Pavement Design

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PAVEMENT DESIGN Highway in the Profile View

2 primary categories of service are - Vertical Curves


provided by roadways or roadway - Grades
systems: - Vertical Sight Distance
1. Accessibility – direct connection to - Adequate Drainage
abutting lands and land uses ; curb - Comfort and aesthetics
parking, driveway access to off-street 3. Cross-Section Elements - Cut
parking, bus stops, taxi bays, loading across the plane of the Highway
zones - Lane Widths, superelevation,
2. Mobility- Movement of people, goods medians, shoulders, drainage,
& vehicles from point A to point B embankments, etc…
; allows driver/passenger/goods to
depart the transport vehicle to enter
a particular land use

- Transportation Engineer concerns


w/ specific design aspects that provides
good access
- Specific designs tend to delay or
impede w/ movement/mobility -Roadway
Systems are developed in a hierarchical Superelevation of Horizontal Curves
manner: Arterials to local - Most Highways: Elevated/banked to
assist drivers in resisting the effects
Highway design Elements of Centripetal Force
- complex physical structures - (e.g.
aggregate pavements, drainage structure e is quantified as a percentage
and bridge structure) Three main
elements that define the geometry of a
highway section
1. Horizontal Alignment - Plan View
Two Factors that keep the moving
- Tangent Sections
vehicles on the Road
- Horizontal Curves
1. Friction between the tires and the
- Transition Elements
pavement
- Horizontal Sight Distance
2. Vertical Alignment - Design of
2. Horizontal element provided by AASHTO recommended superelevation
elevation rates 4% to 12%
- 12% is the maximum superelevation
Centrifugal Force rate in use
- >12% = uncomfortable
- Urban Areas = 4% to 6%
- Low Speeds Areas = No need for
Superelevation

HIGHWAY AND CROSS-SECTION


- Provision of adequate space for all road
users

Paved Travel Lanes - provides space for


moving vehicles to occupy during normal
operations
W= Weight u= Velocity g=
- Standard size = 12ft (3.6m)
acceleration due to gravity
- As per DPWH, 3.35m to 3.65m (ADT >
R= Radius (Curved Road)
2000)
- When warranted/available road space;
lane is added for vulnerable road users
(Bike lane)

Simplified to: Shoulders


- Width is selected according to traffic
volume
- ADT < 100 ; no shoulders needed

If g=9.81m/s² ; u= km/hr we can say:


Shoulder Paving is a valuable method of
providing:
1. Integrity on the pavement
2. Width to place edgeline pavement
markings
3. Additional safety to prevent vehicle Drainage
skidding or drivers losing control In - Longitudinal Drainage Ditches ate
gravel essential part of road (not on fill
4. Low maintenance cost compared but must be incorporated into the
to unpaved shoulder road cross section)
- Designed to accommodate the
Functions expected rainfall, but hazardous to
1. Refuge for stalled/temporary vehicles that run-off the road
stopped Vehicles - It is desirable that open ditches

2. Buffer for accident recovery are concreted and provided w/

3. Driving ease and driver confidence fitted precast cover (effect: road

4. Increasing horizontal sight clear zone extended/ sidewalk for

Distance pedestrians)

5. Improving capacity and operations Overtaking Lanes


on most Highways - Provide positive overtaking opportunities
6. Space for snow removal and sometimes the only real chance for
7. Lateral clearance for signs, overtaking to occur - Desirable layout
guardrails, and other roadside based on start/end of the lane merging
objects location being separated by 3sec

Curb and Gutter Climbing lanes


- Also known as “Kerb” - special form of overtaking lane
- Barrier or mountable and either (provided on inclines)
include a gutter for drainage or - form a part of the network of
curb only overtaking opportunities and have an
effect on decisions associated w/ the loc.
Of other overtaking lanes

Warranted if:
1. Truck Speeds 40kph or less
2. Truck speeds reduction > 15kph
3. Increase traffic flow rate > 20veh/hr.
4. Increase truck flow rate > 20 veh/hr.
5. Extended grades > 8%
6. LOS E or F exists - Ascending grade ramp Assessing
7. Accidents due to slow moving trucks 8.
Reduction of two or more LOS from the length of ramp:
approach segment to the grade
9. Heavy trucks enter the traffic system

Merging and Diverging Taper


v= entry speed (kph)
- required at the start of an auxiliary lane
a= acceleration g=
(for lateral movement of traffic) -
grade
Diverge: single stream to separate
stream. Length = 1m/s
: a= 3m/s² for 350mm deep gravel;
- Merge: separate stream to single 3.7m/s² for 450mm deep gravel
stream.
Length = 0.60m/s (through traffic lane),
Road Delineation - Guidance for drivers
1.0m/s (acceleration lane)
as they travel along a road is important -
Delineation : ensure adequate guidance
provided to road users
- improving delineation = improving
safety Delineation of roads is provided
w/:
- Pavement markings
1. Center Line
2. Lane Line
3. Edge Line or tactile edge line
Emergency Escape Ramps
4. Other painted markings
- Long steep grades - installed to slow
5. Reflective Pavement Studs (RPS)
or stop an out of control vehicle away
- Signs
from main traffic stream
1. Warning Signs and Indicating
curves, etc.
Four types
2. Hazard markers
- Sand Pile
3. Chevron signs for substandard
- Descending grade ramp
curves
- Horizontal grade
SOIL ENGINEERING FOR
HIGHWAYS
- (Weight-Volume or index Properties of
soils)
- there are times that road will not be
constructed above natural ground, and
embankment must be done -
embankments need to be investigated to
ensure strength and safety

Conditions
AASHTO Soil Classification System
1. Negative GI = 0
- Soils are classified into 7 groups (A-1
to 2. GI rounded off (3.4 = 3) (3.5=4)
A-7) 3. No upper limit for GI
- classification based on Particle Size 4. GI of A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and
Distribution, LL, and PI. A-3 is always 0
- GROUP INDEX FORMULA 5. GI of A-2-6, A-2-7: partial Formula

- GI = nearest Whole number, Soils classified as A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-


negative=0
2-5, and A-3 can be used satisfactorily as
- A-2-6 and A-2-7, LL part not included
subgrade or subbase material if properly
(Formula), only second term of equation
drained. (must be properly compacted &
Granular Soils fall into
covered w/ an adequate thickness of
- A-1 (well graded granular material)
pavement
- A-2 (significant amount of silts and
clays)
Materials Classified as A-2-6, A-2-7, A-4,
- A-3 (clean but poorly graded soils)
A-5, A-6, A-7-5, and A-7-6 will require a
layer of subbase material if used as
In order to proceed w/ AASHTO
subgrade (special attention must be given
classification system Atterberg Limits of
if used as an embankment)
the soil must be determined first

When soils are properly drained and


compacted, their value as subgrade
material decreases as the GI increases.
For example, a soil with a GI of zero (an
indication of a good subgrade material)
will be better as a subgrade material than
one with a GI of 20 (an indication of a
poor subgrade material)

Suitability Number
- Grain-Size distribution of the backfill
controls rate of densification
- Brown (1997) SN formula

- Smaller value of SN = More desirable


backfill
-
0.075mm (No. 200) sieve (AASHTO T 11)
material should have plasticity Index ≤ 6
(AASHTO 90) and liquid limit ≤ 30
(AASHTO T 89)

Highway Embankment - Subgrade


formed by spreading thin layers of
the material and compacting each
layer at or near the optimum
moisture content
- END DUMPING of the material from
trucks is not recommended - thick layers
= strengths within the embankment
FIELD COMPACTION (differential settlements)
- Soil categorized for suitability → - embankment thickness = 15 to 30cm
Compact the subgrade in preparation for (each layer) to 61cm (if lower portion of
paving an embankment consists of large
- Quality control of an embankment boulders)
involves regularly checking the dry
density and moisture content of Field Compaction Equipment

compacted materials, and comparing the Rollers


field density with the lab results to - It applies either a vibrating force or
ensure consistency with the compactive an impact force on the soil
effort - Type of roller depends on the type
of soil to be compacted

Smooth Wheel or Drum Roller


- Applies contact pressure of up to
380kN/m²
DPWH define a suitable material for - Used for finish rolling of subgrade
embankment as: materials and all types of soil
- All particles will pass a sieve with 75mm material except rocky soils
(3in) square openings
- ≤ 15 mass percent will pass the Rubber-tired Roller
-
- Consisting of a heavily loaded Soil Tests for Pavement Design
wagon with rows of 3 to 6 tires
- The pressure in the tires may be California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test -
up to 690kN/m² evaluate the strength of soil subgrades
and base course materials - selecting
- Used for granular and cohesive
pavement and base thicknesses based
materials
on CBR test values - percentage of
stress as soil specimen can resist for a
Sheepsfoot Roller
certain amount of penetration relative to
- Has a drum wheel that can be
the value of stress the value is an
filled with water
indicator of the strength
- Has several protrusions (round or
rectangular) of the soil
- Contact pressure ranges from - the ratio is usually determined for
1380 to 6900 kN/m² (depends on penetration of 2.5 and 5mm (ratio 5mm
size and water (filled or not)) > 2.5mm, 5mm is used)
- conducted on soils immersed in water
for
Unsuitable Embankment Materials
4 days (96hrs)
- Containing detrimental quantities of
organic materials (grass, roots, and -mostly applies to cohesive materials with

sewerage) maximum particles sizes > 19mm (0.75in)

- organic soils (peat and muck) - - most methods: three to five samples are

liquid limit exceeding 80 / plasticity prepared

index exceeding 55 - the samples are positioned in a load


frame and subjected to regulated
- soils with natural content
exceeding penetration loads from a piston with the
100% surface area of 3 in² (1.935mm²)
- very low natural density, 800 kg/m³ - recorded and plotted graphically
or lower
- soils that cannot be properly
compacted
(det. by engr)

P = material resistance, or the unit load on


the piston (pressure) for 2.54 mm (0.10 in)
-
or 5.08 mm (0.20 in) of penetration Ps =
standard unit load (pressure for well
graded crushed stones)
- Ps = 6.89 Mpa (1,000 psi) for
2.54mm penetration
- Ps = 10.34 Mpa (1,500 psi) for
5.08mm penetration

Hveem Stabilometer Test


- Triaxial testing - determine the stability
✔ In most cases, CBR values decreases
of bituminous paving mixtures, soils,
as penetration increases
and other plastic or semi plastic
✔ CBR value is to stress at the 0.10in
materials - originally developed by the
(2.54mm) penetration depth
california division of highways (Francis
✔ Occasionally, the ratio of the 0.20in
Hveem)
(5.08mm) penetration depth is higher than
0.10in depth, and the test must be rerun ✔ to measure the combined effects of

If the check test shows similar results, frequent traffic loads repeated over a long

distress from the 0.20in penetration depth period of time on a given bituminous mix -

is the reported CBR results = maximum amount of bituminous


binder (w/o causing instability)

In flexible pavement, different kinds of - design to test 4” (101.6mm) diameter

players are used to withstand the traffic (ASTM Testing Standards D-1560 and

load D-2844 and AASHTO tests T-190 and

- CBR Value = thickness of layers (esp. T-246)

Base and subgrade materials) - Lower - the test is used to determine the

cbr = higher thickness of layers and vice resistance value R of the soil to the

versa horizontal pressure obtained by


imposing a vertical stress of 160psi
(1100 kPa) - R = used to determine the
pavement thickness above the soil to
carry the estimated traffic load
-
Procedure consist of three phases
1. Determination of the exudation process
2. Determination of the expansion
pressure
3. Determination of the resistance value R
(stabilometer test)

- Four cylindrical samples of 4in (10.0-cm)


diameter and 2.5in (6.25cm) height are
prepared at different moisture contents
(in steel molds)
- kneading the soil = compaction
Procedure (spring support beneath the slab) -
1. A after completion of the expansion pressure per unit deformation of the
test, the sample is put into a flexible sacred at specific pressure or deformation
sleeve placed under Stabilometer 2.
Vertical pressure is applied gradually on
the sample at the speed of 0.5in/min
(0.127cm/min) until pressure of 160psi
k in MPa/m = lb/in² of deflection = lb/in³-pci
(~1100kPa) is attained
- Ranges from about 13.5MPa/m
3. Corresponding horizontal pressure
(50pci) 4 weeks support to
is recorded
270MPa/m (1000pci) for strong
4. Number of turns of the pump
support
required to increase the horizontal
- In situ values can be measured
pressure to 100psi
using the plate bearing test
(689.5 kPa) then recorded

Soil's resistance value is given by

Other formulas (unnecessary)

Model is subgrade reaction (k) = primary


input for rigid pavement design -
Estimates the support of the layers below
a rigid pavement surface course (PCC
slab)
- determined by field test / by correlation
w/ other tests - no direct laboratory
procedure for determining k-value
- Westergaard (1920’s) develop k-vale
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS Sources of Asphalt
- Widely used all over the world in - Natural (either native asphalt or rock
highway asphalt)
construction - native asphalt can be semi liquid or
- hydrocarbons found in natural liquid state
deposits/obtained as a product of the - There are only Five known natural
distillation of crude petroleum - either asphalt deposits in the entire world (3
asphalt or stars used in highway in california, 1 in venezuela)
construction
- Pitch Lake in Trinidad (100 acres,
250 ft deep) (largest)
Bitumen
- Dense, highly viscous petroleum base
- Rock asphalt - grainy crashed
hydrocarbon found in deposits (natural
sandstones or limestone and fortified
bitumen) or obtained as a residue of
with the higher concentration of
distillation of crude oil (refined bitumen) -
bitumen - ideal for highways, high-
often called as asphalt (United states) -
impact and high-volume roads, can
extra heavy oil w/ API gravity < 10⁰ and
withstand all kinds of weather and
viscosity > 10,000 centipoise - at the
weight of heavy vehicles
temperatures normally encountered in
natural deposits, bitumen will not flow
Asphalt materials obtained from the
(must be heated or diluted with lighter
distillation of petroleum are in the form of:
oil)
1. Asphalt cements
2. Slow-curing liquid asphalt
Asphalt
3. Medium-curing liquid asphalts
- Referred as asphalt concrete -
4. Rapid-curing liquid asphalts
Composite material used for highway
5. Asphalt emulsions
repairs and pavement waterproofing -
technically a bitumen with combined
Petroleum Asphalt
aggregates
- bitumen is a key component of
Refining process used to obtain petroleum
asphalt - create an extremely durable,
asphalt
long lasting, and smooth surface
1. Fractional distillation
- Separation of the different materials in
the crude petroleum without significant
changes in the chemical composition of 2. Asphalt cutbacks
each material - Has a cutback bitumen
- petroleum distillates (or solvents) are
2. Destructive distillation (Cracking) added to bitumen to reduce its viscosity
- Application of high temperature and - highly volatile solvent evaporate
pressure resulting in chemical changes - quickly, low volatile solvent evaporates
not used widely in paving (susceptible to slowly
weather changes)
Based on relative speed of the solvent
Fractional distillation only uses heat to fraction’s evaporation, cutback asphalt are
separate the components of crude oil divided into 3 parts
Bituminous Binders 1. Rapid-Curing (RC)
2. Medium-Curing (MC)

Three general groups 3. Slow-Curing (SC)

1. Asphalt cement
- obtained after separation of the 3. Emulsified asphalt - Suspension of

lubricating oils small asphalt cement globules in water

- semi solid hydrocarbons with certain which is assisted by an emulsifying

physicochemical characteristics (good agent

cementing agents) - very viscous - emulsifying agent assists by

(necessary to heat both the aggregates imparting an electrical charge to the

and asphalt cement prior to mixing the surface of the asphalt cement globules

two materials) - grade has been so that they do not coalesce

designated by its penetration and - Emulsions - effectively reduce

viscosity asphalt viscosity for lower temperature

- softest grade : penetration = 200 to 300 ; use - all asphalt emotions are designed

Hardest grade: penetration = 60 to 70 - to eventually break or revert to asphalt

used mainly in the manufacture of hot-mix, and water

hot-laid asphalt concrete Three methods in liquefying asphalts:


1. Heating

Penetration - distance in 0.1mm that a 2. Dissolving in solvents (cutback

standard needle will penetrate a given asphalts)

sample under specific conditions of 3. Emulsifying with water

loading, time, and temperature.


Emulsion (oil and water)
Any ground surface prepared for
Pavement transport (ICE)
- Man - Highway Pavement
made - Overlayed strata of chosen processed
surface on materials that is positioned on the
natural subgrade (in-situ
ground - soil)
- Support of vehicle wheel loads Flexible Pavements - Constructed with
applied to the carriageway and the asphaltic cement and aggregates
distribution of them to the subgrade (several layers)
immediately underneath - Lowest layer is the soil itself
- Road Cut : subgrade consist of in-situ (subgrade)
soil
- constructed on fill: subgrade is the The Subgrade
top layers of the embankment - Natural material located along the
structure - does not become alignment of the pavement
overstressed during the design life of - Foundation of pavement structure
the highway - May also consist of a layer of
selected borrow materials (well
Major variables in the design of a compacted to prescribe
highway pavement (Rogers,2003): specifications)
1. Thickness of each layer in the
pavement
2. Material contained within each
layer
3. Type of vehicles in the traffic
stream
4. Volume of traffic predicted to use
the highway over its design life
5. Strength of the underlying
subgrade soil

The Subbase
Pavement Type
- Quality of subgrade materials
- Flexible pavement
meets the requirement of the subbase
- Rigid pavement
material = subbase component may be
omitted
- Stabilization: treating the available
material to achieve the
necessary/engineering properties
Traffic Control Devices
- Driving is a privilege it is not a right -
There is no such thing as “right to drive”
on the constitution
- No one has more right to the road than
anyone else
- restrictions are for general welfare
Traffic Control - Vehicle
registration - most effective control
- Motor Vehicle Inspection System (MVIS)
of LTO (PER RA 4136) makes sure that
“all motor vehicles operated throughout
the country are roadworthy” - means by
- traffic regulations must be reasonable which broad user is advised as to detailed
and effective requirements or conditions affecting broad
use at specific places and times (x
Effective Traffic Regulations accident/delays)
1. Traffic regulations should be
rational (economic, social and human Vienna Convention on Road Signs and
Signals
problems must be considered)
- Multilateral treaty designed, standard
2. Should be developed
road signs (increase safety and aid
progressively (long and careful planning
international road)
before implementing)
- agreed upon by United Nations
3. Regulations alone are often not
Economic and Social Council (Vienna,
enough (must be used together with
October 7 to November 8, 1968) entered
control devices)
into force on June 6, 1978

Three elements of road system


Traffic Control Devices
Control device must satisfy five
requirements (MUTCD)
1. Fulfill a need
2. Command attention
3. Convey a clear, simple meaning
4. Command respect of road users
5. Give adequate time for proper
response

ROAD TRAFFIC SIGNS

Regulatory Signs
- Inform road users of traffic laws and
regulations (disregarded = constitute and
offense)

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