Outline

Objectives
To

(i) understand the principle behind operation of reciprocating machines

(ii) familiarize with fundamentals of combustion processes

(iii) understand the principles behind operation of air standard cycles

(iv) analyze internal combustion engines

Outcomes
To

(i) evaluate performance characteristics of reciprocating machines and be able to analyze recip-
rocating compressors

(ii) apply combustion equations to analysis of reacting mixtures and their properties

(iii) Analyze gas turbine cycles, reciprocating otto and diesel cycles as well as establish performance
characteristics of internal combustion engines

Content
Reciprocating machines: The condition for minimum work, isothermal efficiency, volumetric effi-
ciency. Actual indicator diagram, reciprocating compressors, metastable flow of vapors.
Fuels and combustion: Types of fuels, combustion equations, adiabatic flame temperature, sto-
ichiometric air fuel ratio. Equivalent ratio. Incomplete combustion, Exhaust and flue gas analysis.
Internal energy and enthalpy of reaction. Calorific value of fuels.
Gas power cycles: Air standard sycles, simple gas turbine, reciprocating engine cycles; Otto,
diesel, dual cycles, stirling engine cycles. Comparison of air standard cycles with real engine cycle.
Performance indicators.
Reciprocating internal combustion engines: Classifications (stroke, fuel type, etc). Criteria of
performance: indicated power, brake power, specific fuel consumption, mean effective pressure,
factors influencing performance of CI and SI engines. Overview of engine management systems
2
 References:

(i) Rogers G.F.C. & Mayhew Y.R. (1992) Engineering Thermodynamics, Longman Singapore
Publishers, 4th Ed.

(ii) Eastop T.D. and McConkey A. (1993) Applied Thermodynamics for Engineerging Technolo-
gists, 4th Ed.

(iii) Yunus Cengel and Michael Boles Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach 5th Edition

(iv) R.K. Rajput, Engineering Thermodynamics with SI units 3rd Edition, 2007

(v) Engineering Thermodynamics 5th Edition by David Burghardt and James Harbach

Group Tasks:

(i) Analyze the purpose, performance and application of a compressed air engines

(ii) Analyze the purpose, performance and application of a bomb calorimeter.

(iii) Analyze the purpose, performance and application of steam engine

(iv) Analyze the purpose, performance and application of gas turbines in running of propeller
driven aircrafts

(v) Analyze the purpose, performance and application of turbo chargers in operation of IC engines

3
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 What is Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is a science dealing with energy transformation eg heat into work, chemical energy
into electrical energy etc. It is derived from greek word therme (heat) and dynamis (strength applied
to motion) Engineering thermodynamics involves analysis and design of energy conversion systems.
All areas of life have aspect of energy interaction and therefore engineering thermodynamics affects
every walk of life. The importance of Thermodynamics is realized when it is used to analyze energy
systems using laws and principles that have already been examined in thermo 1 and thermo 2. The
same fundamental principles are utilized in EMG 2308 Thermo III
There are two branches of thermodynamics: Classical thermodynamics dealing with macroscopic
behaviour of systems, and statistical thermodynamics dealing with microscopic behaviour of sys-
tems. In the latter the system is broken down into several microsystems and the overall behaviour
at macro level is analyzed using statistical techniques. In this study classical thermodynamics shall
be studied.

4
1.2 Laws of thermodynamics
Since the study of systems utilizes the laws of thermodynamics it is important to highlight them.
The first law called the law of conservation of energy, can be expressed in the form
X X
cycle(δQ) = cycle(δW ) (1.1)
P
Where cycle means the sum for a complete cycle. This law is applied to closed and open systems
in which equations of various with the interaction between heat and work. Consider a heat engine
shown in figure 1.1. Net work becomes

Figure 1.1: Heat engine

Q1 − Q2 = W (1.2)

. For a carnot cycle this may be expressed as

∆s(T1 − T2 ) = W (1.3)

Work cannot be generated from bodies at fixed temperature. Thus efficiency of a heat engine will
always be less than 100%. These are the fundamental laws of thermodynamics. Other laws are
zeroth law of thermodynamics (dealing with thermal equilibrium of systems) and the third law of
thermodynamics (dealing with entropy of a substance at absolute zero of temperature)

1.3 Applications of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is applied in areas where devices utilize properties of a fluid when it is compressed,
expanded, heated or cooled. These could be small scale involving human interaction with the
5
environment; Human bodies undergo metabolism that produces energy and subsequent rejection
to the environment. The maintenance of this human comfort using clothes is thermodynamics. In
engineering, small scale applications include areas such as electric or gas heating, air conditioning,
interior heating, refrigeration, pressure cooker, water heater, computer, TV. Large scale applications
include the following areas:

(i) Steam Power Plant: This is a plant used for generation of steam for industrial process
heating or for running a turbine to generate power. The plant shown in figure 1.2 consist of a
fuel system, air and gas distribution system, feed water and steam flow systems, cooling water
system. The major components of a steam power plant include a boiler for steam generation,

Figure 1.2: Steam power plant

a superheater for steam heating, turbine for driving the generator, condenser for condensing
steam used by the turbine, cooling tower for cooling condenser water, condenser water pump,
feed water pump for supplying water into the boiler, economizer, air pre-heater.

Note that to fully appreciate the system substance properties need to be known eg; behavior of
water, why combustion takes place, combustion products, energy transformation mechanisms.
Thermodynamics helps in determination of these properties experimentally and theoretically.

(ii) Nuclear power plant: It is a power plant that produces power using steam generated by
a nuclear reactor instead of a boiler. The heat generated due to nuclear fission is passed to
6
 the coolant surrounding the reactor core. The hot fluid passes this heat to a steam generator
that in turn runs a turbine as shown in Figure 1.3. Main components are shown.

Figure 1.3: Nuclear power plant

(iii) Internal combustion engine: Heat engines are devices that derives energy from combustion
of fuel and convert it into mechanical work. They can be categorized as internal combustion
engines where combustion occur within a cylinder and external combustion engines where
combustion occurs outside the cylinder for example a steam plant. Components of an IC
engine are shown in figure 1.4. IC engine is used to power vehicles and other machines. It is

Figure 1.4: Internal combustion engine

a small power plant in which energy in fuel is burned raising temperature and pressure. The
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 high pressure moves the piston and hence the engine which through the transmission moves
the wheels and the vehicle. Note that chemical energy is converted to thermal, mechanical,
shaft and vehicle energy. Thermodynamics helps in knowing how much energy to expect from
the engine theoretically and also through experiments. It also helps in knowing amount of
pollutants that reduce air quality and hence seek to reduce them.

(iv) Gas turbine: Also derives power from combustion of fuel and represent the most effective
source of large quantities of power in a compact unit. The thermal efficiencies are low com-
340 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
pared to a steam9.3plant dueCYCLE
BRAYTON to compression and expansion as shown in Figure 1.5. Mechanical
Brayton cycle, popularly used for gas turbine power plants comprises of adiabatic compression process,
efficiency is highconstant
comparedpressure heatto an IC
addition, engine
adiabatic expansionsince there
process and constantare noheatsliding
pressure parts. It has no flywheel
release process.
A schematic diagram for air-standard Brayton cycle is shown in Fig. 9.6. Simple gas turbine power plant
working on Brayton cycle is also shown here.
since power is generated continuously. Its applied in aviation, power generation (to supple-
3

ment power) and marine6 propulsion.

2 3 Note that air is compressed then fuel added causing
combustion, the mixture expands in a turbineT doing
2
work. For
4 a jet engine the turbine moves
p

the compressor and generates

5
electricity while combustion
1 products expands through a nozzle
1 4

generating thrust. V 7 S 8

Fig. 9.6 Brayton cycle on P–V and T–S diagram

F Qadd
HE1
C.C WC WT
WC WT
2 3 2 3
G G
C C

1 4 1 4
HE2
Qrejected

C : Compressor F : Fuel
CC : Combustion chamber G : Generator
HC : Heat exchanger
(a) Open type (b) Closed type
Fig. 9.7 Simple gas turbine plant
Thermodynamic cycle shows following processes:
1-2 : Adiabatic compression, involving (–ve) work, WC in compressor.
Figure 1.5: Gas turbine power plant
2-3 : Constant pressure heat addition, involving heat Qadd in combustion chamber or heat exchanger.
3-4 : Adiabatic expansion, involving (+ve) work, WT in turbine.
4-1 : Constant pressure heat rejection, involving heat, Qrejected in atmosphere or heat exchanger.
In the gas turbine plant layout shown process 1–2 (adiabatic compression) is seen to occur in
compressor, heat addition process 2–3 occurs in combustion chamber having open type arrangement
and in heat exchanger in closed type arrangement. Process 3–4 of adiabatic expansion occurs in turbine.
(v) Refrigeration System: This is cooling or removal of heat from a system. Components are
In open type arrangement exhaust from turbine is discharged to atmosphere while in closed type, heat
rejection occurs in heat exchanger. In gas turbine plant of open type, air entering compressor gets
shown in Figure 1.6. It works on the reverse principle of a heat engine.
compressed and subsequently brought up to elevated temperature in combustion chamber where fuel is
added to high pressure air and combustion occurs. High pressure and high temperature combustion
products are sent for expansion in turbine where its’ expansion yields positive work. Expanded combustion

(vi) Direct Energy Systems These are devices having no intermediate systems for production
of electric power. They include fuel cells and solar photovoltaic cells. Fuels cells generate
power through two reactions at the cathode and anode respectively

H2(g) −→ 2H + + 2e−

8
 Figure 1.6: Refrigeration system

1
O2(g) + 2H + + 2e− −→ H2 O .. V = 1.23volts
2
Photovoltaic systems are an alternative and promising form of energy.

(vii) Cogeneration Systems This involves using the same energy source for more than one ap-
plication. For example use of waste heat from an engine for space or process heating. The
waste heat can be used for air conditioning purpose (for absorption refrigeration cycles). In
some cases the waste heat is used for generation of additional power.

The analysis of all these systems is based on laws of thermodynamics.

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Chapter 2

Reciprocating Machines

2.1 Background
Aim:

(i) Understand fundamental aspects of reciprocating machines

(ii) Analyze reciprocating machine cycles

(iii) Apply reciprocating motion to carry out tasks

2.1.1 Activity

Discuss the application of reciprocating motion in

(i) human body

(ii) household applications

(iii) transportation: bicycle, steam engine, internal combustion engine

2.1.2 Definition and Concept

Definition: Reciprocating machines are open systems that are steadily supplied with working
fluid to transfer work and heat between the fluid and the surrounding at a uniform rate. Typical
characteristics of reciprocating machines include
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 (i) They deliver definite quantity of fluid at the required pressure.

(ii) They have low mass flow rate and high pressure ratios.

(iii) The working fluid may be either liquid or gas.

(iv) They are used for pressures up to 500 bar.

(v) They may be single or multistage systems and use water for cooling.

Reciprocating compressors are typical examples of positive displacement machines that consume
work to change the state of a substance. This change of state usually involve increase in pressure.
What are positive displacement machines?

2.1.3 Applications

Reciprocating machines can either be expanders or compressors. Expanders are used for generation
of work and a typical example is a steam engines. Compressors are mostly used in supplying
compressed air for various applications in the industry. These include;

(i) pneumatic tools and air operated equipments

(ii) spray painting

(iii) compressed air engine

(iv) refrigeration and air conditioning

(v) supercharging in internal combustion engines

(vi) material handling

(vii) surface cleaning

They are machines offering very efficient method of compressing almost any gas mixture. The type
of gases compressed include;

(i) Air - compressed tools and equipments

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 (ii) Hydrogen, or oxygen - chemical processing

(iii) Carbon dioxide - Welding, drinks processing

(iv) Propane - Compressed liquid gas used as fuel

This is done under a wide range of pressures that are high enough regardless of the gas density.
They are thus vital components in various units of industrial plants.

2.2 Analysis

Piston
Pi
Crank
Valves Piston rings
Crankshaft

Vc Vs Connecting rod
Clearance Swept volume
volume

Figure 2.1: Reciprocating machine

Analysis of reciprocating machine is carried out by considering a typical reciprocating expander

as shown in Figure 2.1. The critical components consist of a cylinder, piston, connecting rod, crank
and rotating shaft. Valves allow inflow and outflow of air at specific times. Swept volume is the
displaced volume of fluid while stroke is the total piston travel. Clearance volume is the minimum
volume when the piston is at the end of the stroke.
Shown in Figure 2.2 is the pv diagram for the expander. The processes are reversible and consist
of the following.

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 p

a Δmf b

c
Δmc d Δmf
Valves Piston
v

Figure 2.2: Pv diagram

(i) process a-b: Inlet valve opens and mass ∆mf enters the cylinder without change of state so
as to mix with ∆mc .

(ii) Process b-c: Both masses expands from state 1 to state 2 while the valves are closed.

(iii) Process c-d: Exhaust valve opens and ∆mf is ejected without change of state

Vc
(iv) Process d-a: Both valves closes and ∆mc is compressed from state 2 to 1. Vs
Clearance
n
Swept
The expansion and compression are assumed to be polytropic in which pv = constant. Analysis of
volume
the reciprocating expander involves establishing the quantity of work and heat developed.
Assignment: Explain why the above process is not a thermodynamic cycle

2.2.1 Work Analysis

Net work is the algebraic sum of work in all the four processes. Thus
Z Z b Z c Z d Z a
δw = − P dv − P dv − P dv − P dv (2.1)
a b c d

The pressure and specific volumes at the four states are P1 , v1 before expansion and P2 , v2 after
expansion. The total volumes however at the four states are Va , Vb , Vc and Vc . It is possible to
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show that Z
n
δw = ∆mf [p2 v2 − p1 v1 ] (2.2)
n−1
Also the rate work generated during expansion is given by
"  n−1 #
( n )
n p2
Ẇ = ṁ p1 v1 −1 (2.3)
n−1 p1

Equation 2.3 shows that ∆mc has no effect on work done per unit mass flow. ∆mc expands
and is recompressed through the same path. It affects the machine capacity, that is ∆mf of fluid a
cylinder of a given size can handle.

2.2.2 Heat Analysis

This is obtained by application of steady flow energy equation. Net heat is obtained from process
b-c during expansion of ∆mf . This is because a-b and c-d are mass transfer processes.
From steady flow energy equation

dQ = dh − dW (2.4)

The total quantity of heat is obtained from integral in the form

Z
n
dQ = ∆mf (h2 − h1 ) + ∆mf [p2 v2 − p1 v1 ] (2.5)
n−1

since ṁ = ∆mf N then total heat is given by

 
n
Q̇ = ṁ (h2 − h1 ) + (p2 v2 − p1 v1 ) (2.6)
n−1

2.2.3 Remarks

It is noted that for expanders as n decreases the magnitude of work increases. For compressors as n
decreases the magnitude of work reduces. The equation show that ∆mc has no effect on amount of
work. This is because this volume expands and is recompressed through the same path. However
it affects the machine capacity that is the quantity of ∆mf a cylinder of a given size can handle.

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