Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 6th Edition

Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles

McGraw-Hill, 2008

Chapter 9
GAS POWER CYCLES
-
GAS TURBINE
Mehmet Kanoglu

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Objectives
Evaluate the performance of gas power cycles for
which the working fluid remains a gas throughout
the entire cycle.
Develop simplifying assumptions applicable to gas
power cycles.
Solve problems based on the Brayton cycle; the
Brayton cycle with regeneration; and the Brayton
cycle with intercooling, reheating, and regeneration.
Analyze jet-propulsion cycles.
Identify simplifying assumptions for second-law
analysis of gas power cycles.
Perform second-law analysis of gas power cycles.

2
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ANALYSIS
OF POWER CYCLES Thermal efficiency of heat engines
Most power-producing devices operate on cycles.
Ideal cycle: A cycle that resembles the actual cycle
closely but is made up totally of internally reversible
processes is called an.
Reversible cycles such as Carnot cycle have the
highest thermal efficiency of all heat engines
operating between the same temperature levels.
Unlike ideal cycles, they are totally reversible, and
unsuitable as a realistic model.

Modeling is a
powerful
engineering tool
that provides great The analysis of many
insight and complex processes can be
simplicity at the reduced to a manageable
expense of some level by utilizing some
loss in accuracy. idealizations.
3
On a T-s diagram, the ratio of the The idealizations and simplifications in the
area enclosed by the cyclic curve to analysis of power cycles:
the area under the heat-addition 1. The cycle does not involve any friction.
process curve represents the thermal Therefore, the working fluid does not
efficiency of the cycle. Any experience any pressure drop as it flows in
modification that increases the ratio pipes or devices such as heat exchangers.
of these two areas will also increase 2. All expansion and compression processes
the thermal efficiency of the cycle. take place in a quasi-equilibrium manner.
3. The pipes connecting the various
components of a system are well
insulated, and heat transfer through them
is negligible.

Care should be exercised On both P-v and T-s diagrams, the area enclosed
in the interpretation of the by the process curve represents the net work of the
results from ideal cycles. cycle.
4
THE CARNOT CYCLE AND ITS
VALUE IN ENGINEERING
The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally
reversible processes: isothermal heat addition,
isentropic expansion, isothermal heat rejection, and
isentropic compression.
For both ideal and actual cycles: Thermal
efficiency increases with an increase in the average
temperature at which heat is supplied to the system
or with a decrease in the average temperature at
which heat is rejected from the system.

P-v and T-s diagrams of

A steady-flow Carnot engine. a Carnot cycle.
5
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AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS
Air-standard assumptions:
1. The working fluid is air, which
continuously circulates in a closed loop
and always behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the
cycle are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by
a heat-addition process from an
external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a
heat-rejection process that restores the
working fluid to its initial state.
The combustion process is replaced by
a heat-addition process in ideal cycles.

Cold-air-standard assumptions: When the working fluid is considered to

be air with constant specific heats at room temperature (25C).
Air-standard cycle: A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are
applicable.

9
GAS-TURBINE ENGINES

The two major application areas of gas-turbine engines are:

1. aircraft propulsion; and
2. electric power generation

Gas turbine operation represents by Brayton Cycle (also

known as Joule Cycle)
GAS-TURBINE ENGINES - GENERAL ELECTRIC (GE)
How Gas Turbine Power Plants Work
(https://energy.gov/fe/how-gas-turbine-power-plants-work)

4 6

2 3

1
How Gas Turbine Power Plants Work
(https://energy.gov/fe/how-gas-turbine-power-plants-work)
Gas turbines basically involve three main sections:
The compressor, which draws air into the engine, pressurizes it, and
feeds it to the combustion chamber at speeds of hundreds of miles per
hour.
The combustion system, typically made up of a ring of fuel injectors
that inject a steady stream of fuel into combustion chambers where it
mixes with the air. The mixture is burned at temperatures of more than
2000 degrees F. The combustion produces a high temperature, high
pressure gas stream that enters and expands through the turbine
section.
The turbine is an intricate array of alternate stationary and rotating
aerofoil-section blades. As hot combustion gas expands through the
turbine, it spins the rotating blades. The rotating blades perform a dual
function: they drive the compressor to draw more pressurized air into
the combustion section, and they spin a generator to produce
electricity.
http://cset.mnsu.edu/engagethermo/components_gasturbine.html
 BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
GAS-TURBINE ENGINES
Combustion process = a constant-pressure heat-addition process (an external source)
Exhaust process = a constant-pressure heat-rejection process to the ambient air.

1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)

2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection

An open-cycle gas-turbine engine. A closed-cycle gas-turbine engine.

15
(observe the working fluid)
 Pressure
ratio

Thermal
efficiency of the
ideal Brayton
cycle as a
T-s and P-v diagrams for function of the
the ideal Brayton cycle. pressure ratio.
16
 For fixed values of Tmin and Tmax, the net
work of the Brayton cycle first increases
with the pressure ratio, then reaches a
maximum at rp = (Tmax/Tmin)k/[2(k - 1)], and
T-s and P-v diagrams for
the ideal Brayton cycle. finally decreases.
17
 BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
GAS-TURBINE ENGINES

The highest temperature in the cycle is limited by the

maximum temperature that the turbine blades can withstand.

This also limits the pressure ratios that can be used in the
cycle.

The air in gas turbines supplies the necessary oxidant for the
combustion of the fuel, and it serves as a coolant to keep the
temperature of various components within safe limits.

An airfuel ratio of 50 or above is not uncommon.

18
The fraction of the turbine
work used to drive the
compressor is called the
back work ratio.

19
 MS5000, MS6001, MS7001 and MS9001. gas turbines. Table 2 lists the ratings of mechani-
The MS5000 is designed in both single- and cal-drive units, which range from 14,520 hp to
two-shaft configurations for both generator 108,990 hp (10,828 kW to 80,685 kW).
and mechanical-drive applications. The The complete model number designation for
GENERAL ELECTRIC (GE) GAS TURBINES
MS5000 and MS6001 are gear-driven units that each heavy-duty product line machine is pro-
can be applied in 50 Hz and 60 Hz markets. vided in both Tables 1 and 2. An explanation of

GE Generator Drive Product Line

Model Fuel ISO Base Heat Heat Exhaust Exhaust Exhaust Exhaust Pressure
Rating Rate Rate Flow Flow Temp Temp Ratio
(kW) (Btu/kWh) (kJ/kWh) (lb/hr) (kg/hr) (degrees F) (degrees C)
x10-3 x10-3
PG5371 (PA) Gas 26,070. 12,060. 12,721 985. 446 905. 485 10.6
Dist. 25,570. 12,180. 12,847 998. 448 906. 486 10.6
PG6581 (B) Gas 42,100. 10,640. 11,223 1158. 525 1010. 543 12.2
Dist. 41,160. 10,730. 11,318 1161. 526 1011. 544 12.1
PG6101 (FA) Gas 69,430. 10,040. 10,526 1638. 742 1101. 594 14.6
Dist. 74,090. 10,680. 10,527 1704. 772 1079. 582 15.0
PG7121 (EA) Gas 84,360. 10,480. 11,054 2361. 1070 998. 536 12.7
Dist. 87,220. 10,950. 11,550 2413. 1093 993. 537 12.9
PG7241 (FA) Gas 171,700. 9,360. 9,873 3543. 1605 1119. 604 15.7
Dist. 183,800. 9,965. 10,511 3691. 1672 1095. 591 16.2
PG7251 (FB) Gas 184,400. 9,245. 9,752 3561. 1613 1154. 623 18.4
Dist. 177,700. 9,975. 10,522 3703. 1677 1057. 569 18.7
PG9171 (E) Gas 122,500. 10,140. 10,696 3275. 1484 1009. 543 12.6
Dist. 127,300. 10,620. 11,202 3355. 1520 1003. 539 12.9
PG9231 (EC) Gas 169,200. 9,770. 10,305 4131. 1871 1034. 557 14.4
Dist. 179,800. 10,360. 10,928 4291. 1944 1017. 547 14.8
PG9351 (FA) Gas 255,600. 9,250. 9,757 5118. 2318 1127. 608 15.3
Dist. 268,000. 9,920. 10,464 5337. 2418 1106. 597 15.8
GT22043E
Table 1. GE gas turbine performance characteristics - Generator drive gas turbine ratings

All units larger than the Frame 6 are direct- the model number is given in Figure 1.
drive units. The MS7000 series units that are This paper reviews some of the basic thermo-
GENERAL ELECTRIC (GE) GAS TURBINES
GE Gas Turbine Performance Characteristics

Fuel
Combustor Exhaust
2
Compressor 4

Generator

Turbine
Inlet Air
GE Gas Turbine Performance Characteristics
GT08922A

Figure 2. Simple-cycle, single-shaft gas turbine

combustion system is designed to provide mix- A schematic diagram for a simple-cycle, two-
ing, burning, dilution and cooling. Thus, by the shaft gas turbine is shown in Figure 3. The low-
Fuel
time the combustion mixture leaves the com- pressure or power turbine rotor is mechani-
Combustor Exhaust
bustion system and enters the turbine at point cally separate from the high-pressure turbine
3, it is at a mixed average temperature. and compressor rotor. The low pressure rotor
In the turbine section of the gas turbine, the is said to be aerodynamically coupled. This
Compressor
energy of the hot gases is converted into work. unique feature allows the power turbine to be
This conversion actually takes place in two operated at a range of speeds and makes two-
steps. In the nozzle section of the turbine, the shaft gas turbines ideally suited for variable-
hot gases are expanded and a portion of the speed applications.
HP LP Load
thermal energy is converted into kinetic energy. All of the work developed by the power turbine
In the subsequent bucket section of the turbine, is available to drive the load equipment since
a portion of the kinetic energy is transferred to the work developed by the high-pressure tur-
the rotating buckets and converted to work. bine supplies all the necessary energy to drive
Some of the work developed by the turbine is the compressor. On two-shaft machines the
used to drive the compressor, and the remain- starting requirements for the gas turbine load Turbine GT08923C
der is available for useful work at the output Inlet
train are reduced because the load equipment Air
flange of the gas turbine. Typically, more than is mechanically separate from the high-pressure Figure 3. Simple-cycle, two-shaft gas turbine
50% of the work developed by the turbine sec- turbine.
respond to the numbers also used in Figure 2. air at point 1 on a continuous basis in exchange
tions is used to power the axial flow compressor.
Path 1 to 2 represents the compression occur-
The Brayton Cycle for the hot gases exhausted to the atmosphere
As shown in Figure 2, single-shaft gas turbines
 Figure 7 illustrates a number of significant
the results can be displayed as a plot of cycle points. In simple-cycle applications (the top
efficiency vs. specific output of the cycle. curve), pressure ratio increases translate into
GENERAL
Figure 7 shows such a plot ELECTRIC
of output and(GE) GASgains
efficiency TURBINES
at a given firing temperature.

GT17983A

Figure 7. Gas turbine thermodynamics

GE Power Systems GER-3567H (10/00)

6
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Thermodynamic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The Brayton Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
GENERAL
Thermodynamic Analysis. ELECTRIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(GE)
. . . . . . . . GAS
. . . . . . . . .TURBINES
.......................6
Combined Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Factors Affecting Gas Turbine Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Air Temperature and Site Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Humidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Inlet and Exhaust Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fuel Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Diluent Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Air Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Performance Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Inlet Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Steam and Water Injection for Power Augmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Peak Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Performance Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Verifying Gas Turbine Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
GENERAL ELECTRIC (GE) GAS TURBINES
All turbomachinery experiences losses in performance with time.
Gas turbine performance degradation can be classified as recoverable
or non-recoverable loss.

Recoverable loss:
u compressor fouling and can be partially rectified by water washing
or, more thoroughly, by mechanically cleaning the com-pressor
blades and vanes after opening the unit.
Non-recoverable loss:
u increased turbine and compressor clearances and changes in
surface finish and airfoil con-tour. Because this loss is caused by
reduction in component efficiencies, it cannot be recovered by
operational procedures, external maintenance or compressor
cleaning, but only through replacement of affected parts at
recommended inspection intervals.
Development of
Gas Turbines

1. Increasing the turbine

inlet (or firing)
temperatures

25
Development of Gas Turbines

2. Increasing the efficiencies of turbomachinery components

(turbines, compressors)

26
Development of Gas Turbines

3. Adding modifications to the basic cycle

I. Intercooling;
II. Regeneration or recuperation; and
III. Reheating

27
TO BE CONTINUED

28
 Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from
Idealized Ones
Reasons: Irreversibilities in
turbine and compressors,
pressure drops, heat losses

Isentropic efficiencies of the

compressor and turbine

The deviation of an actual gas-turbine

cycle from the ideal Brayton cycle as a
result of irreversibilities. 29
 THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH REGENERATION
Gas-turbine engines - the temperature of the exhaust gas leaving the turbine
is often considerably higher than the temperature of the air leaving the
compressor.
Hence, the high-pressure air leaving the compressor can be heated by the
hot exhaust gases in a counter-flow heat exchanger (a regenerator or a
recuperator).
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle increases as a result of
regeneration since less fuel is used for the same work output.

A gas-turbine engine with regenerator. 30

THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH REGENERATION
A gas-turbine engine with regenerator.

T-s diagram of a Brayton

cycle with regeneration.

31
T-s diagram of a Brayton
cycle with regeneration.

Effectiveness
of regenerator
Effectiveness under cold-
air standard assumptions
Under cold-air
standard assumptions 32
The thermal efficiency depends on the ratio of the minimum to
maximum temperatures as well as the pressure ratio.
Regeneration is most effective at lower pressure ratios and low
minimum-to-maximum temperature ratios.

Thermal
efficiency of
the ideal
Brayton
cycle with
and without
regeneratio
n.
33
 THE BRAYTON
CYCLE:
-INTERCOOLING
-REHEATING
-REGENERATION

For minimizing work input to

compressor and maximizing
work output from turbine:

A gas-turbine engine with

two-stage compression with
intercooling, two-stage
expansion with reheating,
and regeneration and its T-s
34
diagram.
Multistage compression with intercooling:
The work required to compress a gas between two
specified pressures can be decreased by carrying out the
compression process in stages and cooling the gas in
between.
This keeps the specific volume as low as possible.

Multistage expansion with reheating

keeps the specific volume of the working fluid as high as
possible during an expansion process, thus maximizing
work output.

Intercooling and reheating

always decreases the thermal efficiency unless they are
accompanied by regeneration.
35
Comparison of work inputs:
to a single-stage
compressor (1AC)
a two-stage compressor
with intercooling (1ABD).

36
 As the number of compression and expansion stages
increases, the gas-turbine cycle with intercooling, reheating,
and regeneration approaches the Ericsson cycle. 37
 As with most of the groundbreaking projects we built, this single-shaft power plant C
was the first of its kind in South East Asia during the 1970s. Utilising the largest gas
turbine size, it has an extremely high energy efficiency rate of approximately 54% S
compared to the national average of 35%. SEARCH WEBSITE
(29579-T)
(29579-T)
The Prai Power Station uses use turbines to produce energy by burning natural gas
CORPORATE INFO CORE BUSINESS OUR PROJECTS
OUR EXPERTISE
and the heat producedINVESTORfrom the RELATIONS
combustion isENRICHING COMMUNITIES
used to heat QSHE
water in boiler. CSR

CORPORATE INFO CORE BUSINESS OUR PROJECTS OUR EXPERTISE INVESTOR RELATIONS ENRICHING CO
Home Our Projects Dam, Water Treatment Plants and Power Station Prai Power Station, Malaysia
Water in its liquid state is converted to steam upon heating and is channeled to the
turbine. The pressurised steam flow imparts high volumes of heat energy on the
Prai Power Station
Home Our Projects Dam, Water Treatment Plants bladesandandPower
shaftStation Prai Power
of the turbine Station,
causing Malaysia
it to rotate.
is converted to electrical energy using a generator.
The rotational mechanical energy
Malaysia (1977 - 1978)
Prai Power Station
Malaysia (1977 - 1978)

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38
In the 1970s, this single-shaft Prai Power Station is the first-of-its-kind in South East Asia that utilizes turbines to produce energy which are converted into electrical energy with the help of the
generator.
39
40
 ENERGY RESOURCES
Installed Capacity as of 31st December 2012 in MW

Natural Gas

Biomass
Fuel Oil

Others
Diesel
Hydro

Total
Coal
TNB 1,911 5,075 - - - - - 6,986

Peninsular Malaysia
IPPs 20 8,069 7,200 - - - - 15,289

Co-Generation - 834 - 35 7 105 25 1,006

Self-Generation - 31 - - 577 370 1 979

SREP / FiT 9 - - - - 30 11 50

Subtotal 1,940 14,009 7,200 35 584 504 36 24,309

SESB 69 105 - - 244 - - 417

IPPs - 494 - 144 - - - 638

Co-Generation - 42 - - 60 111 - 212

Sabah

Self-Generation - - - - 526 123 11 660

SREP / FiT 7 - - - - 30 - 37

Subtotal 76 640 - 144 829 264 11 1,963

SEB 101 608 480 - 163 - - 1,352

IPPs 1,200 - - - - - - 1,200

Sarawak

Co-Generation - 289 - - - - 1 290

Self-Generation - - - - 13 16 - 29

Subtotal 1,301 897 480 - 176 16 1 2,871

Total 3,317 15,546 7,680 179 1,589 784 49 29,143

41
Source: Power Utilities and IPPs
 IDEAL JET-
PROPULSION
CYCLES

Gas-turbine engines are widely used to power aircraft because

they are light and compact and have a high power-to-weight
ratio.
Aircraft gas turbines operate on an open cycle called a jet-
propulsion cycle.
The ideal jet-propulsion cycle differs from the simple ideal
Brayton cycle in that the gases are not expanded to the
ambient pressure in the turbine.
Instead, they are expanded to a pressure such that the power
produced by the turbine is just sufficient to drive the compressor
and the auxiliary equipment. 42
 IDEAL JET-PROPULSION CYCLES
The net work output of a jet-propulsion cycle is zero.
The gases that exit the turbine at a relatively high pressure are
subsequently accelerated in a nozzle to provide the thrust to
propel the aircraft.
Aircraft are propelled by accelerating a fluid in the opposite
direction to motion.
This is accomplished by either slightly accelerating a large
mass of fluid (propeller-driven engine) or greatly accelerating
a small mass of fluid (jet or turbojet engine) or both
(turboprop engine).

In jet engines, the high-

temperature and high-
pressure gases leaving the
turbine are accelerated in a
nozzle to provide thrust. 43
 Thrust (propulsive force)
Propulsive efficiency
Propulsive power

Propulsive power is
the thrust acting on the
aircraft through a
distance per unit time.

Basic components of a turbojet engine and the T-s diagram for the ideal turbojet cycle.
44
Modifications to Turbojet Engines
The first airplanes built were all propeller-
driven, with propellers powered by engines
essentially identical to automobile engines.
Both propeller-driven engines and jet-
propulsion-driven engines have their own
strengths and limitations, and several attempts
have been made to combine the desirable
characteristics of both in one engine.
Energy supplied to an aircraft
Two such modifications are the propjet engine
and the turbofan engine. (from the burning of a fuel)
manifests itself in various forms.

A turbofan engine. The most widely used

engine in aircraft
propulsion is the
turbofan (or fanjet)
engine wherein a large
fan driven by the
turbine forces a
considerable amount
of air through a duct
(cowl) surrounding the
engine.
45
 A modern jet engine
used to power Boeing
777 aircraft. This is a
Pratt & Whitney
PW4084 turbofan
capable of producing
374 kN of thrust. It is
4.87 m long, has a 2.84
m diameter fan, and it
weighs 6800 kg.

Various engine types:

Turbofan, Ramjet, Propjet, Scramjet, Rocket

A turboprop engine. A ramjet engine.

46
SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF GAS POWER CYCLES
Exergy
destruction for a
closed system
For a steady-
flow system

Steady-flow, one-inlet, one-exit

Exergy destruction of a cycle

For a cycle with heat transfer

only with a source and a sink

Closed system exergy

Stream exergy

A second-law analysis of these cycles reveals where the largest

irreversibilities occur and where to start improvements.
47
 Summary
Basic considerations in the analysis of power cycles
The Carnot cycle and its value in engineering
Air-standard sssumptions
Brayton cycle: The ideal cycle for gas-turbine engines
The Brayton cycle with regeneration
The Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating, and
regeneration
Ideal jet-propulsion cycles
Second-law analysis of gas power cycles

48
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49