AN INTRODUCTION TO

HIGHWAYS DESIGN
DESIGN STANDARDS

• Standards have been developed as guide in

the design of highways and to ensure that
motorist’s convenience, environmental safety
and aesthetic considerations are
implemented in the most economical
manner consistent with highway service
conditions. Design Policies and Standards
generally represent minimum values.
ROLE OF THE DESIGNER

• A highway engineer’s concern is to design

roads that would adequately handle
expected traffic, and ensure that roads are
safe and pleasant to drive on.
EFFECTS OF POOR HIGHWAY DESIGN
 TOPIC OUTLINE

1. BASIC HIGHWAY DESIGN DATA

2. GEOMETRIC DESIGN
3. PAVEMENT DESIGN
4. DRAINAGE DESIGN
5. SLOPE PROTECTION DESIGN
BASIC HIGHWAY
DESIGN DATA
 1. BASIC HIGHWAY DESIGN DATA

A. Field Survey Information

B. Soil Investigation
C. Existing Pavement Condition
D. Drainage Recommendation
E. Design Controls
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
 2. GEOMETRIC DESIGN

• Embraces the grade line, alignment and

the width of the several component parts
including intersections and roadside
facilities.
 2. GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Geometric Design consists of the ff:

• Alignment (Horizontal -Plan)

• Grade line (Vertical -Profile)

• Width (Cross-Section-carriageway,
intersections, and roadside facilities)
 2. GEOMETRIC DESIGN

• Embraces the grade line, alignment and

the width of the several component parts
including intersections and roadside
facilities.
 2. GEOMETRIC DESIGN

BASIC DATA REQUIRED

A. Traffic Density
B. Character of Traffic
C. Design Speed
 2. GEOMETRIC DESIGN
DETERMINING THE NUMBER OF LANES

• Selection of number of lanes is

determined by the level of service at
which the road is expected/desired to
operate

• Level of service is qualitatively

measurement to determine the quality
of vehicle traffic using the v/c ratio
(volume to capacity ratio)
2. GEOMETRIC DESIGN
2. GEOMETRIC DESIGN
 2. GEOMETRIC DESIGN
DESIGN SPEED
• Design speed must be maintained all
throughout the highway whenever possible

• If terrain condition or obstructions do not

allow it, design speed may be reduced by
10 to 20 kphat adjacent sections.

• Sets the limiting values for sight distance,

curvatures, maximum grades, width among
others
 2. GEOMETRIC DESIGN
SPEED IMPLICATIONS
• At higher running speeds a rider or
driver has less time to react to a
situation and therefore there is the
likelihood that an error will result in a
crash;

• Momentum and kinetic energy of a vehicle

increases rapidly with speed
– The sudden dissipation of this energy in a crash
means that the injury to occupants is more
severe
 2. GEOMETRIC DESIGN
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DESIGN
OF A NEW HIGHWAY OR REDESIGN OF
AN OLD HIGHWAY
A. Environment –minimum effect to the
environment
B. Safety-provided with necessary roadside
treatment, and road safety control devices
C. Construction Methodology –simple as
possible from the standpoint of the builder
D. Maintenance–least/reasonable cost
 2. GEOMETRIC DESIGN
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DESIGN
OF A NEW HIGHWAY OR REDESIGN OF
AN OLD HIGHWAY
E. Motorists’ Convenience - Suitable to traffic
volume; safe for driving and ensure
confidence for motorists
F. Minimum hazard - Consistent and must
avoid surprise changes in alignment, grade
line, and sight distance
G. Aesthetics - Pleasing to the user and to
those who live along it
 2. GEOMETRIC DESIGN

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
A. Sight Distance
B. Horizontal Alignment
C. Vertical Alignment
D. Cross Sections
 A. SIGHT DISTANCE

• The distance at which a driver of a vehicle

can see an object ahead of time.
 A. SIGHT DISTANCE

SIGHT DISTANCE ON VERTICAL CURVES

 A. SIGHT DISTANCE

CRITERIA FOR MEASURING SIGHT DISTANCE

Height of Driver’s Eye
= 1.080 m (for passenger cars)
= 2.330 m (for large trucks)
Height of Object
= 600 mm (for stopping)
= 1080 mm (for passing)
 A. SIGHT DISTANCE

SIGHT DISTANCE ON HORIZONTAL CURVES

 A. SIGHT DISTANCE

TYPES OF SIGHT DISTANCE

1. Stopping (Non-Passing)
2. Passing
3. Decision
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
- Available distance on a roadway to
enable a vehicle traveling at the
design speed to stop before reaching
a stationary object
- It is the sum of the break reaction and
braking distances.
D = 0.278tv + v2/254f (on-level )
D = 0.278tv + v2/254(f+G)(on-grade)
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
- Distance required for a driver to see a sufficient
object to complete the passing maneuver without
cutting off the passed vehicle in advance of
meeting an opposing vehicle appearing during
maneuver

D = D1 + D2 + D3 +D4
D1 = 0.278t1 [V-m + a(t1)/2]
D2 = 0.278Vt2
D3 = variance between 30 and 75 m
D4 = 2/3 of D2
 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
• t1 = time of initial maneuver, in second (2.25- 2.37)
• a = average acceleration, km/h/s (3.70 – 4.3)
• v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/hr (56.2
– 84.50)
• m = diff. in speed of passed vehicle and passing
vehicle, km/hr
• t2 = 9.30 – 10.4 seconds (time passing vehicle
occupies the left lane)
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
Assumptions for PSD
1. The overtaken vehicle travels at a uniform speed
(slower than design speed)
2. The passing vehicle trails the overtaken vehicle as it
enters a passing section
3. The driver requires a short period of time to perceive
whether a clear passing section is available and to start
maneuvering
4. The passing vehicle accelerates during the maneuver,
during the occupancy of the left lane, at about 16
kphhigher than the overtaken vehicle.
5. There is a suitable clearance length between the
passing vehicle and the oncoming vehicle
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE
- Distance required for a driver to initiate and
complete safely and efficiently the maneuver
of an unexpected or otherwise difficult-to-
perceive information source or hazard.
- It is substantially greater than the stopping
sight distance.
DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE
DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE
 B. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

MAJOR DESIGN CONSIDERATION

a) safety
b) grade profile
c) type of facility
d) design speed
e) topography
f) construction cost
 B. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

DESIGN ELEMENTS

a)Radius of Curve
b)Length of Curve
c)Superelevation
d)Widening on Curves
e)General Controls
 RADIUS OF CURVE

“The combination of design speed and

maximum superelevation controls the
maximum degree of curvature.”

MINIMUM DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

Minimum Radius is 30m for a design speed of
30kph and superelevation, e=6%-8%.
RADIUS OF CURVE

LC = 20 I/D
D = 1145.916/R
T = R tan I/2
E = T tan I/4
Desirably, the minimum
length of horizontal curve
on main highways should
be about 3x the design
speed.
 SUPERELEVATION

- The tilting of roadway to help

offset centripetal forces
developed as the vehicle goes
around a curve. Along with
friction they are what keeps a
vehicle from going off the road.
SUPERELEVATION
Superelevation
SUPERELEVATION
SUPERELEVATION
 WIDENING ON CURVES

“The objective of widening

along horizontal curve is to
make operating conditions on
curves comparable to those
on tangents.”

“Widening on curves facilitates

OFFTRACKING.”
 WIDENING ON CURVES

PRINCIPAL POINTS OF CONCERN:

a) On simple curves, widening should be applied
on the inside edge only.
b) On curve design with spiral, widening may be
placed on the inside or divided equally
between the inside and outside curve.
c) Curve widening should be attained gradually
over a length sufficient to make the whole of
the traveled way fully usable.
d) Recommended minimum width of widening is
0.60m.
WIDENING ON CURVES
WIDENING ON CURVES
 GENERAL CONTROLS

• Alignment should be as directional as possible but should

be consistent with the topography and with preserving
developed properties.

• Alignment should be consistent and sharp curves should

not be introduced at the end of long tangents.

• For small deflection angle, curves should be sufficiently

long to avoid the appearance of “KINK”.

• Tangents or flat curvature should be used on high, long

fills.
 GENERAL CONTROLS

• Caution should be exercised in the use of compound

curve. Where topography or RROW restrictions make
their use necessary, the radius of the flatter curve should
not be more than 50 % greater than the radius of the
sharper curve.

• Any abrupt reversal in alignment should be avoided. The

reversion length of tangent between reversed curves
should be 50m and in no case should be less than 30m.
 GENERAL CONTROLS

• The “broken-back” or “flat-back” arrangement of curve

(having a short tangent between two curves in the same
direction) should be avoided except when very unusual
topographical or R-O-W dictate otherwise.

• To avoid the appearance of inconsistent distortion, the

horizontal alignment should be coordinated carefully with
the profile design.

• Ending a curve on a bridge is undesirable, unsightly and

adds needless complications to design and construction.
C. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
 C. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

MAJOR DESIGN CONSIDERATION

a) Gradient
b) Critical Length of Upgrades
c) Vertical Curves
d) General Control
 GRADIENT

“For economy of vehicle operation, grades should be as

flat as possible.”
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS:

• a. In areas subject to inundation, grades should be

established 0.50m above water level.
• Grades of bridges should allow 1.50m freeboard
above the maximum flood water elevation.
• Maximum grade widely used is 6%
• On through cut sections, grades should at least be
0.50% to provide longitudinal drainage.
• A minimum of 0.35% may be used on high type
 CRITICAL LENGTH OF UPGRADE

“The term “critical length of grade” is used to

indicate the maximum length of a designated
upgrade on which a loaded truck can operate
without an unreasonable reduction in speed.”
Critical Length Upgrade
(m) (%)
The following critical length of
upgrades when approached by 500 3
a level section should not be 340 4
used as a control but should
be referred to as a guide: 240 5
200 6
170 7
150 8
VERTICAL CURVE
VERTICAL CURVE
 VERTICAL CURVE

PARABOLIC
VERTICAL CURVE

“The minimum requirement of vertical curve length is 60m”.

VERTICAL CURVE
 GENERAL CONTROLS

• A smooth grade line with gradual changes should be

sought for in preference to a line with numerous
breaks /short length of grades.

• The ‘roller coaster” or the hidden-dip type of profile

should be avoided.

• A “broken-back” grade line should be avoided.

 GENERAL CONTROLS

• A smooth grade line with gradual changes should be

sought for in preference to a line with numerous
breaks /short length of grades.

• The ‘roller coaster” or the hidden-dip type of profile

should be avoided.

• A “broken-back” grade line should be avoided.

 GENERAL CONTROLS

• On long grades, it may preferable to place the

steepest grades at the bottom and flatter the grades
near the top of the ascent.

• Where at-grade intersections occur on roadway

sectors with moderate to steep grades, it is desirable
to reduce the grades through the intersection.

• Sag vertical curves should be avoided in cuts unless

adequate drainage can be provided.
D. CROSS-SECTIONS
 D. CROSS-SECTIONS

Cross Section Elements

a) Pavement
i. Surface Type
ii. Cross Slope
b) Lane Width
c) Shoulders
 PAVEMENT

Surface Type, selection is based on:

• Traffic Volume and Composition
• Soil Characteristics
• Weather
• Performance of Existing Pavements
• Availability of Materials
• Energy Conservation
• Initial Cost, and
• Overall Annual Maintenance Cost
 PAVEMENT

Cross-Slope
Surface Type Cross Slope Rating
High 1.50 – 2.0%
Intermediate 2.0 – 3.0%
Low 3.0 – 4.0%

For multilane highway, the two lanes adjacent to the crown line
should be pitched at the normal minimum slope, and on each
successive pair of lanes or portion thereof outward, the rate may be
increased by about 0.50 to 1%.
 LANE WIDTH

• Width of pavement is determined by

the lane width.
• Desirable lane width is 3.65m which
allows large vehicles to pass without
either vehicle having to move
sideways towards the edge of
pavement.
• Lane width as low as 2.75m may be
used on grounds of economy.
 LANE WIDTH

• Roads with pavement widths less than

5.5m should be regarded as single
lane.
• Pavement width greater than 7.32m
for 2-way movement is not
recommended for 2-lane roads as
some drivers will attempt to travel
three vehicles abreast on wide
pavement
 SHOULDER

• Shoulders on fill preferably should be

wider than in cuts although the
present practice is to make them
equal.
• Regardless of the width, shoulders
should be continuous.
 SHOULDER

• Although, it is desirable that shoulder

be wide enough for a vehicle to be
driven completely off the travel way,
narrower shoulders are better than
none at all.
• Shoulder width of 0.60m may be
considered on difficult terrain and on
low-volume highway.
TYPICAL ROADWAY SECTION
 II – DRAINAGE DESIGN

• Planning and design of drainage facilities should always

be preceded by accurate field surveys. A field survey
should be conducted to have a clearer picture of the
topographical features of the project area than what
could be supplied by pertinent topographic maps. When
the survey is intended for the slope or subsurface
drainage , special attention should be given to
landslides, slope failure, erosion, ground cover, etc..
 II - DRAINAGE DESIGN

2.1. CLASSIFICATION OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM

A. Surface Drainage System
Refers to removal of water running the surface, the
water coming as precipitation in the form of rainwater.
B. Underground Drainage System
It should be installed under the shoulder of the cut
section to prevent the seepage water from penetrating
into the subgrade and)or to lower the water table, in
principle
SURFACE DRAINAGE

STORM DRAIN – CURB AND GUTTER

UNDERGROUND DRAINAGE

STORM DRAIN – CURB AND GUTTER

LINE DITCH / TRAPEZOIDAL CANAL
UNDERGROUND DRAINAGE

CROSS DRAINAGE - RCPC

II- DESIGN DRAINAGE
BOX CULVERT
II- DESIGN DRAINAGE
 POOR
GEOMETRIC
DESIGN
 Horizontal Alignment
POOR COMBINATION OF SMALL
RADII
 Horizontal Alignment
EXAMPLE OF POOR SITUATIONS
HORIZONTAL CURVE AT THE END OF A STEEP
DOWNGRADE
 Vertical Alignment
EXAMPLE OF POOR SITUATIONS - POOR
VERTICAL SAG
 Horizontal Alignment
ABRUPT REVERSAL IN ALIGNMENT
Combination of Horizontal &
Vertical Alignment

Where does the road go?

 Combination of Horizontal &
Vertical Alignment

CURVE IS JUST OVER THE CREST.

IT SHOULD START PRIOR TO THE CREST.
 Sight Distance
VEGETATION CAN SOMETIMES HIDE THE ALIGNMENT.
VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL
ALIGNMENT COORDINATION

V
V
VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL
ALIGNMENT COORDINATION

P
END
Thank You!