diesel engines), the air is compressed to a temperature that is above
the auto ignition temperature of the fuel, and combustion starts on contact as the fuel is injected
into this hot air. Therefore, the spark plug is replaced by a fuel injector in diesel engines

In diesel engines, the spark plug is replaced by a fuel injector, and only air is compressed during
the compression process.
In gasoline engines, a mixture of air and fuel is compressed during the compression stroke, and
the compression ratios are limited by the onset of auto-ignition or engine knock.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

In diesel engines, only air is compressed during the compression stroke, eliminating the possibility
of auto-ignition. Therefore, diesel engines can be designed to operate at much higher compression
ratios, typically between 12 and 24.
Not having to deal with the problem of auto-ignition has another benefit: many of the stringent
requirements placed on the gasoline can now be removed, and fuels that are less refined (thus less
expensive) can be used in diesel engines.
The fuel injection process in diesel engines starts when the piston approaches TDC and continues
during the first part of the power stroke.
Therefore, the combustion process in these engines takes place over a longer interval. Because of
this longer duration, the combustion process in the ideal Diesel cycle is approximated as a constant-
pressure heat-addition process.
In fact, this is the only process where the Otto and the Diesel cycles differ.
The remaining three processes are the same for both ideal cycles. That is, process 1-2 is isentropic
compression, 2-3 is constant-pressure heat addition, 3-4 is isentropic expansion, and 4-1 is
constant-volume heat rejection.
The similarity between the two cycles is also apparent from the P-v and T-s diagrams of the Diesel
cycle

T-s and P-v diagrams for the ideal Diesel cycle.

Note that the Diesel cycle is executed in a piston–cylinder device, which forms a closed system,
the amount of heat transferred to the working fluid at constant pressure and rejected from it at
constant volume can be expressed as;

Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Diesel cycle under the cold-air standard assumptions
becomes

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

The cutoff ratio, 𝑟𝑐 , as the ratio of the cylinder volumes after and before the combustion process:

Utilizing this definition and the isentropic ideal-gas relations for processes
1-2 and 3-4, then thermal efficiency reduces to

Where r→ compression ratio

Note that under the cold-air-standard assumptions, the efficiency of a Diesel cycle differs from
the efficiency of an Otto cycle by the quantity in the brackets. This quantity is always greater
than 1. Therefore,
ղ𝐭𝐡,𝐎𝐭𝐭𝐨 > ղ𝐭𝐡,𝐃𝐢𝐞𝐬𝐞𝐥

When both cycles operate on the same compression ratio, the cutoff ratio decreases, the efficiency
of the Diesel cycle increases as shown below

Thermal efficiency of the ideal Diesel cycle as a function of compression and cutoff ratios (k =1.4).

P-v diagram of an ideal dual cycle

For the limiting case of cutoff ratios, 𝑟𝑐 = 1, the quantity in the brackets becomes unity, and the
efficiencies of the Otto and Diesel cycles become identical.
Remember, that diesel engines operate at much higher compression ratios and thus are usually
more efficient than the spark-ignition (gasoline) engines.
The diesel engines also burn the fuel more completely since they usually operate at lower
revolutions per minute and the air–fuel mass ratio is much higher than in spark-ignition engines.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

Thermal efficiencies of diesel automotive engines range from about 35 to 40 percent. Some very
large, low speed CI engines have thermal efficiencies over 50 percent.
The higher efficiency and lower fuel costs of diesel engines make them attractive in applications
requiring relatively large amounts of power, such as in locomotive engines, emergency power
generation units, large ships, and heavy trucks.
Example
An ideal Diesel cycle with air as the working fluid has a compression ratio of 18 and a cutoff ratio
of 2. At the beginning of the compression process, the working fluid is at 14.7 psia, 80°F, and
117𝑖𝑛3 . Utilizing the cold-air-standard assumptions, determine
a) The temperature and pressure of air at the end of each process,
b) The net work output and the thermal efficiency, and
c) The mean effective pressure.

DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE

This cycle (also called the limited pressure cycle or mixed cycle) is a combination of Otto and
Diesel cycles, in a way, that heat is added partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure.
The advantage of Dual Combustion Cycle is that more time is available to fuel (which is injected
into the engine cylinder before the end of compression stroke) for combustion.
Because of lagging characteristics of fuel this cycle is invariably used for diesel and hot spot
ignition engines.
The dual combustion cycle consists of the following operations:

1. 1-2—Adiabatic compression
2. 2-3—Addition of heat at constant volume
3. 3-4—Addition of heat at constant pressure
4. 4-5—Adiabatic expansion
5. 5-1—Rejection of heat at constant volume.

COMPARISON OF OTTO, DIESEL AND DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLES

Following are the important variable factors which are used as a basis for comparison of the cycles;
→ Compression ratio.
→ Maximum pressure

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

→ Heat supplied
→ Heat rejected
→ Net work
Some of the above mentioned variables are fixed when the performance of Otto, Diesel and dual
combustion cycles is to be compared.
 Efficiency Versus Compression Ratio

Comparison of efficiency at various compression ratios

The figure above shows the comparison for the air standard efficiencies of the Otto, Diesel and
Dual combustion cycles at various compression ratios and with given cut-off ratio for the Diesel
and Dual combustion cycles. It is evident from the figure that the air standard efficiencies increase
with the increase in the compression ratio.
For a given compression ratio Otto cycle is the most efficient while the Diesel cycle is the least
efficient.
ղ𝐎𝐭𝐭𝐨 > ղ𝐃𝐮𝐚𝐥 > ղ𝐃𝐢𝐞𝐬𝐞𝐥
Note.
The maximum compression ratio for the petrol engine is limited by detonation. In their
respective ratio ranges, the Diesel cycle is more efficient than the Otto cycle.

(a) p-v diagram, (b) T-s diagram

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

 Heat Rejected
Thermal efficiency, ղ = 1 - Heat supplied

Since all the cycles reject their heat at the same specific volume, process line from state 4 to 1, the
quantity of heat rejected from each cycle is represented by the appropriate area under the line 4 to
1 on the T-s diagram.
As is evident from the equation of thermal efficiency, ղ, the cycle which has the least heat rejected
will have the highest efficiency. Thus, Otto cycle is the most efficient and Diesel cycle is the least
efficient of the three cycles.
ղ𝐎𝐭𝐭𝐨 > ղ𝐃𝐮𝐚𝐥 > ղ𝐃𝐢𝐞𝐬𝐞𝐥
 For Constant Maximum Pressure and Heat Supplied

(a) p-v diagram, (b) T-s diagram

The figures above shows the Otto and Diesel cycles on p-v and T-s diagrams for constant
maximum pressure and heat input respectively.
→ For the maximum pressure the points 3 and 3′ must lie on a constant pressure line.
→ On T-s diagram the heat rejected from the Diesel cycle is represented by the area under the
line 4 to 1 and this area is less than the Otto cycle area under the curve 4′ to 1.

Hence the Diesel cycle is more efficient than the Otto cycle for the condition of maximum
pressure and heat supplied.

STIRLING CYCLES
The Stirling cycle is a thermodynamic cycle upon which a Stirling Engine works. Stirling engine
is a closed cycle regenerative heat engine. It works on either air or any other gas. Stirling cycle is
invented and patented by Robert Stirling with help from his brother in 1816.
The Stirling cycle consists of two isothermal processes and two isochoric processes. It is slightly
different than the Carnot cycle.
The Stirling cycle replaces the isentropic processes in the Carnot cycle with the isochoric
processes. This cycle has the same maximum efficiency as that of the ideal Carnot cycle.
The Stirling cycle can function as a heat pump by operating in the opposite direction as it is
reversible. It uses the same working fluid repeatedly, thus the Stirling cycle behaves like a closed
system.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

 Stirling cycle PV and TS diagram
The ideal Stirling cycle consists of the following 4 processes.
 Process 1-2:- Isothermal heat addition/Isothermal expansion
 Process 2-3:- Constant volume heat rejection
 Process 3-4:- Isothermal heat rejection/Isothermal compression
 Process 4-1:- Constant volume heat addition

Process 1-2
It is isothermal heat addition process. Volume of the system increases due to isothermal heat
addition. A little drop in pressure also happens in this process.
Process 2-3
It is isochoric heat removal process. Both temperature and pressure of the system decreases due to
isochoric heat removal.
Process 3-4
It is isothermal heat removal process. It is a compression process hence pressure of the system
increases and volume decreases.
Process 4-1
It is isochoric heat addition process. Both temperature and pressure of the system increases due to
isochoric heat addition.

Stirling cycle efficiency derivation

The amount of heat added during the process 1-2 is given by,
𝑉
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄1→2 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 log (𝑉2 ) but 𝑃1 𝑉1 = R𝑇1 for pure gases, from PV=MRT & M=1kg
1
𝑉2
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = R𝑇1 log (𝑉 ) and 𝑇1 = 𝑇𝐻
1
𝑽
𝑸𝒊𝒏 = R𝑻𝑯 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝑽𝟐 )
𝟏

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

The amount of heat removed during the process 2-3 is given by,
Q = 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ), but 𝑇2 = 𝑇3 = T due to constant volume heat rejection
Q = 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇 − 𝑇) = 0
Q=0
The amount of heat rejected during isothermal process 3-4 is given by,
𝑉
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄3→4 = 𝑃3 𝑉3 log (𝑉4 ) but 𝑃3 𝑉3 = R𝑇3 for pure gases from PV=MRT & M=1kg
3

𝑉
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = R𝑇3 log (𝑉4 ) and 𝑇3 = 𝑇𝐿
3

𝑉
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = R𝑻𝑳 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( 4 )
𝑉3

The amount of heat added during the process 4-1 is given by

Q = 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇1 − 𝑇4 ), but 𝑇1 = 𝑇4 = T due to constant volume heat addition
Q = 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇 − 𝑇) = 0
Q=0
The net work done by the cycle is given by,
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 + 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉 𝑉
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = R𝑇𝐻 log (𝑉2 ) + R𝑇𝐿 log (𝑉4 )
1 3

𝑽 𝑽
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = R𝑻𝑯 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝑽𝟐 ) - R𝑻𝑳 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝑽𝟑 )
𝟏 𝟒

Now the thermal efficiency of the Stirling cycle is given by,

𝑉 𝑉
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 R𝑇𝐻 log( 2 ) − R𝑇𝐿 log( 3 )
𝑉1 𝑉4
Thermal efficiency, ղth = = 𝑉
𝑄𝑖𝑛 R𝑇𝐻 log( 2 )
𝑉1

But from PV diagram above,

𝑉1 = 𝑉4 and 𝑉2 = 𝑉3
Therefore,
𝑉 𝑉
R𝑇𝐻 log( 2 ) − R𝑇𝐿 log( 2 ) 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿
𝑉1 𝑉1
Thermal efficiency, ղth = 𝑉 =
R𝑇𝐻 log( 2 ) 𝑇𝐻
𝑉1

𝑻
Thermal efficiency, ղ𝐭𝐡 = 1 - 𝑻 𝑳
𝑯

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

This is the equation to find the efficiency of the Stirling cycle operating between
temperature 𝑇𝐻 and 𝑇𝐿 , and this equation is similar to the equation of Carnot cycle efficiency.
Note:
→ Negative value of heat interaction indicates heat rejected by the system and positive value
of heat interaction indicates heat added to the system.
→ Positive value of work interaction indicates work done by the system and negative value
of work interaction indicates work done on the system.

STIRLING CYCLES
The Ericsson cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that is used in some types of heat engines. It was
developed by Swedish - American engineer John Ericsson in the 19th century (1840.). The cycle
consists of four processes: isothermal compression, constant volume heat addition, isothermal
expansion, and constant volume heat rejection. These processes are carried out in a closed system,
typically using a piston or a turbine.
The Ericsson cycle is similar to the Carnot cycle, but with the addition of constant volume
processes. This cycle is often used in hot air applications where a constant volume heat addition is
desired, such as in some types of gas turbines.
The Ericsson Cycle is an external combustion engine cycle, meaning that the heat transfer occurs
between the working fluid and an external heat source, such as a heat exchanger.
Process of Ericsson Cycle

The p-v and T-s diagrams of the Ericsson cycle

Ericsson Cycle Processes
1. 1-2 Process (Isothermal expansion or heat addition)
2. 2-3 Process (Constant pressure or isobaric heat rejection)
3. 3-4 Process (Isothermal compression)
4. 4-1 Process (Constant pressure or isobaric heat absorption)

Process 1-2 (Isothermal Expansion or Heat Addition)

The air is heated at constant pressure from an initial temperature 𝑇1 to a temperature 𝑇2
Heat supplied to air, Q= m𝑪𝒑 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

Process 2-3 (Constant Pressure or Isobaric Heat Rejection)
The air is allowed to expand isothermally (i.e., at constant temperature 𝑇2 =𝑇3 ) from initial volume
𝑉2 to 𝑉3. We know that a part of the heat supplied in the first stage is utilized for doing work in
isothermal expansion.
Heat utilized during the isothermal process,
𝑉
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 log 𝑉3 but, from PV=mRT, → 𝑃2 𝑉2 = mR𝑇2
2
𝑉 𝑉
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = mR𝑇2 log 𝑉3 and r = 𝑉3 (expansion ratio)
2 2

𝑸𝒊𝒏 = mR𝑻𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒓

Process 3-4 (Isothermal Compression)

The air is now cooled at constant pressure from initial temperature 𝑇3 to a temperature 𝑇4
Heat rejected by air, Q = m𝑪𝒑 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟒 )
Process 4-1 (Constant Pressure or Isobaric Heat Absorption)
Finally, the air is compressed isothermally (i.e., at constant temperature 𝑇4 =𝑇1 ) from initial volume
𝑉3 to 𝑉4. Some heat is rejected by the air for doing work on the air.
Heat rejected during isothermal compression,
𝑉
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃4 𝑉4 log 𝑉4 but, from PV=mRT, → 𝑃4 𝑉4 = mR𝑇4
1
𝑉 𝑉
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = mR𝑇4 log 𝑉4 and r = 𝑉4 (compression ratio)
1 1
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = mR𝑻𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒓

We know from the above, that heat supplied during the process 1-2 is equal to the heat rejected
during the process 3-4 (because of 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ).
Work done
Work done = Heat supplied – Heat rejected
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 - 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = mR𝑇2 log 𝑟 - mR𝑇4 log 𝑟
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = mRlog 𝑟 (𝑇2 − 𝑇4 )

Efficiency
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 mR log 𝑟(𝑇2 − 𝑇4 ) 𝑇2 − 𝑇4 𝑇4
Efficiency, ղ = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = mR𝑇 log = = 1-
𝑟 2 𝑇 𝑇 2 2

Notes:
→ The efficiency of the Ericsson cycle is the same as that of Carnot efficiency.

→ If the regenerator efficiency is ղr , then heat taken in from the regenerator during process
4-1 will be m𝐶𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇2 )(1 − ղr )
Therefore,
mR log 𝑟(𝑇2 − 𝑇4 ) R log 𝑟(𝑇2 − 𝑇4 )
ղ = mR𝑇 = R𝑇
2 log 𝑟 + m𝐶𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇2 )(1− ղr ) 2 log 𝑟 + 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇2 )(1− ղr )

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

RANKINE CYCLE
Rankine cycle is the theoretical cycle on which the steam turbine (or engine) works.

(a) P-V diagram; (b) T-s diagram; (c) h-s diagram for Rankine cycle.

The Rankine cycle comprises of the following processes:

Process 1-2
Reversible adiabatic expansion in the turbine (or steam engine).
Process 2-3
Constant-pressure transfer of heat in the condenser.
Process 3-4
Reversible adiabatic pumping process in the feed pump.
Process 4-1
Constant-pressure transfer of heat in the boiler.

Considering 1 kg of fluid, Applying steady flow energy equation (S.F.E.E.) to boiler, turbine,
condenser and pump
(i) For boiler (as control volume),

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

 ℎ𝑓4 + 𝑄1 = ℎ1
𝑄1 = ℎ1 − ℎ𝑓4 …………………………………..…. (i)

(ii) For turbine (as control volume),

ℎ1 = 𝑊𝑇 + ℎ2 Where, WT − turbine work
𝑊𝑇 = ℎ1 − ℎ2 ……………………………………. (ii)

(iii) For condenser,

ℎ2 = 𝑄2 + ℎ𝑓3
𝑄2 = ℎ2 − ℎ𝑓3 ……………………………….......... (iii)

(iv) For the feed pump,

ℎ𝑓3 + 𝑊𝑃 = ℎ𝑓4 Where, 𝑊𝑃 − pump work
𝑊𝑃 = ℎ𝑓4 − ℎ𝑓3 ………………………………. (iv)

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑇 −𝑊𝑃
Now, efficiency of Rankine cycle ղ𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 = =
𝑄1 𝑄1
(ℎ1 −ℎ2 )−(ℎ𝑓4 −ℎ𝑓3 )
ղ𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 = (ℎ1 − ℎ𝑓4 )
……………....... (v)

The feed pump handles liquid water, which is incompressible, which means with the increase in
pressure its density or specific volume undergoes a little change. Using general property relation
for reversible adiabatic compression.
Hence, Tds = dh – vdp
But ds=0,
0 = dh – vdp
dh = vdp or ∆ℎ = 𝑣, ∆𝑝 … since change in specific volume is negligible
Or ℎ𝑓4 − ℎ𝑓3 = 𝑣3 (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )

When, p is in bar and v is in 𝑚3 /kg, then

ℎ𝑓4 − ℎ𝑓3 = 𝑣3 (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )𝑥 105 𝐽/𝐾𝑔
The feed pump term (hf4 − hf3 ) being a small quantity in comparison with turbine work, WT is
usually neglected, especially when the boiler pressures are low.
ℎ −ℎ
ղ𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 = ℎ 1− ℎ 2
1 𝑓4

Comparison between Rankine Cycle and Carnot Cycle

- Between the same temperature limits Rankine cycle provides a higher specific work output
than a Carnot cycle, consequently Rankine cycle requires a smaller steam flow rate
resulting in smaller size plant for a given power output. However, Rankine cycle calls for
higher rates of heat transfer in boiler and condenser.
- Since in Rankine cycle only part of the heat is supplied isothermally at constant higher
temperature T1, therefore, its efficiency is lower than that of Carnot cycle. The efficiency
of the Rankine cycle will approach that of the Carnot cycle more nearly if the superheat
temperature rise is reduced.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

 - The advantage of using pump to feed liquid to the boiler instead to compressing a wet
vapour is obvious that the work for compression is very large compared to the pump.

Figures above shows the plots between efficiency and specific steam consumption against boiler
pressure for Carnot and ideal Rankine cycles.

Effect of Operating Conditions on Rankine Cycle Efficiency

The Rankine cycle efficiency can be improved by;
1. Increasing the average temperature at which heat is supplied.
2. Decreasing/reducing the temperature at which heat is rejected.
These effects can be achieved by making suitable changes in the conditions of steam
generation or condensation, as discussed below:

1. Increasing boiler pressure.

It has been observed that by increasing the boiler pressure (other factors remaining the
same) the cycle tends to rise and reaches a maximum value at a boiler pressure of about
166 bar

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

2. Superheating.
All other factors remaining the same, if the steam is superheated before allowing it to
expand the Rankine cycle efficiency may be increased figure (b). The use of superheated
steam also ensures longer turbine blade life because of the absence of erosion from high
velocity water particles that are suspended in wet vapour.
3. Reducing condenser pressure.
The thermal efficiency of the cycle can be amply improved by reducing the condenser
pressure figure (c) (hence by reducing the temperature at which heat is rejected), especially
in high vacuums. However, the increase in efficiency is obtained at the increased cost of
condensation apparatus

The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is also improved by the following methods:
- By regenerative feed heating.
- By reheating of steam.
- By water extraction.
- By using binary-vapour.

Comparing Ericsson and Rankine Cycle

Why Rankine Cycle is Important

 The Rankine cycle is an important thermodynamic cycle that is widely used in power
generation systems, such as steam power plants. It is a regenerative cycle that involves the
conversion of heat into mechanical work. The cycle consists of four main
processes: compression, heat addition, expansion, and heat rejection. The Rankine cycle is
particularly important because it allows for the efficient conversion of heat energy into
mechanical work, making it a key component in power generation.
 Rankine cycle utilizes a wide range of heat sources, including fossil fuels, nuclear energy,
and renewable sources such as solar and geothermal energy. This versatility makes it a popular
choice for power generation in various industries.
 The Rankine cycle also allows for the use of heat regeneration, which further improves its
efficiency. Heat regeneration involves the use of a heat exchanger, known as a regenerator, to
preheat the working fluid before it enters the boiler. This process reduces the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of the working fluid, resulting in higher overall efficiency.
 Rankine cycle has the ability to operate at different pressure levels. By utilizing multiple
stages of expansion, the cycle can extract more work from the same amount of heat input. This
makes it suitable for a wide range of power generation applications, from small-scale
systems to large-scale power plants.

Differences between Ericsson and Rankine Cycle

While both the Ericsson and Rankine cycles are thermodynamic cycles used for power generation,
there are several key differences between them.
 Working Fluid: The Rankine cycle typically uses water or steam as the working fluid, while
the Ericsson cycle uses a gas, such as air or helium.
 Expansion Process: In the Rankine cycle, the expansion process is typically carried out in a
turbine, while in the Ericsson cycle, it is done in a piston-cylinder arrangement.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

 Heat Regeneration: The Rankine cycle utilizes heat regeneration through the use of a
regenerator, while the Ericsson cycle does not.
 Pressure-Volume Diagram: The pressure-volume diagram for the Rankine cycle is
characterized by a constant pressure heat addition process and a constant pressure heat
rejection process. In contrast, the Ericsson cycle has an isothermal expansion process and an
isothermal compression process.
 Efficiency: The Rankine cycle is known for its high efficiency, especially when combined
with advanced technologies such as supercritical steam conditions. The Ericsson cycle, on the
other hand, typically has lower efficiency due to the limitations of the gas expansion process.

The Ericsson cycle offers several advantages over other cycles, such as the ability to achieve higher
thermal efficiency and lower emissions. It is particularly suitable for applications where a constant
volume heat addition process is desired, such as in certain types of gas turbines and Stirling
engines.
Overall, the Ericsson cycle is an important concept in thermodynamics and has contributed to the
development of more efficient and environmentally friendly heat engines.

BRAYTON CYCLE (Joule/ Turbine Engine)

In 1872, an American engineer, George Bailey Brayton advanced the study of heat engines by
patenting a constant pressure internal combustion engine, initially using vaporized gas but later
using liquid fuels such as kerosene. This heat engine is known as “Brayton’s Ready Motor”. It
means, the original Brayton engine used a piston compressor and piston expander instead of a gas
turbine and gas compressor.
Today, modern gas turbine engines and air breathing jet engines are also a constant-pressure heat
engines, therefore we describe their thermodynamics by the Brayton cycle. In general, the Brayton
cycle describes the workings of a constant-pressure heat engine.

Types of Brayton Cycle

1. Open Brayton Cycle (keywords)
Most gas turbines are based on the open Brayton cycle with internal combustion (e.g. jet engines).
In this cycle, air from the ambient atmosphere is compressed to a higher pressure and temperature
by the compressor. In the combustion chamber, air is heated further by burning the fuel-air mixture

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

in the air flow. Combustion products and gases expand in the turbine either to near atmospheric
pressure (engines producing mechanical energy or electrical energy) or to a pressure required by
the jet engines.
The open Brayton cycle means that the gases are discharged directly into the atmosphere.

Closed Brayton Cycle

In a closed Brayton cycle working medium (e.g. helium) recirculates in the loop and the gas
expelled from the turbine is reintroduced into the compressor. In these turbines, a heat
exchanger (external combustion) is usually used and only clean medium with no combustion
products travels through the power turbine.
The closed Brayton cycle is used, for example, in closed-cycle gas turbine and high-temperature
gas cooled reactors.

Reverse Brayton Cycle – Brayton Refrigeration Cycle

A reverse Brayton’s cycle operates in the opposite direction. This cycle’s primary goal is to move
heat from a cold reservoir to a hot reservoir rather than create work.
The second law of thermodynamics states that without an outside force acting on the body, heat
cannot freely transfer from a cold body to a hot body. It means that heat can move from a cold to
a hot system when an external force acts on the body or system. The same principle underlies how

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

both heat pumps and refrigerators operate. These systems are powered by an electric motor, which
requires energy from their surroundings to run.
The Reverse Brayton’s Cycle operates similarly to the regular Brayton’s cycle but runs
counterclockwise through net input work. As a result, it is also known as the gas refrigeration cycle
or the Bell Coleman cycle.
The air conditioning system in jet aircraft frequently uses this cycle and draws its air from the
engine compressor.

Brayton Cycle – Processes

In a closed ideal Brayton cycle, the system executing the cycle undergoes a series of four
processes: two isentropic (reversible adiabatic) processes alternated with two isobaric processes:

T-s and P-v diagram of Brayton Cycle

Process 1-2
The compression process is isentropic. Here, gas temperature slightly increases as a result of
compression. The gas’s volume decreases because of the compression process.
Process 2-3
It is an isobaric process of heat addition. Due to the addition of heat, there is a slight volume
increase. The gas’s temperature rises because it is a heat-adding process.

Process 3-4
The process of expansion is isentropic. Due to expansion, there is a small temperature drop in this
area. The volume of the gas increases because it is expanding during the process.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

Process 4-1
It is an isobaric process for heat rejection. Heat rejection causes a slight volume reduction. The
gas’s temperature drops because it is a heat rejection process.

Thermal Efficiency
The thermal efficiency of the heat engine is calculated as the net output work (W) divided by the
input heat supplied at high temperature (QH).

Brayton cycle’s formula for thermal efficiency:

𝑊
ղ𝑡ℎ = 𝑄
𝐻

To determine the Joule Cycle’s efficiency, we must first determine how much work is done in the
total internal energy.

The first law of thermodynamics states that during a thermodynamic cycle, no heat is created or
lost.

Internal energy = U= −𝑾 + 𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐 = 0, Since, in Brayton’s cycle U = 0;

Then,
W = 𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐

Where;
𝑸𝟏 → Heat gained by the combustion process and
𝑸2 →Released heat after expansion

Considering gas as a perfect gas along with constant specific heat (cp):

𝑸𝟏 = 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇𝟏 − 𝑻𝐹 )
𝑸2 = 𝑪𝑷 (𝑻𝐹 − 𝑻1 )
W = 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇𝟏 − 𝑻𝐹 ) + 𝑪𝑷 (𝑻𝐹 − 𝑻1 )
Where,
𝑻𝑭 → The Final temperature inside the combustion chamber and
𝑻1 → The initial temperature of the combustion chamber

The final equation for 𝑸𝟏 will be if we replace the 𝑻𝑭 with 𝑻4 and the 𝑻1 with 𝑻3 in accordance
with the PV diagram.
𝑸𝟏 = 𝑪𝑷 (𝑻3 − 𝑻4 )

Brayton cycle’s thermal efficiency;

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑻4 )− 𝑪𝑷 (𝑻4 − 𝑻3 ) (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟑 )
ղ𝑡ℎ = = ( )
= 1 - (𝑻 − 𝑻 )
𝑸 𝟏 𝐶 𝑇 −𝑻𝑃 3 4 𝟑 𝟒
Example
A gas-turbine power plant operating on an ideal Brayton cycle has a pressure ratio of 8. The gas
temperature is 300 K at the compressor inlet and 1300 K at the turbine inlet. Using the air-standard
assumptions, determine
i The gas temperature at the exits of the compressor and the turbine,

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

 ii The back work ratio, and
iii The thermal efficiency.

REFRIGERATION BY NON-CYCLIC PROCESSES

Refrigeration is the cooling of a system below the temperature of its surroundings. Or

Refrigeration is the science of producing and maintaining temperatures below that of the
surrounding atmosphere. This means the removing of heat from a substance to be cooled. Heat
always passes downhill, from a warm body to a cooler one, until both bodies are at the same
temperature. Maintaining perishables at their required temperatures is done by refrigeration. Not
only perishables but also today many human workspaces in offices and factory buildings are air-
conditioned and a refrigeration unit is the heart of the system.
Refrigeration also means the cooling of or removal of heat from a system.
The equipment employed to maintain the system at a low temperature is termed as refrigerating
system and the system, which is kept at lower temperature, is called refrigerated system.

Refrigeration is generally produced in one of the following three ways:

(i) By melting of a solid.
(ii) By sublimation of a solid.
(iii) By evaporation of a liquid.
The melting of ice was one of the earliest method of refrigeration and is still employed. Ice melts
at 0°C. Therefore, when ice is placed in a given space warmer than 0°C, Heat flows into the ice
and the space is cooled or refrigerated. The latent heat of fusion of ice is supplied from the
surroundings, and the ice changes its state from solid to liquid.
Another medium of refrigeration is solid carbon dioxide or dry ice. At atmospheric pressure 𝐶𝑂2
cannot exist in a liquid state, and consequently, when solid 𝐶𝑂2 is exposed to atmosphere, it
sublimates. I.e. it goes directly from solid to vapour, by absorbing the latent heat of sublimation
(620 kJ/kg at I atm, - 78.5°C) from the surroundings as shown below. Thus, dry ice is suitable for
low Temperature refrigeration.

T-S diagram of 𝐶𝑂2

Important refrigeration applications:
1. Ice making

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

2. Transportation of foods above and below freezing
3. Industrial air-conditioning
4. Comfort air-conditioning
5. Chemical and related industries
6. Medical and surgical aids
7. Processing food products and beverages
8. Oil refining and synthetic rubber manufacturing
9. Manufacturing and treatment of metals
10. Freezing food products
11. Miscellaneous applications:
(i) Extremely low temperatures
(ii) Plumbing
(iii) Building construction etc.

Reversed Heat Engine Cycle

A reversed heat engine cycle is an engine operating in the reverse way, i.e., receiving heat from a
low temperature region, discharging heat to a high temperature region, and receiving a net inflow
of work. Under such conditions the cycle is called a heat pump cycle or a refrigeration cycle

Refrigeration or Reversed heat engine cycle

For a heat pump,
𝑄1 𝑄1
(𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝐻𝑃 = =
𝑊 𝑄1 −𝑄2

For a Refrigerator
𝑄2 𝑄2
(𝐶𝑂𝑃)𝑟𝑒𝑓 = =
𝑊 𝑄2 −𝑄1

The working fluid in a refrigeration cycle is called a refrigerant.

In the reversed Carnot cycle shown below, the refrigerant is first compressed reversibly and
adiabatically in process 1-2 where the work input per kg of refrigerant is 𝑊𝑐 , then it is condensed
reversibly in process 2- 3 where the heat rejection is 𝑄1, The refrigerant then expands reversibly
and adiabatically in process 3-4 where the work output is 𝑊𝐸 , and finally it absorbs heat 𝑄2 ,
reversibly by evaporation from the surroundings in process 4- 1.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

 Reversed Carnot Cycle

𝑸𝟏 = 𝑇1 (𝑆2 − 𝑆3 ) & 𝑸𝟐 = 𝑇2 (𝑆1 − 𝑆4 )

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊𝐶 − 𝑊𝐸 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 = (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )(𝑆1 − 𝑆4 )

Where 𝑇1 is the temperature of beat rejection and 𝑇2 the temperature of heat absorption.
𝑄 𝑇
(𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 )𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 𝑤 2 = 𝑇 −𝑇
2
and
𝑛𝑒𝑡 2 1

𝑄1 𝑇1
(𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻𝑃 )𝑟𝑒𝑣 = =
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑇1 −𝑇2
It is important to note that for the same 𝑇1 or 𝑇2 , the COP increases with the decrease in the
temperature difference (𝑇1 - 𝑇2 ), i.e., the closer the temperatures 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 the higher the COP.

Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Vapour Compression Refrigeration Plant Flow diagram

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

The basic operation of vapour compression refrigeration plant

Vapour compression refrigeration cycle-property diagram

1. Compression
A reversible adiabatic process 1-2 or l '-2' either starting with saturated vapour (state I), called dry
compression, or starting with wet vapour (state I'), called wet compression. Dry compression (1-
2) is always preferred to wet compression (I' - 2'), because with wet compression there is a danger
of the liquid refrigerant being trapped in the head of the cylinder by the rising piston which may
damage the valves or the cylinder head, and the droplets of liquid refrigerant may wash away the
lubricating oil from the walls of the cylinder, thus accelerating wear.
2. Cooling and Condensing
A reversible constant pressure process, 2-3, first de-superheated and then condensed, ending with
saturated liquid. Heat 𝑄1 is transferred out.
3. Expansion
An adiabatic throttling process 3-4, for which enthalpy remains unchanged. States 3 and 4 are
equilibrium points.
4. Evaporation
A constant pressure reversible process, 4-1, which completes the cycle. The refrigerant is throttled
by the expansion valve to a pressure, the saturation temperature at this pressure being below the
temperature of the surroundings. Heat then flows, by virtue of temperature difference, from the
surroundings, which is cooled or refrigerated, to the refrigerant, which then evaporates, absorbing
the heat of evaporation. The evaporator thus produces the cooling or the refrigerating effect,
absorbing heat 𝑄2 from the surroundings by evaporation.
In refrigeration practice, enthalpy is the most sought-after property. The diagram in p-h coordinates
is found to be the most convenient.

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

 Phase diagram with constant property lines on p-h plot

Vapour compression cycle on p-h diagram

Performance and Capacity of a Vapour Compression Plant

Vapour compression plant

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

When steady state has been reached, for I kg flow of refrigerant through the cycle, the steady flow
energy equations (neglecting K.E. and P.E. changes) may be written for each of the components
in the cycle as given below.
Compressor
ℎ1 + 𝑊𝐶 = ℎ2
𝑊𝐶 = ( ℎ2 − ℎ1 )KJ/Kg

Actual Vapour Compression Cycle

In order to ascertain that there is no droplet of liquid refrigerant being carried over into the
compressor, some superheating of vapour is recommended after the evaporator.
A small degree of sub cooling of the liquid refrigerant after the condenser is used to reduce the
mass of vapour formed during expansion, so that too many vapour bubbles do not impede the flow
of liquid refrigerant through the expansion valve.
Both the superheating of vapour at the evaporator outlet and the sub cooling of liquid at the
condenser outlet contribute to an increase in the refrigerating effect. The compressor discharge
temperature, however, increases, due to superheat, from t'2 to '2, and the load on the condenser
increases.

Superheat and sub cooling in a vapour compression cycle

Components of a vapour compression plant

Vapour compression cycle with a suction-line heat exchanger

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

Condensers
This is either air-cooled or water-cooled. An air-cooled condenser is used in small self-contained
units. Water-cooled condensers are used in larger installations.

Expansion device
It reduces the pressure of the refrigerant, and regulates the flow of the refrigerant to the evaporator.
Two widely used types of expansion devices are:
- Capillary tubes
- Throttle valves (thermostatic expansion valves).
Capillary tubes - are used only for small units. Once the size and length arc fixed, the
evaporator pressure gets fixed. No modification in operating conditions is possible.
Throttle valves - are used in larger units. These regulate the flow of the refrigerant according
to the load on the evaporator.

Compressor
Compressors may be of three types:
(a) Reciprocating,
(b) Rotary,
(c) Centrifugal.
When the volume flow rate of the refrigerant is large, centrifugal compressors are used.
Rotary compressors are used for small units.
Reciprocating compressors are used in plants up to 100 tones capacity.
For plants of higher capacities, centrifugal compressors are employed.

Evaporator
A common type of evaporator is a coil brazed on to a plate called a plate evaporator. In a 'flooded
evaporator, the coil is tilled only with a liquid refrigerant.
In an indirect expansion coil, water (up to 0°C) or brine (for temperatures between O and-21°C)
may be chilled in the evaporator, and the chilled water or brine may then be used to cool some
other medium.

Refrigerants
Two important parameters that need to be considered in the selection of a refrigerant are
 The temperatures of the two media (the refrigerated space and the environment), with
which the refrigerant exchanges heat. To have reasonable heat transfer rate, a temperature
difference of 5 to 10°C should be maintained between the refrigerant and the medium. If a
space is to be maintained at -10°C. e.g. the
 Should be nontoxic
 Noncorrosive
 Nonflammable
 Chemically stable.
 Should have a large enthalpy of vaporization to minimize the mass flow.
 Should be available at low cost.
Ammonia is widely used in food refrigeration facilities such as the cooling of fresh fruits,
vegetables, meat and fish, refrigeration of beverages and dairy products such as beer, wine, milk

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

and cheese, freezing· of ice cream and ice production, low temperature refrigeration in the
pharmaceutical and other process industries.
The advantages of ammonia are
- Its low cost
- Higher COPs and thus lower energy costs
- Greater detectability in the event of a leak
- No effect on the ozone layer
- Good or favorable thermodynamic and transport properties
- High heat transfer coefficients requiring smaller and lower cost heat exchangers.
The major disadvantage of ammonia is
- High toxicity that makes it unsuitable for domestic use.
Other fluids used as refrigerants are
a. Sulphur dioxide
b. Methyl chloride
c. Ethyl chloride
d. Hydrocarbons like propane, butane, ethane, ethylene, etc.
e. Carbondioxide
f. Air
g. Water.
Example 1
A cold storage is to be maintained at -5°C while the surroundings are at 35°C. The heat leakage
from the surroundings into the cold storage is estimated to be 29 kW. The actual COP of the
refrigeration plant used is one-third that of an ideal plant working between the same temperatures.
Find the power required (in kW) to drive the plant.

Solution
𝑇1 = 35°C = 35 + 273 = 308K
𝑇2 = -5°C = -5 + 273 = 268K
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = ?
1
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 3 𝑥 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

 𝑇2 268
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = = = 6.7
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 308−268

1 1
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝑥 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝑥 6.7 = 2.23
3 3
But
𝑄2
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 2.23 =
𝑊

𝑄2 29
Power required to drive the plant, W = = = 13kw
2.23 2.23𝑊

Example 2
Determine the ideal COP of an absorption refrigerating system in which the heating, cooling, and
refrigeration take place at 197°C, 17°C, and –3°C respectively.

Solution
Given
𝑇0 = −3°C = -3 + 273 = 270K
𝑇𝑎 = 17°C = 17 + 273 = 290K
𝑇ℎ = 197°C = 197 + 273 = 470K

Therefore,
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑄0 𝑄0 𝑊
COP = = = = x = 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑥 ղ𝐻.𝐸
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑄ℎ 𝑊 𝑄ℎ

COP = 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑥 ղ𝐻.𝐸

But for ideal process
𝑇0 𝑇𝑎
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 = & ղ𝐻.𝐸 = ղ𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 = 1 −
𝑇𝑎 −𝑇0 𝑇ℎ
Therefore,

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard

 𝑇0 𝑇𝑎 𝑇0 𝑇 −𝑇 270 470−290
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 =
𝑇𝑎 −𝑇0
𝑥1−
𝑇ℎ
=
𝑇ℎ
( 𝑇ℎ−𝑇𝑎 ) = 470
𝑥 (
270−270
) = 5.17
𝑎 0

𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑰𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟕

By Mr. Matende Nkwoleke Richard