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LESSON 4: GEOMETRIC DESIGN AND FACTORS AFFETING SSD
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAYS - Total reaction time of driver
- Speed of vehicle
CROSS SECTION OF TYPICAL HIGHWAY - Efficiency of brakes
o The cross section of a typical highway has - Frictional resistance between road and tire
latitude of variables to consider such as: - Gradient of road
1. The volume of traffic 1. TOTAL REACTION TIME OF DRIVER
2. Character of the traffic - Time taken from the instant the object is
3. Speed of the traffic visible to the driver to the instant the
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and of brake is effectively applied.
the driver - Divided into types:
o A Cross-section design generally offers the a. PERCEPTION TIME
expected level of service for safety and a recent ➢ Time from the instant the object
study showed that: comes on the line of sight of the
1. 7.20 meters wide pavement has 18% less driver to the instant he realizes
accident compared with pavement that the vehicle needs to be
narrower than 5.50m wide stopped.
2. 7.20 meters wide has 4% fewer accidents b. BRAKE REACTION TIME
than the 6.00 meters wide roadway ➢ Depends on several factors
3. Accident records showed no difference including the skill of the driver, the
between the 6.60 meters and the 7.20 type of the problems and various
meters wide pavement other environment factor. Total
4. For the 6.00m, 6.60m and 7.20m wide reaction time of driver can be
pavement with 2.70 to 3.00m wide shoulder, calculated by “PIEV” THEORY
recorded accident decreases by 30% ➢ PIEV THEORY: P-Perception, I-
compared to 0 to 60m wide shoulder. And Intellection, E- Emotion, V- Volition
20% compared with a 0.90 to 1.20 meters Theory
wide shoulder 2. ANALYSIS OF SSD
- The STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE is the
CROSS SECTION METHOD
sum of lag distance and the braking
o Method of plotting the existing cross section
distance.
perpendicular to a particular line for the
a. LAG DISTANCE
purpose of obtaining quantities such as
➢ The distance the vehicle travelled
volumes.
during the reaction time.
o Cross sectional data is needed in estimating
➢ If “V” is the design speed in m/s, “t”
the amount of cut or fill needed for a given strip
is the total reaction time of the
of roadway.
driver in seconds.
SIGHT DISTANCE ➢ Lag Distance = vt
o Distance at which a driver of vehicle can see an If V is in kph
object of specified height on the road ahead, ➢ Lag Distance = 0.278vt
assuming adequate sight and visual acuity AASHTO recommended reaction
and clear atmospheric conditions time is 2.5 seconds
1. STOPPING OR ABSOLUTE b. BREAKING DISTANCE
MINIMUM SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD) ➢ Distance travelled by the vehicle
o MINIMUM SIGHT DISTANCE available on a after the application of break
highway at any spot should be of sufficient ➢ For level road, obtained by
length to stop a vehicle traveling at design equating the work done in
speed. stopping the vehicle and the
o It depends on: kinetic energy of vehicle.
a. Feature of road ahead ➢ Work done against friction force in
b. Height of driver’s eye above the road stopping the vehicle is:
surface (1.2m) FL = fWL
c. Height of the object above road surface Where: W is the total weight of the
(0.15m) vehicle
o Criteria for measurement ➢ The kinetic energy at the design
a. Height of the driver’s eye above road speed of v in m/s will be ½ mv²
surface (H)
b. Height of object above road surface (h)
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o The equations used in designing a crest vertical
curve are as follows:
➢ Assuming SSD < L
- THE STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

➢ Assuming SSD > L

➢ Note that in this equation, “v” is in Where:

m/s, “t” is the reaction time, “g” is
the gravity, “f” is the coefficient of - Lm = minimum length of crest curve, in
longitudinal friction and “G” is the meters
roadway grade - S = stopping sight distance, in meters
- H1 = driver’s eye level above roadway
surface, in meters
- H2 = height of obstruction above
roadway surface, in meters
- Using typical units for velocity (kph) The - A = absolute value of the difference in
minimum distance open to the vision of grades, in percentage ( A = | g2 – g1 | )
the driver of a vehicle intending to 2. SAFE OVERTAKING (OSD) OR
- overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE (PSD)
against the traffic of opposite direction o The minimum distance open to the vision of the
- is known as the minimum overtaking driver of a vehicle intending to overtake slow
sight distance (OSD) or the safe passing vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of
- sight distance opposite direction is known as the minimum
- - In limited 2-lane or 2-way highways, overtaking sight distance (OSD) or the safe
vehicles may overtake slower moving passing sight distance
- vehicles, and the passing maneuver o In limited 2-lane or 2-way highways, vehicles
must be accomplished on a lane used may overtake slower moving vehicles, and the
by passing maneuver must be accomplished on a
- opposing trafficand considering the lane used by opposing traffic
braking action of time driver, the
stopping sight distance may also be
written as:

➢ Where: “v” is in kph. And “a” is the

braking action deceleration in
m/s²

BRAKING ACTION
o Based on the driver’s ability to decelerate the Where:
vehicle while staying within the travel lane and
maintaining steering control during the braking - d1 = Initial maneuver distance (m)
maneuver, - d2 = distance while passing vehicle
o A deceleration of 3.4 m/s² is comfortable for occupies left lane (m)
90% of drivers - d3 = clearance length (m)
- d4 = distance traversed by the
SSD AND CREST VERTICAL CURVE opposing vehicle (m)
o These values are determined using the AASHTO
Policy on geometric design of highways and
streets.

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Memoria Sobre el Plan General de
Ferrocarriles en la Isla de Luzon

RAILWAY HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

HISTORICAL NOTES IN RAILWAYS

- 1876: Memoria Sobre el Plan General de
Ferrocarriles en la Isla de Luzon Grand
o For Rural Areas, the guideline considers the Master Plan
terrain in which road is being constructed. - 1891: First rail tracks laid
Table below shows the recommended values - 1892: Openned for commercial use,
from Ferrocaril de Manila to Dagupan
- Before series of wars engulfed
Philippines more than a thousand
route-kilometers were built.
3. SAFE SIGHT DISTANCE FOR - Only 452 km were operational after the
ENTERING AN INTERSECTION, war
INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE - Only 129 km remain operational (2021)
o Driver entering an uncontrolled intersection - The government aims to expand railway
(particularly unsignalized intersection) has network to 1900km by 2022
sufficient visibility to enable him to take control GREATER MANILA RAILWAY NETWORKS
of his vehicle and to avoid collision with another o Green –LRT 1
vehicle. o Blue –LRT 2
o The corner sight distance available in o Yellow – MRT 3
intersection quadrants that allows a driver o Orange –PNR
approaching an intersection to observe the
actions of vehicles on the crossing leg(s)
o Clear sight triangle must be free of sight
obstructions such as buildings, parked or
turning vehicles, trees, hedges, fences,
retaining walls, and the actual ground line.

LESSON 5: FUNDAMENTALS OF RAILWAY

ONGOING RAIL PROJECTS
ENGINEERING
1. LRT 1 CAVITE EXTENSION
- Expected to reduce the travel time
RAILWAY HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
between Baclaran and Bacoor to
around 20 minutes from the usual 1 hr.
HISTORICAL NOTES IN RAILWAYS
2. LRT 2 EAST EXTENSION
- 1824: Nicolas Carnot, work of developing
- To add new stations: Marikina-Pasig
steam energy
and Antipolo
- 1804: Richard Trevithick, steam
3. MRT 7
locomotive
- Elevated railway from North Ave. to
- 1814: George Stepherson, first steam
SJDM, Bulacan.
locomotive used for traction in railways
- Expected to serve 350000 daily
- 1825: First public railway in the world,
commuters
between Stockholm and Darlington
4. METRO MANILA SUBWAY PROJECT
- 1833: First railway line in USA between
- Expected to serve 370000 daily
Mohawk and Hudson
passengers
- 1835: First railway in Germany from
5. NORTH SOUTH COMMUTER RAIL PROJECT
Nuremberg to Furth
- Clark-Calamba Railway, expected to be
- 1875: King Alfonso XII of Spain
fully operational by 2025.
promulgated a Royal Decree directing
6. MINDANAO RAILWAY SYSTEM
the office of the Inspector of Public
- Phase 1 construction expected to begin
Works of the Philippines to submit a
Q4 in 2021
general plan for railroads in Luzon (June
25, 1875). The plan was entitled

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RAIL VERSUS ROAD TRANSPORT - Road transports is best suited for
o RIGHT OF WAY carrying lighter goods and smaller
❖ RAIL TRANSPORT numbers of passengers over shorter
- A railway track is defined on two rails distances
and is within protected limits.
- Trains work as per prescribed schedule TRACK COMPONENTS
and no other vehicle has the right of
way except at specified Level crossings.
❖ ROAD TRANSPORT
- Roads, though having well defined
limits, can be used by any vehicular
traffic and even by pedestrians they are
open to all. o The TRACK is the railroad on which the trains
o COST OF ANALYSIS run.
❖ RAIL TRANSPORT
- Owing to the heavy infrastructure and RAILS
equipment, the initial as well as o Members of the track laid in two parallel lines to
maintenance cost of a railway line is provide an unchanging, continuous, and level
high surface for the movements of trains
❖ ROAD TRANSPORT o Made of high-carbon steel to withstand
- The cost of construction and stresses.
maintenance of roads is comparatively 1. FUNCTIONS
cheaper - Rails are similar to steel girders. These
o GRADIENTS AND CURVE are provided to perform the following
❖ RAIL TRANSPORT functions in a track.
- The gradients of railways tracks are
- Rails provide a continuous and level
flatter (normally not more than 1 in 100),
surface for the movement of trains.
and curves are limited up to only 10° on
- Rails provide a pathway which is
broad gauge.
smooth and has very little friction.
❖ ROAD TRANSPORT
- Rails serve as a lateral guide for the
- Roads are constructed normally with
wheels.
steeper gradients of up to 1 in 30 and
- Rails bear the stresses developed due to
relatively much sharper curves
vertical loads transmitted to them
o FLEXIBILITY OF MOVEMENT
through axles and wheels of rolling
❖ RAIL TRANSPORT
stock as well as due to braking and
- Due to the defined routes and facilities
thermal forces.
required for the reception and dispatch
- Rails carry out the function of
of trains, railways can be used only
transmitting the load to a large area of
between fixed points.
the formation through sleepers and the
❖ ROAD TRANSPORT
ballast.
- Road transports have much more
2. TYPES OF RAILS
flexibility in movement and can provide
- Double Headed Rail
door-to-door services.
- Bull Headed Rail
o ENVIRONMENT POLLUTION
- Flat-Footed Rail
❖ RAIL TRANSPORT
3. RAIL GAUGE
- Railways have minimum adverse
- Gauge is defined as the minimum
effects on the environment
distance between 2 rails
❖ ROAD TRANSPORT
- Road transport creates comparatively - The Guage is measured as the clear

greater pollution than the railways minimum distance between the

o SUITABILITY running faces of the 2 rails

❖ RAIL TRANSPORT
- Railways are best suited for carrying
heavy goods and large numbers of
passengers over long distances.
❖ ROAD TRANSPORT
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d. type of ballast and ballast cushion,
and
e. nature of formation.

BALLAST
o A layer of broken stones, gravel, or any other
granular material placed and packed below
4. RAIL SPECIFICATION
and around sleepers for disturbing load from
- Every rail has a brand on its web, which
the sleepers to the formation
is repeated at intervals
o It provides drainage as well as longitudinal and
IRS-52kg – 710 –TISCO –II1991 –>OB
lateral stability to the track
a. IRS-52-kg: Number of IRS rail
1. TYPES OF BALLAST
section, i.e., 52 kg
a. MOORUM BALLAST
b. 710: Grade of rail section, i.e., 710 or
- Normally used as the initial ballast in
880
new constructions and sub-ballast
c. TISCO: Manufacturer’s name, e.g.,
b. COARSE SAND BALLAST
Tata Iron and Steel Co.
- Used primarily for cast iron rails
d. II 1991: Month and year of
c. COAL ASH CINDER
manufacture (February 1991)
- Normally used in yards as initial ballast
e. ->: An arrow showing the direction of
in new constructions since it is very
the top of the ingot
cheap
f. OB: Process of steel making, e.g.,
d. BROKEN STONE BALLAST
open hearth basic (OB)
- Made from hard stone, normally used
SLEEPERS for high-speed tracks
o Transverse ties that are laid to support the rails 2. FUNCTIONS
o They have an important role in the track as they - Provides a level and hard bed for the
transmit the wheel load from the rails to the sleepers to rest on.
ballast. - Holds the sleepers in position during the
1. FUNCTIONS passage of trains.
- Holding the rails in their correct gauge - Transfers and distributes load from the
and alignment sleepers to a large area of the
- Giving a firm and even support to the formation.
rails - Provides elasticity and resilience to the
- Transferring the load evenly from the track for proper riding comfort.
rails to a wider area of the ballast - Provides the necessary resistance to the
- Acting as an elastic medium between track for longitudinal and lateral
the rails and the ballast to absorb the stability.
blows and vibrations caused by moving - Provides effective drainage to the track.
loads - Provides an effective means of
- Providing longitudinal and lateral maintaining the level and alignment of
stability to the permanent way the track.
- Providing the means to rectify the track 3. BALLAST GRADATION
geometry during their service life.
2. SLEEPER DENSITY AND SPACING
- Sleeper Density is the number of
sleepers per rail length. Specified as M +
x or N + x
- M or N is the length of the rail in meters
and x is a number that varies according
TRACK FITTINGS AND FASTENINGS
to factors such as:
1. For Joining rail to rail
a. axle load and speed,
- Fish plates, combination fish plates,
b. type and section of rails,
bolts and nuts
c. type and strength of the sleepers,
2. For Joining rails to sleepers

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- Cast-iron bearing screws, plate screws, d. SURFACE DEFECTS
pandrol clifts and rubber pads. - Raveling
- Bleeding
- Polishing
LESSON 6: FAILURES, MAINTENANCE AND - Delamination
REHABILITATION OF TRANSPORTATION 3. ROAD MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION
INFRASTRUCTURES INCLUDES
a. Physical maintenance
TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURES - Activities such as sealing, patching,
o Foundational structures and systems for
filling joints etc.
transporting people and goods
b. Traffic Service activities
COMMON TYPES OF TRANSPORTATION
- Includes painting pavements markings,
INFRASTRUCTURES
removing snow ice and litter
1. Road
c. Rehabilitation
2. Railways
- Includes restoring or betterment of
3. Bridges and Tunnels
roadway such as resurfacing
4. Ship Canals
4. TYPES OF ROAD MAINTENANCE
5. Ports
a. Surface Maintenance
6. Airports Runways
b. Roadside and drainage maintenance
ROADS c. Shoulder and approaches
o Roads such as streets, avenues and highways. maintenance
Includes paved roads, unpaved roads and d. Snow and ice control
roads with unique surfaces like cobblestone e. Traffic service
and such.
1. ROADS FAILURE CAUSES RAILWAYS
o Including high speed rail, subways and
- Rutting due to high variation in ambient
elevated railway such as cable car.
temperature
1. RAILWAYS FAILURE CAUSES
- Uncontrolled heavy axle loads
- Impact of moving loads
- Inadequate Stability
- Effect of acceleration and deceleration
- Loss of binding action
- Constant reversal of stresses
- Poor design and fabrication
- Defects in manufacture
- Congestion
- Braking of wheels
- Environmental Hazard
- Fatigue caused by shearing stresses
- Accidents
- Effect of weather and Temperature
- Poor Maintenance
- Maintenance of rail joints
2. TYPE OF ROAD FAILURES
- Axle load of locomotive
a. CRACKING
- Design of rail joints
- Fatigue Cracking
- Frequency of rail renewal
- Longitudinal Cracking
- Corrosion
- Transverse Cracking
- Poor Maintenance
- Block Cracking
2. TYPE OF RAILWAY FAILURES
- Slippage Cracking
a. Crushed Head
- Reflective Cracking
b. Transverse and Compound Fissure
- Edge Cracking
c. Split Head
b. SURFACE DEFORMATION
d. Horizontal Fissure
- Rutting
e. Square of Angular Breaks
- Corrugations
f. Rail Misalignment
- Shoving
3. RAILWAY MAINTENANCE AND
- Depressions
REHABILITATION INCLUDES
- Swell
a. Ballast Checking
c. DISINTEGRATION
b. Lubricating Places such as curves on
- Pot Holes
the side of the head of the rails
- Patches
c. Tightening of joints and fittings

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d. Use of special alloy rails where wear is - Scour around and under piers and
more abutments should be removed
e. Renewal of rails - Sealing, patching, filling joints and such.
- Checking of steel cables for corrosion.
BRIDGES AND TUNNELS
- Checking of supports
o Bridge is a structure to cross an open space or
gap. Bridges are mostly made for crossing PORTS AND SHIP CANALS
rivers, valleys, or roads. o A port is a maritime facility which may
o While a tunnel is an underground passageway, comprise one or more wharves where ships
dug through the surrounding soil/earth/rock may dock to load and discharge passengers
and enclosed except for entrance and exit, and cargo. Although usually situated on a sea
commonly at each end. coast, some ports can be miles inland, with
1. BRIDGE AND TUNNELS FAILURE CAUSES access to the sea via river or canal
- High variation in ambient temperature o A ship canal is a canal especially intended to
- Uncontrolled heavy axle loads. accommodate ships used on the oceans, seas
- Inadequate Stability or lakes to which it is connected, as opposed to
- Effect of seawater/water especially to a barge canal intended to carry barges and
the bridge columns other vessels specifically designed for river
- Inadequate ground Investigation and/or canal navigation.
- Poor Design and Fabrication 1. PORTS AND SHIP CANAL FAILURE CAUSES
- Congestion of Vehicles - Poor Design and Fabrication
- Environmental Hazard (Flood, - High variation in ambient temperature
Earthquake, Tsunami etc.) - Effect of seawater to the construction
- Accidents (Car crash, Boat Crash, Train materials
Crash etc.) - Severe Corrosion
- Inadequate Support method of - Congestion of Ships
excavation - Environmental Hazard (Flood,
2. TYPE OF BRIDGE AND TUNNEL FAILURES Earthquake, Tsunami etc.)
a. STEEL MATERIALS - Accidents (Boat Crash)
- Corrosion of steel - Poor Maintenance
- Paint Deterioration 2. TYPE OF PORT AND SHIP CANAL FAILURES
- Loose Connections a. Material Deterioration
b. CONCRETE MATERIAL b. Damage of Components
- Collapse c. Scouring
- Spalling d. Sedimentation
- Wear/Abrasion e. Collapsing of wharf / Settlement of
- Material Deterioration Foundation
- Surface Defect 3. PORT AND SHIP CANAL MAINTENANCE AND
- Delamination REHABILITATION INCLUDES
- Water Leak at Deck - Steel repair and painting
c. EXPANSION JOINT - Implementation of coatings for
- Abnormal Spacing corrosion protection
- Difference in Level - Epoxy injection into small Cracks on
- Rupture deck and supported beams
- Drainage Blocked - Removal of plastered concrete and
d. DRAINPIPE cleaning of surface
3. BRIDGE AND TUNNEL MAINTENANCE AND - Subject rebars replacement and re-
REHABILITATION INCLUDES concreting of damage section
- Exposed steel work must be cleaned - Placement of anti-scouring devices.
and repainted
AIRPORT RUNWAYS
- Cleaning and resealing of Deck joint
o A complex of runways and buildings for the
- Damage to guard rail, must be repaired
take-off, landing, and maintenance of civil
and strengthened
aircraft, with facilities for passengers.
- Resurfacing of deck
1. AIRPORT RUNWAY FAILURE CAUSES
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- Poor Design and Fabrication - Repair of pavement edge damage
- High variation in ambient temperature - Edge repair
- Degradation - Corner repair
- Congestion of Aircrafts - Repair of other pavement surface
- Environmental Hazard (Flood, deficiencies
Earthquake, Tsunami, Bird Strike etc.) E. Sweeping
- Accidents (Boat Crash) - Purpose of sweeping
- Poor Maintenance - Surface monitoring
2. TYPE OF AIRPORT RUNWAY FAILURES - Cleaning of surfaces
a. Cracking - Purpose of cleaning pavements
b. Surface Deformation - Removal of rubber deposits
c. Disintegration - Fuel and oil removal
d. Surface defects F. Removal of Snow and Ice
e. Rubber deposits - Procedures for snow removal
3. AIRPORT RUNWAY MAINTENANCE AND - Surface de-icing
REHABILITATION INCLUDES - Surface anti-icing
o Airport maintenance means any work carried G. Drainage
out to keep airports runways excellent - Cleaning of slot drains
condition, keep their operations running - Drain pipes or culverts between
smoothly and meet the high safety standards surfaces and collector basins
A. Maintenance of Visual Aids - Oil and fuel separators
- Airport Light maintenance - Water hydrants
- Basic maintenance programmed for H. Maintenance of Unpaved Area
approach, runway and taxi way lighting - Maintenance of green areas within
systems strips
- Special types of lights - Maintenance of grass on unpaved
- Cleaning procedures for lights runways and taxiways
- Light measurement - Maintenance of green areas outside
- Lamp replacement strips
B. Signs - Treatment of cut grass
- Markings
C. Maintenance of Airport Electrical Systems
- Power cables and distributors in field LESSON 7: TRAFFIC FLOW
- Transformers and regulators (including FUNDAMENTALS
standby units)
- Transformer stations for electric power INTRODUCTION TO TRAFFIC ANALYSIS

supply
TRAFFIC ANALYSIS
- Relay and switch cabinets (including
o Provides basis in measuring the operating
switch cabinets in sub-stations)
performance of the highway
- Control cables, monitoring units, control
o Primary function of a highway system is
desk
providing high level of transportation service
- Secondary power supplies (generators)
(LOS) and safety
- Fixed 400 Hz ground power supplies
1. VARIOYS DIMENSIONS USED IN TRAFFIC
- Apron floodlighting
ANALYSIS
D. Maintenance of Pavements
o Number of vehicles per unit time (traffic
- Surface repair
volume)
- Repair of cracks
o Vehicle types and speeds
- Portland cement concrete pavements
o Variation in traffic volumes over time (e.g. Peak
- Bituminous pavements
Hour)
- Repair of joints and cracks
2. OTHER DIMENSIONS THAT INFLUENCED
- Joints in concrete pavements
TRAFFIC OPERATIONS
- Concrete joint maintenance
o Traffic control device (i.e., traffic signals, signs
- Joints in bituminous pavements
and markings)

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o Types of pavements and geometric design SPACING
o Selection of the number of lanes o Spacing is the distance between two vehicles
3. MOST USED NUMERICAL DIMENSIONS OF measure from the front bumper of a vehicle to
TRAFFIC FLOW that of another.
o Speed (km/hr)
o Flow/Flowrate/Volume (veh/hr)
o Density (veh/km)
TIME OCCUPANCY
FLOW RATE OR VOLUME o It can only be measure, however, if a detector is
o Flow rate is defined as the number of vehicles installed at a specific point on the carriageway.
passing a point during a specified period of It is defined as the total time of a detector is
time occupied divided by the total time of
observation.

RELATIONSHIP OF FLOW, SPEED, AND

DENSITY
SPEED o A relationship exists among the three most
o Speed is defined as the rate of motion in
important traffic variables: flow rate, space
distance per unit time.
mean speed, and density. A dimensional
o When describing traffic stream, 2 types of
analysis of the units will show that flow rate
speed are used:
(veh/hr) is simply the product of density
1. Time Mean Speed / Spot Speed
(veh/km) and space mean speed (km/hr), or
- Simply the arithmetic means of the
speeds of vehicles passing a point
within a given interval of time
o As mentioned earlier, density is the most
difficult variable to measure. It can be obtained
indirectly using this relation.
2. Space Mean Speed / Harmonic Mean
Speed
- is used to describe the rate of
movement of a traffic stream within a
given section of road. It is the speed
based on the average travel time of
vehicles in the stream within the section.

SPEED – DENSITY RELATIONS

DENSITY
o Density is defined as the number of vehicles in
a given length of road at an instant point in
time.

VOLUME – DENSITY RELATIONS /

VOLUME – SPEED RELATION
TIME HEADWAY
o Time Headway defined as the time interval
between passage of consecutive vehicles at a
specified point on the road with a unit of time
per vehicles.

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POISSON DISTRIBUTION MODELS o The provision of parking facilities is therefore an
essential element of the highway mode of
transportation. The need for parking spaces is
usually very great in areas where land uses
include business, residential, or commercial
activities
o Parking studies are therefore used to determine
the demand for and the supply of parking
facilities in an area, the projection of the
demand, and the views of various interest
groups on how best to solve the problem.

TYPE OF PARKING FACILITIES

1. On-Street Parking Facilities - These are
also known as curb facilities. Parking bays
are provided alongside the curb on one or
both sides of the street. These bays can be
unrestricted parking facilities if the duration
of parking is unlimited and parking is free,
or they can be restricted parking facilities if
ORIGIN-DESTINATION SURVEY
o The O-D survey asks questions about each trip parking is limited to specific times of the

that is made on a specific day and about the day for a maximum duration. Parking at

person making the trip—age, sex, income, restricted facilities may or may not be free.

vehicle owner, and so on. Restricted facilities also may be provided for

o The O-D survey may be completed as a home specific purposes, such as to provide

interview, or people may be asked questions handicapped parking or as bus stops or

Sometimes, the information is requested by loading bays.

telephone or by return postcard. O-D surveys 2. Off-Street Parking Facilities - These

are rarely completed in communities where facilities may be privately or publicly

these data have been previously collected. owned; they include surface lots and

o O-D data are compared with other sources to garages. Self-parking garages require that

ensure the accuracy and consistency of the drivers park their own automobiles;

results. If the screen line crossings are attendant parking garages maintain

significantly different from those produced by personnel to park the automobiles.

the data, it is possible to adjust in the O-D DEFINITION OF TERMS

results so that conformance with the actual o Space-hour - is a unit of parking that defines
conditions is assured. Following the O-D the use of a single parking space for a period of
checking procedure, a set of trip tables is 1 hour.
prepared that shows the number of trips o Parking Volume - is the total number of
between each zone in the study area. vehicles that park in a study area during a
specific length of time, usually a day.
TRAVEL SURVEY
o It is conducted to establish a complete o Parking Accumulation - is the number of

understanding of the travel patterns within the parked vehicles in a study area at any specified

study area. time. These data can be plotted as a curve of

o For single projects (such as a highway project), parking accumulation against time, which

it may be sufficient to use traffic counts on shows the variation of the parking

existing roads or (for transit) counts of accumulation during the day.

passengers riding the present system. o Parking Load - is the area under the

o However, to understand why people travel and accumulation curve between two specific

where they wish to go, origin-destination (O-D) times. It is usually given as the number of

survey data can be useful. space-hours used during the specified period
of time.
PARKING STUDIES o Parking Duration - is the length of time a
vehicle is parked at a parking bay. When the
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parking duration is given as an average, it gives of parking and peak periods of parking
an indication of how frequently a parking space demand
becomes available. o Turnover and Duration - Information on
o Parking Turnover - is the rate of use of a turnover and duration is usually obtained by
parking space. It is obtained by dividing the collecting data on a sample of parking spaces
in each block. This is done by recording the
parking volume for a specified period by the
license plate of the vehicle parked on each
number of parking spaces.
parking space in the sample at the ends of fixed
METHODOLOGY OF PARKING STUDIES intervals during the study period. The length of
o A comprehensive parking study usually the fixed intervals depends on the maximum
involves: permissible duration.
1. inventory of existing parking facilities
2. collection of data on parking accumulation,
parking turnover and parking duration IDENTIFICATION OF PARKING
3. identification of parking generators GENERATORS
4. collection of information on parking o This phase involves identifying parking
demand. generators (for example, shopping centers or
o Information on related factors, such as transit terminals) and locating these on a map
financial, legal, and administrative matters, of the study area.
also may be collected. o PARKING DEMAND - Information on parking
INVENTORY OF EXISTING PARKING demand is obtained by interviewing drivers at
FACILITIES the various parking facilities listed during the
o An inventory of existing parking facilities is a inventory. An effort should be made to interview
detailed listing of the location and all other all drivers using the parking facilities on a
relevant characteristics of each legal parking typical weekday between 8:00 a.m. and 10:00
facility, private and public, in the study area. p.m. Information sought should include: trip
The inventory includes both on- and off- origin, purpose of trip, and driver’s
street facilities. destination after parking. The interviewer
o The relevant characteristics usually listed must also note the location of the parking
o include the following: facility, times of arrival and departure, and the
1. Type and number of parking spaces at vehicle type.
each parking facility ANALYSIS OF PARKING DATA
2. Times of operation and limit on duration of o Analysis of parking data includes summarizing,
parking, if any coding, and interpreting the data so that the
3. Type of ownership (private or public) relevant information required for decision
4. Parking fees, if any, and method of making can be obtained.
collection o The relevant information includes the
5. Restrictions on use (open or closed to the following:
public) 1. Number and duration for vehicles legally
6. Other restrictions, if any (such as loading parked
and unloading zones, bus stops, or taxi 2. Number and duration for vehicles illegally
ranks) parked
7. Probable degree of permanency (can the 3. Space-hours of demand for parking
facility be regarded as permanent or is it 4. Supply of parking facilities
just a temporary facility?) o The analysis required to obtain information on
o The inventory should be updated at regular the first two items is straightforward; it usually
intervals of about four to five years involves simple arithmetical and statistical
COLLECTION OF PARKING DATA calculations. Data obtained from these items
o Accumulation - Accumulation data are are then used to determine parking space-
obtained by checking the amount of parking hours.
during regular intervals on different days of the o The space-hours of demand for parking are
week. The checks are usually carried out on an obtained from the expression
hourly or 2-hour basis between 6:00 a.m. and 12
midnight. The selection of the times depends
on the operation times of land-use activities
that act as parking generators. The information o The space-hours of supply for parking are
obtained is used to determine hourly variations obtained from the expression

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inadequate length of storage lane for left
vehicles often causes blockage of the through
traffic.
o The efficiency factor f - is used to correct for o Main traffic flow should be near straight as
time lost in each turnover. It is determined on possible. Sharp turns, such as left and right
the basis of the best performance a parking turns, cause unnecessary reduction in traffic
facility is expected to produce. speeds.
o Efficiency factors for curb parking, during highest o Roads should not intersect at a small angle.
demand, vary from 78 percent to 96 percent; for Oblique intersections pose potential hazards
surface lots and garages, from 75 percent to 92
and cause high severity of accidents due to the
percent. Average values of f are 90 percent for curb
almost head-to-head collision of vehicles. An
parking, 80 percent for garages, and 85 percent for
surface lots. angle of 60 degrees must be considered as the
INTERSECTION DESIGN minimum.
o Intersections play an important role in any o Two intersections should be as far as possible
network system. They are the points where from each other. In addition to the reason cited
traffic flow converges and where direction of in (2), adequate weaving sections may not be
travel changes. Intersections may be provided. As a rule of thumb, the distance
categorized according to shape, type of between the two intersections must be
structure, and type of operation. distance = design speed (kph) x number of lanes
1. SHAPE - This refers to the configuration of x2
the intersection and would depend largely INTERSECTION DESIGN ELEMENTS
on the number of legs. 1. TURNING GEOMETRY
a. Three-leg: T or Y - The principal purpose of an intersection
b. Multileg: intersections with more than is to provide change in the direction of
four legs travel. As a vehicle approaches an
c. Four-leg: normal crossing, oblique or intersection, the driver has to decide
skewed/staggered whether to go straight or to turn to left or
d. Rotary or roundabout right. For turning movements, a number
2. TYPE OF STRUCTURE - Most of the of turning geometries may be
intersections are either designed as at- considered, the most direct of which is
grade intersection or grade separation highly preferred:
such as flyovers or interchanges. Almost all a. Direct
intersections are initially designed at- b. Indirect
grade and are planned to be grade- c. Semidirect
separated in the future to cope with high d. Trumpet
traffic volume. The type of grade separation e. Cloverleaf
depends largely on the extend of
improvement it would provide in terms of
easing congestion or reducing traffic
accidents.
3. TYPE OF OPERATION - Rules and regulations
applied to a given intersection depend
largely on the type of control which is in
operation at that intersection. An
intersection operates as unchannelized or
o For the left turn storage bay, the
channelized, and unsignalized or
recommended length is = 2 x no. of left turners
signalized. Channelization often leads to
in one cycle x spacing in queue
simplified movements of vehicles as it
o The spacing in queue may range from 6.0 m
leads drivers to one conflict at a time. On
to 7.0 m, depending on the type of vehicles
the other hand, signalization greatly
using the intersection.
crossing conflicts at the intersection area.
o A factor of 2 is used to take into account
BASIC INTERSECTION DESIGN PRINCIPLES
randomness of traffic flow.
o The maximum number of legs should be four.
It has been shown that the number of conflicts
increases exponentially as the number of
intersection legs increases.
o Staggered intersections should be avoided.
Due to proximity of the two side roads,
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1. STRUCTURE OF MAJOR ROAD TRAFFIC

o The number of lanes for through, right, and left

turn vehicles would depend on traffic volume,
saturation flow rates, a simple circular curve
may be adequate for the design of the
intersection corners and the turning roadway.
o However, simple curve may not be enough for
large intersections. The most common type of
geometry for these intersections is the three 2. CRITICAL GAP
centered curve - The source of capacity of the minor
METHODS OF CONTROL OF road flows is the available gaps
INTERSECTIONS between major road flows. The critical
o Conflicts often occur at intersections. The more gap used to describe the minimum
the number of legs an intersection has, the gaps needed by drivers of minor road
more the number of conflicts it has.
vehicles. Values of critical gaps are
o CONFLICTS may be classified as merging,
given in the table for different vehicle
diverging, or crossing conflicts. Most of the
maneuvers, speed limits, and highway
problems at intersections, like congestion and
type.
accidents, are caused by crossing conflicts.
3. CAPACITY
- In the estimation of capacity of the
minor road flow, the basic capacity is
initially determined.
- The basic capacity is the maximum
minor road flow, assuming that the
following conditions are true:
a. The traffic on the major road Mh does not
block the major road.
b. A turning lane is provided for the exclusive
use of the minor road traffic stream.
o Depending on the traffic volume using the
- If these conditions are not met,
intersection and the severity of conflicts,
correction factors have to be implied
intersection control may fall under any of the
based on the following considerations:
following categories:
a. Congestion on the major road
a. Unsignalized
b. Shared lanes
b. Signalized
c. Passenger Car Equivalents
c. Grade separation
d. Reserve Capacity
ANALYSIS OF UNSIGNALIZED
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF
INTERSECTIONS
ROUNDABOUTS OR ROTONDAS
o The method calculates the maximum flow in
o Roundabout with large central island is known
any given minor road traffic stream. It is them
to operate better as they provide ample
compared with the existing traffic flow to
weaving sections that normally dictate the
estimate the reserve capacity. The probable
capacity of the intersection.
delay and level of service are.
o The method requires that the traffic
o ELEMENTS:
a. Central Island
movements be dealt with in the following order:
b. Directional Island
a. Right turns into the major road
c. Width of Pavement
b. Left turns off the major road
d. Length of Weaving Section
c. Traffic crossing the major road o -
d. Left turns into the major road o For the analysis and design of roundabouts,
British practice will be discussed in this section

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(Salter 1976). The focus is the capacity of the
weaving section, which is given by the equation

Where:
w – the width of the weaving section in
meters
e – the average width of entries to the
weaving section in meters;
l – the length of the weaving section
o The capacity formula is valid under the
following conditions, although there is no
reason to believe that the formula does not
hold if any variable lies a little outside the
values given:

o The design of roundabouts is usually done by

trial and error. Weaving width and length are
assumed and then checked for adequacy of
capacity. As roundabouts have a tendency to
lock when overloaded, it is important that they
have adequate reserve capacity

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