EARTHWORKS AND SIGHT DISTANCE

TOPICS:

1. SPIRAL CURVE
2. SUPER ELEVATION
3. EARTHWORS
4. SIGHT DISTANCE

CROSS- SECTION TYPICAL HIGHWAY

The cross section of a typical highway has

latitude of variables to consider such as:

1. The volume of the traffic

2. Character of the traffic
3. Speed of the traffic
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles
and of the driver

The cross-section design generally offers the

expected level of service for safety and a
recent study showed that:

1. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has l8% less

accident compared with pavement narrower
than 5.50 m. wide.

2. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has 4% fewer

accidents than the 6.00 meters wide roadway.

3. Accident records showed no difference

between the 6.60 meters and the 7.20 meters
wide pavement.

4. For the 6.00 m., 6.60 m. and,7.20 meters

wide pavement with 2.70 to 3.00 m. wide
shoulder, recorded accident decreases by 30%
compared to 0 to .60 m. wide shoulder. And
20% compared with a .90 to 1.20 meters wide
shoulder.
 CROSS SECTION METHOD It depends on

The method of plotting the existing cross a) Feature of road ahead

section perpendicular to a particular line for b) Height of driver’s eye above the road
the purpose of obtaining quantities such as surface (1.2m)
volumes. The procedure involves staking the c) Height of the object above the road
centerline then elevations are obtained at surface (0.15m)
strategic points on the right angle to the
Criteria for measurement
centerline at intervals of full or half stations.
Cross- sectional data is needed in estimating a) Height of driver’s eye above road
the amount of cut or fill needed for a given surface (H)
strip of roadway. b) Height of object above road surface (h)

Factors affecting SSD

• Total reaction time of driver

• Speed of vehicle
• Efficiency of brakes
• Frictional resistance between road and
tire
• Gradient of road
VOLUME APPROXIMATION METHODS IN Total reaction time of driver:
EARTHWORKS
• It is the time taken from the instant the
object is visible to the driver to the
instant the brake is effectively applied.
• It is divided into types
a) Perception time
- It is the time from the instant the object
comes on the line of sight of the driver to
the instant he realizes that the vehicle
needs to be stopped.
b) Brake reaction time.
- The brake reaction also depends on
several factor including the skill of the
driver, the type of the problems and
various other environment factor. Total
reaction time of driver can be calculated
SIGHT DISTANCE by “PIEV” theory.
Types of Sight Distances
PIEV Theory: P-perception, I-intellection, E-
1. Stopping or absolute minimum sight Emotion, V-Volition Theory
distance (SSD)
ANALYSIS OF SSD
Minimum sight distance available on a
The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag
highway at any spot should be of sufficient
distance and the braking distance
length to stop a vehicle traveling at design
1. Lag Distance
speed, safely without collision with any other
obstruction.
- The distance the vehicle travelled during the
reaction time

- If “V” is the design speed in m/s, ‘t’ is the total

reaction time of the driver in seconds

lag distance = v ∙ t
• Using typical units for velocity (kph) and
d=vt considering the braking action of the driver,
the stopping sight distance may also be written
- If “V” is in kph,
as
lag distance = 0.278 v ∙ t 𝑉2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 0.278𝑣𝑡 + 0.039
AASHTO recommended reaction time is 2.5 𝑎
seconds where v is in kph and a is the braking action
2. Breaking Distance deceleration in m/s

- Distance travelled by the vehicle after the

application of brake.

- For a level road, this is obtained by equating

the work done in stopping the vehicle and the
kinetic energy of the vehicle.

- Work done against friction force in stopping

the vehicle is

F∗L=f∙W∙L

where W is the total weight of the vehicle

- The kinetic energy at the design speed of v in

m/s will be 1⁄2 mv
Braking Action
𝑣2
𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
2𝑔𝑓 - Based on the driver’s ability to decelerate
the vehicle while staying within the travel
The stopping sight distance
lane and maintaining steering control
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 during the braking maneuver. A
deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s2 is
𝑣2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 + comfortable for 90% of the drivers.
2𝑔𝑓
But use this: SSD and CREST VERTICAL CURVE

𝒗𝟐
𝑺𝑺𝑫 = 𝒗𝒕 +
𝟐𝒈(𝒇 ± 𝑮)
Note that in this equation, v is in m/s, t is the
reaction time, g is the gravity (9.81m/s 2), f is
the coefficient of longitudinal friction, G is the
roadway grade.
The equations used in designing a crest vertical • H = height of headlight above
curve are as follows: roadway, in meters
• α = inclined angle of headlight beam,
Assuming SSD < L:
in degrees
𝑨𝑺𝟐 • A = absolute value of the difference in
𝑳𝒎 =
𝟐𝟎𝟎(√𝑯𝟏 + √𝑯𝟐)𝟐 grades, in percentage

Assuming SSD > L 2. Safe overtaking (OSD) or passing sight

distance (PSD)
𝟐𝟎𝟎(√𝑯𝟏 + √𝑯𝟐)𝟐
𝑳𝒎 = 𝟐𝑺 −
𝑨 - The minimum distance open to the vision
where, of the driver of a vehicle intending to
overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety
• Lm = minimum length of crest curve, in against the traffic of opposite direction is
meters known as the minimum overtaking sight
• S = stopping sight distance, in meters
distance (OSD) or the safe passing sight
• H1 = driver’s eye level above roadway
distance
surface,
• in meters - In limited 2-lane or 2-way highways,
• H2 = height of obstruction above vehicles may overtake slower moving
roadway vehicles, and the passing maneuver must
• surface, in meters be accomplished on a lane used by
• A = absolute value of the difference in opposing traffic
grades, in percentage

SSD and SAG VERTICAL CURVE

The equations used in designing a sag vertical

curve are as follows:

Assuming SSD < L:

These values are determined using the
𝑨𝑺𝟐
𝑳𝒎 = AASHTO Policy on geometric design of
𝟐𝟎𝟎(𝑯 + 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜶)
highways and streets.
Assuming SSD > L
𝟐𝟎𝟎(𝑯 + 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜶)
𝑳𝒎 = 𝟐𝑺 −
𝑨
• Lm = minimum length of sag curve, in
meters
• S = stopping sight distance, in meters
 AGENDA:

1. Railways Historical Development

2. Philippines Railways System

3. Railways Versus Road Transport

4. Track Components

RAILWAY HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

Historical Notes in Railways

• 1824 – Nicolas Carnot, carried out the

pioneering work of developing steam
For Rural Areas, the guideline considers the
energy
terrain in which road is being constructed.
• 1804 –Richard Trevithick designed and
Table below shows the recommended values
constructed a steam locomotive
• 1814 – George Stephenson, produced
the first steam locomotive used for
traction in railway
• 1825 –Recorded first public railway in
the world was opened to public,
between Stockholm and Darlington
3. Safe sight distance for entering an • 1833 –First railway line in USA
intersection, Intersection Sight Distance between Mohawk and Hudson
- Driver entering an uncontrolled intersection • 1835 –First railway in Germany was
(particularly unsignalized intersection) has opened from Nuremberg to Furth
sufficient visibility to enable him to take • 1875 –King Alfonso XII of Spain
control of his vehicle and to avoid collision with promulgated a Royal Decree directing
another vehicle. the Office of the Inspector of Public
Works of the Philippines to submit a
- The corner sight distance available in general plan for
intersection quadrants that allows a driver • railroads on Luzon (June 25, 1875).
approaching an intersection to observe the
o The plan, was entitled
actions of vehicles on the crossing leg(s) Memoria Sobre el Plan
- Evaluations involve establishing the needed General de Ferrocarriles en la
sight triangle in each quadrant by determining PHILIPPINE RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT
the legs of the triangle on the two crossing
roadways Isla de Luzón.

- Clear sight triangle must be free of sight Historical Notes in Railways

obstructions such as buildings, parked or • 1876 – Memoria Sobre el Plan General
turning vehicles, trees, hedges, fences, de Ferrocarriles en la Isla de Luzón
retaining walls, and the actual ground line. Grand Master Plan
• 1891 –First rail tracks laid
• 1892 –Opened for commercial use,
from Ferrocarril de Manila to Dagupan
 • Before series of wars engulfed • MRT 7 –elevated railway from North Ave.
Philippines, more than a thousand to SJDM, Bulacan. Expected to serve
route-kilometers were built. 350,000 daily commuters.
• Only 452 km were operational after
the war.
• Only 129 km remain operational
(2021).
• The government aims to expand
railway network to 1900 km by 2022

Greater Manila Railway Networks

• Green –LRT 1
• Blue –LRT 2
• Yellow – MRT 3
• Orange –PNR

Greater Tokyo Railway Networks

• MetroManila Subway Project – expected
Ongoing Rail Projects to serve 370,000 daily passengers.
• LRT 1 Cavite Extension – expected to
reduce the travel time between Baclaran
and Bacoor to around 20 minutes from
the usual one hour.

• North South Commuter Rail Project –

Clark-Calamba Railway, expected to be
full operational by 2025

• LRT 2 East Extension –to add new

stations: Marikina-Pasig and Antipolo
• Mindanao Railway System –Phase 1
construction expected to begin Q4 in
2021
 FEATURE RAIL TRANSPORT ROAD TRANSPORT
• Tractive • The movement of steel wheels on • The tractive resistance of a
Resistance steel rails has the basic advantage of pneumatic tire on paved
low rolling resistance. roads is almost five times
• This reduces haulage costs because of compared to that of wheels
low tractive resistance. on rails.

• Right of Way • A railway track is defined on two rails • Roads,though having well
and is within protected limits. defined limits, can be used by
• Trains work as per prescribed any vehiculartraffic and even
schedule and no other vehicle has the by pedestriansthey are open
right of way except at specified level to all.
crossings.

• Cost of • Owing to the heavy infrastructure and • The cost of construction and
Analysis equipment, the initial as well as maintenance of roads is
maintenance cost of a railway line is comparatively cheaper.
high

• Gradients • The gradients of railways tracks are • Roads are constructed

and Curves flatter(normally not more than 1 in normally with steeper
100), and curves are limited up to only gradients of up to 1 in 30 and
10° on broad gauge. relatively much sharper
curves.

• Flexibility of • Due to the defined routes and • Road transports have much
movement facilities required for the reception more flexibility in movement
and dispatch of trains, railways can be and can provide door-to-door
used only between fixed points. services.

• Environment • Railways have minimum adverse • Road transport creates

pollution effects on the environment comparatively greater
pollution than the railway

• Suitability • Railways are best suited for carrying • Road transport is best suited
heavy goods and large numbers of for carrying lighter goods and
passengers over long distances. smaller numbers of
passengers over shorter
distances.
RAILS

➢ Rails are the members of the track laid

TRACK COMPONENTS:
in two parallel lines to provide an
The Track is the railroad on which trains runs. unchanging, continuous, and level
surface for the movement of trains.
➢ To be able to withstand stresses, they
are made of high-carbon steel.

Functions

1. Rails are similar to steel girders. These

are provided to perform the following
functions in a track.
 2. Rails provide a continuous and level ▪ Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid
surface for the movement of trains. to support the rails.
3. Rails provide a pathway which is
▪ They have an important role in the track as
smooth and has very little friction.
they transmit the wheel load from the rails to
4. Rails serve as a lateral guide for the
the ballast.
wheels.
5. Rails bear the stresses developed due Functions
to vertical loads transmitted to them
through axles and wheels of rolling 1. Holding the rails in their correct gauge
stock as well as due to braking and and alignment
thermal forces. 2. Giving a firm and even support to the
6. Rails carry out the function of rails
transmitting the load to a large area of 3. Transferring the load evenly from the
the formation through sleepers and rails to a wider area of the ballast
the ballast. 4. Acting as an elastic medium between
the rails and the ballast to absorb the
TYPES OF RAILS: blows and vibrations caused by moving
loads
1. Double Headed Rail (DH)
5. Providing longitudinal and lateral
2. Bull Headed Rail (BH)
stability to the permanent way
3. Flat – Footed Rail (FF)
6. Providing the means to rectify the
RAIL GAUGE: track geometry during their service
life.
• Gauge is defined as the minimum
distance between two rails. Sleeper Density and Spacing
• The gauge is measured as the clear
Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per
minimum distance between the
rail length. Itis specified as M +x or N +x
running faces of the two rails
M or N is the length of the rail in meters and x
RAIL SPECIFICATIONS:
is a number that varies according to factors
Every rail has a brand on its web, which is such as
repeated at intervals
A. axle load and speed,
IRS-52kg – 710 –TISCO –II1991 –>OB B. type and section of rails,
C. type and strength of the sleepers,
A. IRS-52-kg: Number of IRS rail section, D. type of ballast and ballast cushion, and
i.e., 52 kg E. nature of formation.
B. 710: Grade of rail section, i.e., 710 or
880 BALLAST
C. TISCO: Manufacturer’s name, e.g.,
• The ballast is a layer of broken stones,
Tata Iron and Steel Co.
gravel, or any other granular material
D. II 1991:Month and year of
placed and packed below and around
manufacture (February 1991)
sleepers for distributing load from the
E. ->:An arrow showing the direction of
sleepers to the formation.
the top of the ingot
• It provides drainage as well as
F. OB: Process of steel making, e.g., open
longitudinal and lateral stability to the
hearth basic (OB)
track

SLEEPERS
 TRACK FITTINGS AND FASTENINGS

➢ For joining rail to rail - Fish plates,

combination fish plates, bolts, and
nuts
➢ For joining rails to sleepers – Cast-iron
bearing screws, plate screws, pandrol
clifts, rubber pads

➢ Moorum ballast -It normally used as

the initial ballast in new constructions
and as sub-ballast.
➢ Coarse sand ballast – used primarily
for cast iron rails.
➢ Coal ash cinder – normally used in
yards as initial ballast in new
constructions since it is very cheap
➢ Broken stone ballast – made from
hard stones, normally used for
highspeed tracks.

Functions

1. Provides a level and hard bed for the

sleepers to rest on.
2. Holds the sleepers in position during
the passage of trains.
3. Transfers and distributes load from the
sleepers to a large area of the
formation.
4. Provides elasticity and resilience to the
track for proper riding comfort.
5. Provides the necessary resistance to
the track for longitudinal and lateral
stability.
6. Provides effective drainage to the
track.
7. Provides an effective means of
maintaining the level and alignment of
the track.

Size of Sieve % retained

65mm 5% maximum
40mm 40% to 60%
20mm Not less than 98% for
machine crushed and
not less than 95% for
hand broken
 FAILURES, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION - Block Cracking
OF TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURES - Slippage Cracking
- Reflective Cracking
- Edge Cracking
TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURES
2. Surface Deformation
- Transportation infrastructures are
foundational structures and systems for - Rutting
transporting people and goods. - Corrugations
- Shoving
Common Types of Transportation - Depressions
Infrastructures - Swell
- Roads 3. Disintegration
- Railways
- Bridges and Tunnels - Pot Holes
- Ship Canals - Patches
- Ports
4. Surface Defects
- Airports Runways
- Ravelling
ROADS
- Bleeding
- Roads such as streets, avenues and - Polishing
highways. Includes paved roads, unpaved - Delamination
roads and roads with unique surfaces like
Road Maintenance and Rehabilitation
cobblestone and such.
Includes
Roads Failure Causes
Physical Maintenance:
- Rutting due to high variation in ambient
Activities such as sealing, patching, filling joints
temperature
etc. Traffic Service activities:
- Uncontrolled heavy axle loads
- Inadequate Stability Including painting pavement markings,
- Loss of binding action removing snow ice and litter
- Poor Design and Fabrication
Rehabilitation:
- Congestion
- Environmental Hazard (Flood, Includes restoring or betterment of roadway
Earthquake etc.) such as resurfacing.
- Accidents
Types Road Maintenance
- Poor Maintenance
1. Surface maintenance
TYPES OF ROAD FAILURES 2. Roadside and drainage maintenance
3. Shoulder and approaches
maintenance
THE FOUR MAJOR TYPES OF PAVEMENT
4. Snow and ice control
FAILURE ARE:
5. Traffic service
1. Cracking
RAILWAYS
- Fatigue Cracking
Railways including high speed rail, subways
- Longitudinal Cracking
and elevated railway such as cable car
- Transverse Cracking
Railways Failure Causes ➢ High variation in ambient temperature
➢ Uncontrolled heavy axle loads.
- Impact of moving loads
➢ Inadequate Stability
- Effect of acceleration and
➢ Effect of seawater/water especially to
deceleration
the bridge columns
- Constant reversal of stresses
➢ Inadequate ground Investigation
- Defects in manufacture
➢ Poor Design and Fabrication
- Braking of wheels
➢ Congestion of Vehicles
- Fatigue caused by shearing
➢ Environmental Hazard (Flood,
stresses
Earthquake, Tsunami etc.)
- Effect of weather and
➢ Accidents (Car crash, Boat Crash, Train
Temperature
Crash etc.)
- Maintenance of rail joints
➢ Inadequate Support method of
- Axle load of locomotive
excavation
- Design of rail joints
- Frequency of rail renewal Type of Bridge and Tunnel Failures
- Corrosion
1. Steel Materials
- Poor Maintenance
➢ Corrosion of Steel
Type of Railway Failures ➢ Paint Deterioration
➢ Loose Connections
1. Crushed Head
2. Concrete Material
2. Transverse and Compound Fissure
➢ Collapse
3. Split Head
➢ spalling
4. Horizontal Fissure
➢ Wear/Abrasion
5. Square of Angular Breaks
➢ Material Deterioration
6. Rail Misalignment
➢ Surface Defect
➢ Delamination
➢ Water Leak at Deck
Railway Maintenance and Rehabilitation
3. Expansion Joint
Includes
➢ Abnormal Spacing
1. Ballast Checking ➢ Difference in Level
2. Lubricating Places such as curves ➢ Rupture
on the side of the head of the rails ➢ Drainage Blocked
3. Tightening of joints and Fittings 4. Drainpipe
4. Use of special alloy rails where
Bridge and Tunnel Maintenance and
wear is more
Rehabilitation Includes
5. Renewal of Rails
❖ Exposed steel work must be cleaned and
BRIDGES AND TUNNELS
repainted
A bridge is a structure to cross an open space
or gap. Bridges are mostly made for crossing ❖ Cleaning and resealing of Deck joint
rivers, valleys, or roads. While a tunnel is an ❖ Damage to guard rail, must be repaired and
underground passageway, dug through the strengthened
surrounding soil/earth/rock and enclosed
except for entrance and exit, commonly at ❖ Resurfacing of deck
each end.
❖ Scour around and under piers and
Bridge and Tunnels Failure Causes abutments should be removed
❖ Sealing, patching, filling joints and such. ➢ Epoxy injection into small Cracks on
deck and supported beams
❖ Checking of steel cables for corrosion. ➢ Removal of plastered concrete and
cleaning of surface
❖ Checking of supports
➢ Subject rebars replacement and re-
PORTS concreting of damage section
➢ Placement of anti-scouring devices.
A port is a maritime facility which may
comprise one or more wharves where ships AIRPORT RUNWAYS
may dock to load and discharge passengers
A complex of runways and buildings for the
and cargo. Although usually situated on a sea
take-off, landing, an maintenance of civil
coast, some ports can be miles inland, with
aircraft, with facilities for passengers.
access to the sea via river or canal.
➢ Airport Runways Failure Causes
SHIP CANALS
➢ Poor Design and Fabrication
A ship canal is a canal especially intended to ➢ High variation in ambient temperature
accommodate ships used on the oceans, seas ➢ Poor Maintenance
or lakes to which it is connected, as opposed to ➢ Degradation
a barge canal intended to carry barges and ➢ Congestion of Aircrafts
other vessels specifically designed for river ➢ Environmental Hazard (Flood,
and/or canal navigation. Earthquake, Tsunami, Bird Strikes etc.)
➢ Accidents
Ports and Ship Canal Failure Causes
Type of Airport Runways failures
➢ Poor Design and Fabrication
➢ High variation in ambient temperature 1. Cracking
➢ Effect of seawater to the construction 2. Surface Deformation
materials 3. Disintegration
➢ Severe Corrosion 4. Surface Defects
➢ Congestion of Ships 5. Rubber Deposits
➢ Environmental Hazard (Flood,
Airport Runways Maintenance and
Earthquake, Tsunami etc.)
Rehabilitation Includes
➢ Accidents (Boat Crash)
➢ Poor Maintenance Airport maintenance means any work carried
out to keep airports runways excellent
Type of Ports and Ship Canal failures
condition, keep their operations running
➢ Material Deterioration smoothly and meet the high safety standards
➢ Damage of components
1. Maintenance of Visual Aids
➢ Scouring
➢ Collapsing of wharf / Settlement of ➢ Airport Light maintenance
➢ Sedimentation Foundation ➢ Basic maintenance programmed for
approach, runway and taxi way
Ports and Ship Canal Maintenance and
lighting systems
Rehabilitation includes
➢ Special types of lights
➢ Cleaning procedures for lights
➢ Light measurement
➢ Steel repair and painting
➢ Lamp replacement
➢ Implementation of coatings for
corrosion protection 2. Signs
 ➢ Markings 7. Drainage

3. Maintenance of Airport Electrical Systems ➢ Cleaning of slot drains

➢ Drain pipes or culverts between
➢ Power cables and distributors in field
surfaces and collector basins
➢ Transformers and regulators (including
➢ Oil and fuel separators
standby units)
➢ Water hydrants
➢ Transformer stations for electric
power supply 8. Maintenance of Unpaved Areas
➢ Relay and switch cabinets (including
➢ Maintenance of green areas within
switch cabinets in sub-stations)
strips
➢ Control cables, monitoring units,
➢ Maintenance of grass on unpaved
control desk
runways and taxiways
➢ Secondary power supplies
➢ Maintenance of green areas outside
(generators)
strips
➢ Fixed 400 Hz ground power supplies
➢ Treatment of cut grass
➢ Apron floodlighting

4. Maintenance of Pavements

➢ Surface repair
➢ Repair of cracks
➢ Portland cement concrete pavements
➢ Bituminous pavements
➢ Repair of joints and cracks
➢ Joints in concrete pavements
➢ Concrete joint maintenance
➢ Joints in bituminous pavements
➢ Repair of pavement edge damage
➢ Edge repair
➢ Corner repair
➢ Repair of other pavement surface
deficiencies

Airport Runways Maintenance and

Rehabilitation Includes

5. Sweeping

➢ Purpose of sweeping
➢ Surface monitoring
➢ Cleaning of surfaces
➢ Purpose of cleaning pavements
➢ Removal of rubber deposits
➢ Fuel and oil removal

6. Removal of snow and ice

➢ Procedures for snow removal

➢ Surface de-icing
➢ Surface anti-icing
 TRAFFIC FLOW FUNDAMENTALS
DENSITY

Traffic Analysis - is defined as the number of

vehicles in a given length of road at
- provides basis in measuring the operating
performance of the highway. an instant point in time.
- Primary function of a highway system is 𝒏
providing high level of transportation 𝒌=
service (LOS) and safety
𝑳
TIME HEADWAY
Various dimensions used in traffic analysis

- Number of vehicle per unit time (traffic - Time headway is defined as the
volume) time interval between passage of
- Vehicle types and speeds consecutive vehicles at a specified
- Variation in traffic volumes over time (e.g., point on the road with a unit of
Peak Hour)
time per vehicles.
Other dimensions that influenced traffic operations
𝟏
- Traffic control device (i.e., traffic signals, 𝒉𝒕 =
signs and markings) 𝒒
- Types of pavement and geometric design
- Selection of the number of lanes 𝒗𝒆𝒉
𝒒(𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘) =
𝒉𝒓
Most used numerical dimensions of traffic flow 𝒉𝒓
𝒕(𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒘𝒂𝒚) −
𝒗𝒆𝒉
- Speed (km/hr)
- Flow/flowrate/volume (veh/hr) SPACING
- Density (veh/km)
- Spacing is the distance between
FLOW RATE OR VOLUME
two vehicles measure from the
- Flow rate is defined as the number of front bumper of a vehicle to that of
vehicles passing a point during a specified another.
period of time.

SPEED 𝟏
𝒔=
Speed is defined as rate of motion in distance per unit 𝒌
time. When describing traffic stream, two types of speed
𝒗𝒆𝒉
𝒌(𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚) −
are used: time mean speed and space mean speed. 𝒉𝒓
𝒌𝒎
Time Mean Speed / Spot Speed 𝒔(𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈) −
𝒗𝒆𝒉
- is simply the arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles
TIME OCCUPANCY
passing a point within a given interval of time.

∑𝒏𝒊 𝟏 𝒖𝒊 - It can only be measure, however,

𝒖𝒊 = if a detector is installed at a
𝒏
specific point on the carriageway.
Space Mean Speed / Harmonic Mean Speed It is defined as the total time of a
- is used to describe the rate of movement of a traffic detector is occupied divided by
stream within a given section of road. It is the speed the total time of observation.
based on the average travel time of vehicles in the stream
within the section.
𝒏
𝒖𝒊 =
𝟏
∑𝒏𝒊 =𝟏
𝒖𝒊
RELATIONSHIP OF FLOW, SPEED, AND
DENSITY
POISSON DISTRIBUTION MODELS
A relationship exists among the three most - A model that accounts for the non
important traffic variables: flow rate, space – uniformity of flow by assuming
mean speed, and density. A dimensional
that the pattern of arrivals
analysis of the units will show that flow rate
corresponds to some random
(veh/hr) is simply the product of density process.
(veh/km) and space mean speed (km/hr), or

𝑞 = 𝑘(𝑢𝑠 )
As mentioned earlier, density is the most
difficult variable to measure. It can be obtained
indirectly using this relation. Where: P(n) is the probability od having n vehicle arrive
in the time t
t = the duration of time interval over which vehicles are
counted.
= average vehicle flow or arrival rate ( in
vehicle/ unit time)

POISSON DISTRIBUTION
- Poisson vehicle arrivals also implies a
distribution of the time intervals between
the arrivals of successive vehicles (i.e.,
time headway).
- Determine the probability of delay for
vehicle and pedestrian crossing, length of
waiting lines at toll booths and traffic
signals.

LIMITATION POISSON DISTRIBUTION MODEL

- Only applicable for lightly congested

traffic conditions.
- Not appropriate for heavy traffic
conditions particularly in urban area
where traffic signals cause cyclical stream
disturbance.

ORIGIN- DESTINATION SURVEY

TRAVEL SURVEY

- are conducted to establish a complete

understanding of the travel patterns
within the study area.
 - For single projects (such as a highway facilities also may be provided for specific purposes, such
project), it may be sufficient to use traffic as to provide handicapped parking or as bus stops or
counts on existing roads or (for transit) loading bays.
counts of passengers riding the present
system. Off-Street Parking Facilities
- To understand why people travel and These facilities may be privately or publicly owned; they
where they wish to go, origin- destination include surface lots and garages. Self-parking garages
(O-D) survey data can be useful. require that drivers park their own automobiles;
ORIGIN DESTINATION SURVEY attendant- parking garages maintain personnel to park
the automobiles.
- The O-D survey asks questions about each
trip that is made on a specific day—such as DEFINITIONS OF PARKING
where the trip begins and ends, the ▪ A space-hour is a unit of parking that defines the use of
purpose of the trip, the time of day, and a single parking space for a period of 1 hour.
the vehicle involved (auto or transit)—and
about the person making the trip—age, ▪ Parking volume is the total number of vehicles that park
sex, income, vehicle owner, and so on. in a study area during a specific length of time, usually a
- The O-D survey may be completed as a day.
home interview, or people may be asked
questions while riding the bus or when ▪ Parking accumulation is the number of parked vehicles
stopped at a roadside interview station. in a study area at any specified time. These data can be
Sometimes, the information is requested plotted as a curve o parking accumulation against time,
by telephone or by return postcard. O-D which shows the variation of the parking accumulation
surveys are rarely completed in during the day.
communities where these data have been ▪ The parking load is the area under the accumulation
previously collected.
curve between two specific times. It is usually given as the
PARKING STUDIES number of space-hour used during the specified period of
time.
- Any vehicle traveling on a highway will at one time or
another be parked for either a relatively short time or a ▪ Parking duration is the length of time a vehicle is parked
much longer time, depending on the reason for parking. at a parking bay. When the parking duration is given as an
The provision of parking facilities is therefore an essential average, it gives an indication of how frequently a parking
element of the highway mode of transportation. The space becomes available.
need for parking spaces is usually very great in areas ▪ Parking turnover is the rate of use of a parking space. It
where land uses include business, residential, or is obtained by dividing the parking volume for a specified
commercial activities. In areas of high density, where period by the number of parking spaces.
space is very expensive, the space provided for
automobiles usually has to be divided between that METHODOLOGY OF PARKING STUDIES
allocated for their movement and that allocated for
parking them. A comprehensive parking study usually involves

- used to determine the demand for and the supply of ➢ inventory of existing parking facilities
parking facilities in an area, the projection of the demand, ➢ collection of data on parking accumulation,
and the views of various interest groups on how best to parking turnover and parking duration
solve the problem. ➢ identification of parking generators
➢ collection of information on parking demand.
TYPES OF PARKING FACILITIES
Information on related factors, such as financial, legal,
On-Street Parking Facilities and administrative matters, also may be collected.

These are also known as curb facilities. Parking bays are

provided alongside the curb on one or both sides of the
street. These bays can be unrestricted parking facilities if
the duration of parking is unlimited and parking is free, or
they can be restricted parking facilities if parking is
limited to specific times of the day for a maximum
duration. Parkin at restricted facilities may or may not be
free. Restricted
INVENTORY OF EXISTING PARKING FACILITIES IDENTIFICATION OF PARKING GENERATORS

An inventory of existing parking facilities is a detailed This phase involves identifying parking generators (for
listing of the location and all other relevant example, shopping centers or transit terminals) and
characteristics of each legal parkin facility, private and locating these on a map of the study area.
public, in the study area. The inventory includes both on-
and off-street facilities. The relevant characteristics PARKING DEMAND
usually listed include the following: - Information is obtained by interviewing drivers
➢ Type and number of parking spaces at each at the various parking facilities listed during the
parking facility inventory.
➢ Times of operation and limit on duration of - An effort should be made to interview all drivers
parking, if any using the parking facilities on a typical weekday
➢ Type of ownership (private or public) between 8:00 a.m. and 10:00 p.m. Information
➢ Parking fees, if any, and method of collection sought should include (1) trip origin, (2) purpose
➢ Restrictions on use (open or closed to the of trip, and (3) driver’s destination after parking.
public) The interviewer must also note the location of
➢ Other restrictions, if any (such as loading and the parking facility, times of arrival and
unloading zones, bus stops, or taxi ranks) departure, and the vehicle type.
➢ Probable degree of permanency (can the ANALYSIS OF PARKING DATA
facility be regarded as permanent or is it just a
temporary facility?) - includes summarizing, coding, and interpreting
the data so that the relevant information
The information obtained from an inventory of parking required for decision making can be obtained.
facilities is useful both to the traffic engineer and to The relevant information includes the following:
public agencies, such as zoning commissions and planning
departments. The inventory should be updated at regular ▪ Number and duration for vehicles legally parked
intervals of about four to five years.
▪ Number and duration for vehicles illegally parked
COLLECTION OF PARKING DATA
▪ Space-hours of demand for parking
Accumulation
▪ Supply of parking facilities
- are obtained by checking the amount of
parking during regular intervals on The analysis required to obtain information on the first
different days of the week. two items is straightforward; it usually involves simple
- The checks are usually carried out on an arithmetical and statistical calculations. Data obtained
hourly or 2-hour basis between 6:00 a.m. from these items are then used to determine parking
and 12 midnight. space-hours.
- The selection of the times depends on the ANALYSIS OF PARKING DATA
operation times of land-use activities that
act as parking generators. The space-hours of demand for parking are obtained
- The information obtained is used to from the expression
determine hourly variations of parking and
𝑁
peak periods of parking demand.
𝐷 = ∑(𝑛1 𝑡1 )
COLLECTION OF PARKING DATA 𝑖=1

Turnover and Duration. Information on turnover and

duration is usually obtained by collecting data on a
sample of parking spaces in each block. This is done by
recording the license plate of the vehicle parked on each
parking space in the sample at the ends of fixed intervals
during the study period. The length of the fixed intervals ANALYSIS OF PARKING DATA
depends on the maximum permissible duration.
The space-hours of demand for parking are obtained
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒅 from the expression
𝑻=
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝑁

𝑆 = 𝑓 ∑(𝑡1 )
𝑖=1
 BASIC INETRSECTION DESIGN PRINCIPLES

▪ When designing or improving an intersection, it is very

important to follow some basic principles to avoid costly
mistakes that lead to lack of the intersection’s capacity or
The efficiency factor f is used to correct for time lost in each to its being accident-prone.
turnover. It is determined on the basis of the best performance
a parking facility is expected to produce. Efficiency factors for ▪ The maximum number of legs should be four. It has
curb parking, during highest demand, vary from 78 percent to 96 been shown that the number of conflicts increases
percent; for surface lots and garages, from 75 percent to 92 exponentially as the number of intersection legs
percent. Average values of f are 90 percent for curb parking, 80 increases.
percent for garages, and 85 percent for
▪ Staggered intersections should be avoided. Due to
proximity of the two side roads, inadequate length of
INTERSECTION DESIGN storage lane for left vehicles often causes blockage of the
through traffic.
- Intersections play an important role in any network
system. They are the points where traffic flow ▪ Main traffic flow should be near straight as possible.
converges and where direction of travel changes. Sharp turns, such as left and right turns, cause
Intersections may be categorized according to shape,
unnecessary reduction in traffic speeds.
type of structure, and type of operation.

Shape

- This refers to the configuration of the intersection and

would depend largely on the number of legs. Carefully
planned and properly designed road networks often
lead to intersections with simpler shape having lesser
number of legs.

▪ Roads should not intersect at a small angle. Oblique

intersections pose potential hazards and cause high
severity of accidents due to the almost head-to-head
collision of vehicles. An angle of 60 degrees must be
Type of Structure considered as the minimum.

▪ Most of the intersections are either designed as at- ▪ Two intersections should be as far as possible from each
grade intersection or grade separation such as flyovers or other. In addition to the reason cited in (2), adequate
interchanges. Almost all intersections are initially weaving sections may not be provided. As a rule of
designed at-grade and are planned to be grade-separated thumb, the distance between the two intersections must
in the future to cope with high traffic volume. The type of be
grade separation depends largely on the extend of
improvement it would provide in terms of easing distance = design speed (kph) x number of lanes x 2
congestion or reducing traffic accidents.
For instance, if the prevailing speed is 30 kph and three
Type of Operation are four lanes in one direction, the distance between the
two intersections must be at least 30 x 4 x 2 = 240 m.
▪ Rules and regulations applied to a given intersection
depend largely on the type of control which is in Turning geometry
operation at that intersection. The main objective is to
The principal purpose of an intersection is to provide
simplify traffic flow. This is often achieved by reducing the
change in the direction of travel. As a vehicle approaches
number of conflicts of vehicles.
an intersection, the driver has to decide whether to go
▪An intersection operates as unchannelized or straight or to turn to left or right. For turning movements,
channelized, and unsignalized or signalized. a number of turning geometries may be considered, the
Channelization often leads to simplified movements of most direct of which is highly preferred. Configurations of
vehicles as it leads drivers to one conflict at a time. On turning geometries are shown below:
the other hand, signalization greatly crossing conflicts at
the intersection area.
Turning geometry

These types of turning movements may be found as

elements of the interchanges shown below:

Turning geometry

▪ The different elements of an intersection are shown in

Figure 5.1. The adequacy in design of each element must
be carefully checked, considering traffic flow and
availability of right of way.

For the left turn storage bay, the recommended length is

= 2 x no. of left turners in one cycle x spacing in queue.

The spacing in queue may range from 6.0 m to 7.0 m,

depending on the type of vehicles using the intersection.

A factor of 2 is used to take into account randomness of

traffic flow.

Turning geometry