3.

2 Design for hot-arid zones

The main points:

• Provide maximum shading of direct and reflected sun radiation in the hot season.
• Balance the extremes of summer and winter by movable parts.
• Provide ventilation by regulated air movement and small openings.
• Avoid large exposed exterior surfaces.
• Use reflective outer surfaces.
• Balance the extremes of day and night temperatures by adequate thermal storage mass
• Reduce internal heat production and conduction gain in hot seasons.
• Promote evaporation and heat loss by radiation.
• Increase air circulation in humid maritime regions.

3.2.1 Climate and design in general

(also see Chapter 3.1, General guidelines)

Climatic condition

The climate of hot-dry zones is in general characterized by high temperatures (40 - 50°C in summer), with sharp variations in both
diurnal (day / night) and seasonal (summer-/ winter) temperatures; and precipitation (rainfall, snow) which is scarce, irregular and
unreliable, but may nevertheless cause severe floods. Cold winds and dust/sandstorms prevail in winter. The solar radiation
intensity is high and enhanced by the radiation reflected from the ground. The air humidity is low and this climate is generally
healthier than those of warm-humid lands. Different climatic zones can be distinguished within desert regions according to their
specific geographical characteristics. Particular conditions in maritime desert regions mean that the high humidity causes definite
discomfort in summer. On the other hand, the humidity tends to reduce diurnal variations and moderate temperatures. (also see
Chapter 2.2)

Design objectives and response

The main goal of climatic design, on a macro (settlement) and micro (building) level, is hence to reduce uncomfortable conditions
created by extremes of heat and dryness. Buildings must be adapted to extreme summer / winter and day / night conditions to
achieve a well balanced indoor climate. Not only cooling is needed; passive heating may also be needed in winter and during cold
nights. Protection is required from the intense radiation from the sun, ground and surrounding buildings, from dust, sandstorms and
insects (flies). Glare has to be reduced and dust penetration prevented. Settlements and buildings, therefore, have to be compact,
providing shade and controllable ventilation.

In maritime desert regions, the high humidity requires more air circulation (ventilation) in summer. It is difficult to design buildings for
this climate.

General remarks

Hot-arid zones or desert regions with scarce vegetation and saline soils are distributed throughout the world. 15 percent of the
world’s population lives in arid zones; 1/3 of the world’s land mass and 22% of all potential arable land lies in the arid zone. Most of
the world’s energy reserves (oil) are within or adjacent to these zones. [ 112 ]

In the last half century, technological changes have had a major impact on urban forms and housing throughout the world. The
introduction of the car into the settlements has also drastically altered the traditional urban pattern of hot-arid regions. The new wide
streets reduce the potential for shading. In addition, the great amount of heat-discharging air conditioners and large paved surfaces
have contributed to changes in the microclimate of urban situations. Moreover, a change in lifestyles and means of livelihood has
occurred. Mud or adobe buildings, dark interior spaces (very few and small windows) and sleeping on the roof are probably no
longer acceptable to society in general, but still reality for low income groups. In addition, the proper handling of climatization
devices properly, and the limitations of passive means are problems which should not be neglected. (also see Chapter 3.1.1)

3.2.2 Settlement Planning

(also see Chapter 3.1.2)

The main points:

• Topography, to enhance the efficiency of passive means

• Orientation, to reduce the sun exposure in summer
• Air movement, to provide ample ventilation in summer and protect from winds in winter
• Form, to design compact settlements for mutual protection
• Hazards, to avoid dangerous sites

3.2.2.1 Topographical location of settlements

(also see Chapter 3.1.2.1)

The positioning of settlements can help to take advantage of local features to improve the micro-climate with regard to comfort.
Attention has to be paid to the topographical altitude, the geomorphology and the most suitable orientation regarding sun exposure
and prevailing winds. Differentiation must be made between locations on top of hills, on slopes, in valleys, on flatlands and near
water. (see Fig 3/1 to Fig 3/8)

Sun-orientation

Compact settlements should be located on shaded slopes (north-sloping) and at higher levels. The general preference for the
orientation of slopes referring to sun exposure (on the northern hemisphere) is: 1st: north; 2nd: east; 3rd: south; 4th: west. This can
vary in relation to the local conditions, topography, vegetation, sun angle and exposure time. e.g. sites on north / southeastern
slopes are also acceptable. Near the equator, south slopes are preferred over east and west slope.

Depending on how much passive heating during night and cold seasons is required, south slopes can be advantageous. (also see
Chapter 3.4)

Wind orientation

ocations are preferred where the effect of cool airflow can be utilized and controlled. High altitudes and locations with evaporative
possibilities are advantageous. Settlements have to be properly oriented regarding prevailing winds. Winds are more frequent and
relatively cooler at higher elevations. Blowing over a water-body can result in a drop of a few degrees in the temperature of a wind.
Wind can also be caused by specific direction and conditions in a valley.

Fig 3/87

Location in flat regions

Compact settlements in flat areas have, in general, less natural features, such as hill sides, slopes, and rock formations which have
to be integrated to improve the micro-climate. Such settlements should include vegetation because the air is cooled while crossing
green shaded areas. A draft is created through cooling the hot air in the shade and by the humidity of plants or water ponds, a
phenomenon well known from traditional oasis settlements. (also see Chapter 3.1.2.3, 3.2.2.3)

Fig 3/88

3.2.2.2 Hazards
(also see Chapter 3.1.2.2)
Sand and dust storms, sand dunes

The reduction of the effects of sand storms can be achieved through the location of settlements at higher elevations and
landscaping cities with plants and water, which lead to less sand in the air. The open space pattern (network of streets and squares)
has to be planned accordingly, e.g. an irregular pattern to break strong winds (see Chapter 3.2.2.3). Particular attention has to be
paid to the moving direction of sand dunes, which can slowly bury houses and entire settlements.

Floods

In desert areas, the so-called wadis (dry valleys and rivers) can be very dangerous places because of their bad drainage and
sudden inundation in case of heavy precipitations.

Landslides

Heavy precipitations can cause landslides both at the bottom of valleys and on slopes.

Earthquakes

Safe constructions can be in contradiction to traditional design or climatic construction requirements, particularly in the case of
simple mud (adobe) or brick buildings.

3.2.2.3 Urban forms and external spaces

The following are the main design objectives:

• Provide maximum shade in summer and adequate heat gain in winter.

• Minimize reflection (indirect solar radiation) in streets and open spaces.

• Moderate the effects of undesired winds.

• Plan narrow winding alleys and streets, which are shaded and relatively cool and break stormy winds, but allow through-ventilation
and adequate natural lighting.

• Design suitable building forms.

• Plan close proximity of urban services and daily functions within walking distance; wide roads can thus be omitted or at least
reduced.

• Avoid large open spaces within the city where hot air can collect during the day and which are conducive to duststorms.

• Provide ample shaded public spaces.

• Select light colors for every open space.

• Include green areas of plants around and within the settlement to provide shade and cool air and to stabilize the soil.

• Plant and cultivate xerophytes that require little or no water.

• Integrate water bodies, which evaporate and therefore reduce temperature.

 Fig 3/89 Traditional and imported urban patterns

Minimal sun-exposure in summer and therefore compactness and shade are the main principals for building in hot-arid zones.
Hence, compact planning for groups of buildings is required in order to give shade to each other and to provide a shaded network of
narrow streets and small spaces in between as patio-like areas. Arcades, colonnades, cantilevered buildings or building
components, membranes and small enclosed courtyards are traditional responses to the climate; even larger public open spaces
should be enclosed, inward looking and shaded for most of the day. Of equal importance is natural lighting and ventilation. Air
circulation can be improved through wind channelling in shaded narrow streets in the direction of the main wind. The grouping of
buildings and alleys or lanes should allow for proper ventilation or even increase the airflow. The location near a water source and
the incorporation of vegetation is most important. [ 9 ]
 Fig 3/90 Shady arcades

Settlement patterns and street-networks (also see Chapter 3.1.2.3)

Urban forms are not only a result of physical and functional, but also of social and cultural factors and traditions in a region. There
are different ways of properly designing an urban form in an arid region taking into account solar radiation and wind.

Some basic possibilities:

a) Grid diagonal to east-west axis

The grid pattern maximizes radiation throughout its straight streets, but by orienting the grid pattern diagonally to the east-west axis,
the sun exposure and shade is better distributed on the streets; such a grid still supports the dynamic movement of air. More
important, however, is the form of alleys and buildings. [ 5, 143 ]

Fig 3/91 Grid diagonal to east-west axis

b) Narrow, zigzagging alleys

Winding or zigzagging narrow alleys receive minimum radiation, reduce the effect of stormy winds, establish shaded spaces
throughout the day which provide a cool and comfortable microclimate and also stay relatively warm during cold nights and in winter.
 Fig 3/92 Zigzagging alleys

c) Blocked streets and alleys

Street orientation and housing patterns are significant and must be planned carefully. Straight and parallel streets open the city to
wind ventilation. Storm effects can be reduced by blocking streets. Two-story buildings with closed patios open to the sky will
maximize shade, minimize radiation, yet still retain ventilation and reduce the effects of stormy winds. Buildings should be attached
(cluster) to reduce exposed surfaces.

Fig 3/93 Blocked streets

External space design

External space design(also see Chapter 3.1.2)

The town structure and the public spaces should thus counteract heat with a shaded and dense layout. There should be a close
connection between public spaces and residential areas. Dwelling units or groups should create patio-like areas. Paved open
spaces within a flat cityscape should be avoided or kept to a minimum size.

Most important is the design of the whole urban configuration, because the ratio of shaded space to space open to solar radiation
affects air temperature significantly. The temperature in and around buildings can either be tempered or aggravated by the nature of
the surrounding surface. The temperatures shown in Fig 3/94 were recorded in a hot-dry climate when the air temperature was 42°C
[ 106 ]
 Fig 3/94 Temperatures of differently-treated surfaces

a) Street-scaping

Particular attention has to be paid to the needs of the pedestrians, walkways and the scale of the environment. Half and full shade
protection by arcades, membranes etc., and vegetation (trees) is desirable; exposed paved surfaces should be avoided; pools of
water are beneficial.
(also see Chapter 3.1.2.3 and 3.3.2.3)

b) Landscaping with vegetation

(also see Chapter 3.1.2.3)

Trees, hedges and plants in an urban context can have a dramatic effect on the microclimate and help to tie down sand and dust
[ 1 ]. As vegetation is generally sparse, an oasis-like concentration of plant and grass-covered areas is desirable. Nevertheless,
landscaping should not always imply the inclusion of very high water consuming lawns and grassed areas. Local desert plants as
well as rock and stone garden as well as gravel coverage should also be considered as adequate design elements.

Fig 3/95 [ 124 ]

c) Pattern of green areas

The vegetation in and around the city promotes and controls air movement. Apart from water areas, evaporation and cooling takes
place only in green areas. Green areas located near and in a city will therefore improve the urban climate. The difference in
temperature between green areas and built-up land causes minute air cycles and a horizontal exchange takes place. An
arrangement of small parks and lanes could facilitate the ventilation of the town. The wind from the countryside is encouraged to
penetrate as far as possible into the built-up area. [ 124. 134 ]
 Fig 3/96

3.2.3. Building Design

(also see Chapter 3.1.3)

The main points:

• Orientation and placement, to minimize sun exposure in summer.

• Form, compact to reduce surface areas of heat gain.
• Shade, for maximum sun protection in summer.
• Allow adequate heat gain in winter by movable shading devices.
• Ventilation, for regulation of air movement.

3.2.3.1 Orientation of buildings

(also see Chapter 3.1.3)

Proper orientation and location of buildings allow for sun and wind protection and controlled wind channelling (airflow).

Sun-orientation

The orientation of a building is influenced by the amount of solar radiation falling on different sides at different times. Buildings are
best arranged in clusters for heat absorption, shading opportunities and protection from east and west exposures. Protection from
solar radiation is particularly important during times of excessive heat when there can be a difference of as much as 3°C in air
temperature in a building between the best and least favourable orientation. The larger building dimension should face north and
south (generally, west orientation is the worst: high air temperature combined with strong solar radiation) [ 9 ]. The optimum
orientation for any given location has to be determined in order to achieve the most satisfactory distribution of total heat gain and
loss in all seasons. At high altitude enough heat gain for passive heating should be possible.

In general, the best orientation is: north-south with 25o south easterly direction [ 13, 161 ]. Attention should be paid to solar radiant
heat reflected from the surroundings (topography, slopes, rocks) to the building.

Wind-orientation

Main walls and windows should face the prevailing (cool) wind direction in order to allow maximum cross-ventilation of the rooms.

3.2.3.2 Shape and volume

(also see Chapter 3.1.3.2)
The shape and volume of buildings should be compact, yet somewhat elongated along the east-west axis; (e.g. the optimum shape
is 1:1.3), because large, compact building volumes gain less heat. In general, the optimum shape is that which has a minimum heat
gain in summer and the maximum heat gain in winter. Under winter conditions an elongated form is ideal; under summer conditions
a square shape is better [ 9 ]. A compact “patio” house type is therefore preferable. Adjoining houses, row houses, and group
arrangements (all continuous along the east-west axis), which tend to create a volumetric effect, are advantageous, as are high
massive buildings [ 13 ]. Lithospheric arrangements (subterranean) are also applicable.

Fig. 3/97 Shading of buildings and building elements by cantilevered construction, arcades, loggias and high building parts.

3.2.3.3 Type and form of buildings

Dense settlement patterns require a particular type of building consisting of compact structures and forms. Subterranean spaces are
also adjusted to climatic stress. In hot-arid zones, external and internal living spaces have to be protected against solar radiation,
glare, and hot, dusty winds. Compactness can be achieved by “carpet-planning” layouts with courtyard houses or cluster
settlements of high buildings to create suitable patterns. Particular solutions may utilize underground (subterranean) buildings or
caves. Some heat gain and storage in the winter season is desirable.

Fig 3/98

The main objectives are:

• Compact and massive design, mainly inward-facing buildings.

• Minimize surface areas and openings exposed to the east and west sun and orient the building accordingly.

• Allow heat gain and storage in winter.

• Group buildings closely to each other. Especially east and west walls should be placed closely together for mutual shading.
• Create thermal barriers (non-habitable rooms, such as stores, toilets etc.) on the east and especially on the west side of the
building.

• Promote ventilation and access to cooling winds.

• Provide sufficient natural lighting (no excessively deep rooms).

• Plan short internal circulation distances and avoid unnecessary stairs.

• Shade roofs, walls, openings and windows and outdoor spaces.

• Include small enclosed courtyards with arcades, colonnades for light and air and outside day-to-day activities. Courtyards provide
shade, cool air pools, and protection from hot and dusty winds.

• Treat the external space as carefully as the building itself to reduce glare and reflected heat radiation.

Courtyard design

It is difficult to meet all the different functional and climatic requirements. Regarding the volume, the “patio-house” is the most
suitable form and can benefit in summer from the microclimatic effects of cool air pools that occur in courtyards. Although winter
conditions in hot-arid regions would permit an elongated house design, the heat in summer is so severe that a compromise is
required. The very old, traditional solution - particularly for flat land - is a compact, inward-looking building with an interior courtyard.
This minimizes the solar radiation impact on the outside walls and provides a cool area within the building. It also meets other
requirements such as safety, defense, privacy, lifestyle etc.

Fig 3/99 Schematic plan of a typical Egyptian house built prior to 3000 BC.

In the typical oriental courtyard house, the covered terraces, which are usually on two or three sides of the courtyard, and the
identical covered gallery on the first floor help to reduce the heat gained during the day and provide shaded areas. The correct ratio
between the height and width of the courtyard should always allow for adequate shading, even when the summer sun is almost
directly overhead. When the courtyard is provided with water and plants, it acts as a cooling source and modifies the microclimate
accordingly.

In areas with cold nights or winters the court yard has to allow for adequate south exposure for passive heat gain and should be
equipped with movable shading devices for the hot period.

However, the one or two storied courtyard building type cannot always fulfill today’s functional and urban planning requirements,
where high population density, economic land use, adequate car traffic, accessibility and suitable public transportation, etc. are
required.
 Fig 3/100 Courtyard house with covered galleries and an internal pool for evaporation, day and night situation

Tall buildings

In certain regions, such as mountainous and coastal areas, (North Africa, Arabian Peninsula, etc.) high, compact buildings are the
traditional solution, having also had an important defense purpose in the past. Cooler air from the lower floors is channeled through
the building. High walls with integrated ventilation shafts are built at the back on the shady side. In maritime regions, large openings
or bay windows for cross-ventilation are protected with wooden screens such as “Rowshans” or “Mashrabiyas”. (see Chapter
3.2.5.1)

Fig 3/101

Underground buildings

Underground dwellings have been known for thousands of years. At a depth of about 2.5 m, the temperature of the earth is
practically constant and remains close to the average yearly temperature. The indoor climate of structures built underground or
covered with a thick layer of soil benefits from the huge thermal mass of the adjacent ground and is thus not affected by hot days
and chilly nights. Structures can be carved into suitable rock formations or may consist of a structural shell (even several floors
underground), which is mainly concrete and covered by soil. (The provision of natural lighting might cause difficulties.)

Rules:

• Where the diurnal temperature range is wide, but the daily average is within the comfort zone, a soil cover is appropriate.

• Where the annual average temperature is within the comfort zone, structures built 2-3 m underground are suitable.
• High rooms (ceilings) are not necessary.

• Natural lighting must also be considered.

• Protection against surface water (flooding) may be required. Structures within the groundwater table should be avoided.

[ 5, 7, 9, 136 ]

Fig 3/102 Section through an underground dwelling

Buildings in maritime, coastal regions

In certain regions, the high summer humidity in maritime areas makes designing buildings here extremely difficult. More ventilation
is required at times and high thermal capacity structures are less effective. Tall buildings and building components with lightweight
structures which utilize the breeze for rooms used in the daytime are good traditional solutions to reduce discomfort. The use of high
thermal capacity structures, although still useful, will not be as effective as in other hot-dry regions. The coastal wind blowing off the
sea during the day may be utilized to ameliorate thermal conditions. On the other hand, the nighttime wind carries hot inland desert
air, possibly dust, towards the sea, which can be very unpleasant. Protection from this wind should be provided.

Perhaps the only solution is to provide alternative spaces: one with high thermal capacity walls and roof, for use at night, especially
during the cooler part of the year; and one of lightweight construction, the roof providing shade only and the facades facing and
opposite to the sea being left almost completely open. This is the best solution for daytime use, especially during the hottest part of
the year.

It is in this climate that wind catchers, scoops and wind towers have their greatest benefit. [ 8, 9 ] (also see Chapter 3.1.3.3, 3.2.4.3,
3.2.5.2 and 3.4.3.3)

Table: The concept of alternative day and night space

Type of structure Performance Suitability

winter summer
Heavy structure Cool in daytime night daytime
Light structure Cool at night daytime night

Room arrangements (also see Chapter 3.1.3.3. and 3.4.3.3)

The room layout depends on the building type. A courtyard design has certain advantages. Heat-producing areas should be
separated from other areas of the house. Non-inhabitable spaces should be placed on the west side to check the sun’s impact.
Internal heat gain can be avoided by a functional layout.

Bedrooms should be on the east side, and outdoor or roof sleeping possibilities should be considered. Living rooms should be on
the north or south side. The depth of interior spaces should allow for proper natural lighting. Nevertheless, modern floor plan
requirements, multi-family housing (high density) and different values, such as access to a view, might be in contradiction to climatic
design principles.

3.2.3.4 Immediate external space

(also see Chapter 3.1.3.4)
The walls of houses and courtyards, cantilevered building parts and plants should provide shade to outdoor living areas. Half and
full shade protection by arcades or loggias, membranes and trees is desirable; exposed paved surfaces should be avoided; pools of
water are beneficial for cooling.

3.2.4 Building components

(also see Chapter 3.1.4)

The main points:

• Control of heat transfer through thermal storage and time lag by proper construction and materials
• Thermal insulation to reduce internal heat gain.
• Reflectivity and emissivity to re-radiate heat.
• Control of air movement

Building materials

The comfort of people inside the buildings depends largely on the thermal properties of the outer and inner walls and the roof.
Depending on the function of the building components specific insulating and/or thermal storage qualities are required. (Basic
explanations see Chapter 3.1.4)

Buildings in hot-arid zones are traditionally constructed with thick walls and roofs and with very small openings. An internal thermal
storage capacity is very important to decrease the temperature variations and to make it possible to profit from an increased night
ventilation by “storing the cool of the night until the day” during summer. The best materials are those that do not conduct heat.

Fig 3/103 Heat flow in daytime and at night

Sun-dried earth brick is one of the poorest conductors of heat, partly because of its very low natural conductivity and partly because
mud is structurally weak and necessitates thick walls. Yet thick mud bricks are not a perfect means of keeping cool; they retain heat
for a long time. Therefore, it is important to calculate and plan the proper time lag. A big thermal mass can keep cool during the
daytime and not be too cold at night. (see example Chapter 4.4) High heat capacity walls are essential. The traditional principle is to
shelter behind very thick mud walls by day, and to sleep on the roof under a tent at night. [ 122 ]

Construction concepts and details

The different building components require adequate design and material properties to act as a balanced system.

• Thermal insulation is important to suppress surface temperature variations, but is only applicable in connection with adequate
inner ventilation and cooling means or in combination with light structures (Insulation can also reduce necessary heat loss at night).
Roof insulation is especially important in decreasing summer temperatures. The outside application of insulation is preferable
because the structure and the construction materials are less exposed to thermal stress, and the storage capacity of a heavy
structure material helps to balance the inner temperature. The additional needed skin for the building or roof must protect the
insulation against damage by physical, mechanical forces, and should be of a hard material. The required insulation value depends
on the sun exposure. (see Chapter 3.1.4)

• Time lag properties of building parts and its materials should be used for energy storage and temperature exchange between day
and night. Necessary time lags for internal heat balance are: Walls, east: 0 hours; south: 10 hours.; west: 10-hours.; north: 10 hours
or no lag; roof: 12 hours [ 13 ] (also see Chapter 3.1.4)

• Shading devices, such as a heavily ventilated double roof, and radiation reflection by a white surface are necessary to decrease
heat gain from solar radiation - mainly through the roof - during the hot period.

• External colors are required as a combination of high reflectivity of solar radiation and high emissivity of infrared radiation to the
cool sky at night: white, non-shiny surfaces, avoid all dark colored surfaces. White paint has a high reflection ratio on sun exposed
surfaces. Dark absorptive colors are usable where reflection towards the interior should be avoided (such as under eaves). Deep-
set surfaces can be dark-colored for winter radiation absorption. Bright color contrasts should be in agreement with the general
character of the region. [ 13 ]

• Internal colors, such as “cool” and bright colors can be used psychologically as a cooling contrast to intense outdoor heat and to
distribute natural light for deep room arrangements.

3.2.4.1 Foundations, basements and floors

(also see Chapter 3.1.4.1)

The ground is a valuable means of heat absorption; therefore the building should have maximum contact with the ground. Ground
floors should be solid and built directly on to the ground or into the ground with heat absorbing materials (stone, adobe, earth, high
density burnt clay or cement products) Ground floors should not be suspended and on no account be built on stilts. Flooring
materials should be of high thermal conductance. The ground near the building should be shaded during the day, but fully exposed
to the night sky, so that the emission of radiant heat is not obstructed. [ 8 ]

Fig 3/104

3.2.4.2 Walls
(also see Chapter 3.1.4.2)

During the hot season, walls of daytime living areas should be made of heat-storing materials; walls of rooms for nighttime use
should have a light heat capacity. East and west walls should preferably be shaded. High reflective qualities are desirable for both
thermal and solar radiation. [-13 ]

In regions with a less extreme diurnal temperature range and where the night temperature does not fall below comfort zone, the
internal walls and intermediate floors should have large thermal masses, whilst the outer walls and roof need a high resistive
insulation and reflectivity [-8 ]. Double walls with insulation in between are a suitable solution. (multylayer construction, see Chapter
3.1.3)

In regions with large diurnal temperature ranges and night temperatures below comfort level, inner and outer walls and - especially
in the absence of a ceiling - roofs should possess a large thermal capacity with an appropriate time lag to balance temperature
variations. To achieve this they must be constructed of heavy materials. The use of exterior or interior insulation has to be
considered carefully and its suitability depends on the particular requirements and technical possibilities.
3.2.4.3 Openings and windows
(also see Chapter 3.1.4.3)

Openings and windows are necessary for natural lighting and ventilation, but heat gain in summer should be minimal. During the
daytime, the absence of openings would be desirable, especially on the west side; or the openings should be as small as possible
and be shielded from direct radiation and located high on the walls to protect from ground radiation [ 13 ]. At night, the openings
should be large enough to provide adequate ventilation for the dissipation of heat emitted by the walls and the roof. Hence larger
openings should be closed during the day with insulated shutters and opened at night. Such systems are not always reliable
because they require the attendance and readiness of the inhabitants. Other considerations such as desired privacy and safety may
prevent the correct use of a system with shutters.

Appropriate natural lighting is important. The depth of rooms and the size of windows have to be coordinated. Glare of direct natural
lighting can also be avoided by the use of internally reflected light.

Fig 3/105 Indirect natural light

Orientation and size of openings

Main openings should face north and south, but the latter should be shaded either by shading devices, roof overhangs or by
deciduous trees. The size of the windows on the west and east sides should be minimized in order to reduce heat gains into the
house in the early morning and late afternoon, or also be protected by particular shading devices. A moderate, south-facing glass
area catches the solar radiation during the cold season, but should not be affected by direct radiation during the summer.

Window glass (also see Chapter 3.1.4.3)

Generally, single glazing is sufficient. Insulating and special heat-absorbing and heat-reflecting glass is basically only suitable for
air-conditioned buildings. Generally, single glazing is sufficient. Tight closing joints and window profiles are important to prevent the
penetration of hot air, sand, dust and insects.
(also see Chapter 3.4.4.3)

Placement of openings

Windows and other openings must be placed in suitable positions relation to the prevailing (cool) breeze to allow a natural airflow
through the building, to achieve air movement across the body for evaporative cooling and air changes for driving out excess heat.
An internal draft (cross-ventilation) can be channeled by louvres set in an upward position towards the ceiling or in a horizontal
position towards the human body. Outlet openings should be located at a high level where hot air accumulates.

In buildings in coastal areas, openings for cross-ventilation should be equipped with movable shutters. Because of the hot land wind
which occurs at night, openings facing the inland direction should be closable. [ 1 ] (also see Chapter 3.1.5.2)

For comfort, ventilation openings should be at the level of the occupants. High openings vent the hot air collecting near the ceiling
and are most useful for convective cooling.

Fig 3/106 Placement of openings

3.2.4.4 Roofs
(also see Chapter 3.1.4.4)

Different forms of roofs are possible or can be traditionally applied, the latter mainly determined by local materials and technical
means. In hot-arid regions the vault, the dome and the flat roof are the traditional roof shapes. The common construction method of
today, a 10 to 15 cm exposed concrete is the worst possible solution, because the inner surface temperature can reach up to 60°C,
which remains till late in the evening.

As the roof is the most critical part, high solar reflectivity and emissivity for long-wave radiation are essential, as well as thermal
insulation and/or adequate time lag. Outside application of insulation is preferable for reasons mentioned earlier, but needs an
additional, robust skin which protects the insulation from damage.

The rounded form of a hemispherical vault (dome) has a larger surface area than its base. Solar radiation is thus diluted and re-
radiation during the evenings is also greatly facilitated. [ 9 ]

Fig 3/107 Example of dome and vault structures

The flat roof is practical in areas where it seldom rains. It is also a good reflector and re-radiates heat efficiently, especially if it
consists of a solid, white painted material. (see Chapter 3.1.5, 3.2.5.2, 3.2.5.3) [ 13 ] High solid parapet walls along the edge of the
roof can on the one hand provide daytime shade and privacy, but can have the disadvantage of creating an undesired stagnant pool
of hot air. The construction and exact placement of parapet walls should therefore be carefully examined. [ 8 ]

Fig 3/108
A separate roof and ceiling are still today less common in hot-arid regions, whereas they are the obvious solution in warm-humid
climates. This efficient, but expensive solution (pitched or flat ventilated double roof) contrasts with the traditional form of most
desert buildings. However, the sloping roof with wall shading overhangs and a well-ventilated space between roof and ceiling
appears to be an appropriate, contemporary solution. [ 147 ]

Fig 3/109

If it is used, the material of the roof should be light and the ceiling material should be massive. The air enclosed in a double roof, or
between the roof and ceiling, may reach a very high temperature. This can be avoided by ample ventilation of the roof space by
openings facing the prevailing breeze. In addition, roofs (slopes) should be orientated towards the prevailing breeze and any
obstructions which would prevent the airflow next to the roof surfaces should be avoided.

Fig 3/110 Ventilated double roof with heavy ceiling

A somewhat less effective but also less expensive construction would be a simple ceiling with a ventilated roof space (also only
common in warm-humid climate zones). A shaded, ventilated roof is applicable primarily over rooms used at night.

Fig 3/111 Ventilated double roof with light ceiling

Sloped roofs could also provide cold airflow towards a courtyard. A membrane covering the courtyard in the daytime allows retention
of cool air and provides shade, but needs attendance by the inhabitants.

The efficiency of the central courtyard is increased by stretching a curtain across the courtyard early in the morning during the
summer months to trap the cool air. In the evening, this is removed to maximize the night radiation potential. [ 106 ]
 Fig 3/112

3.2.5 Special Topics

3.2.5.1 Shading devices

(also see Chapter 3.1.5.1)

In hot-arid zones, shading of the direct sun’s radiation and its reflection by surroundings is essential; diffuse radiation is less of a
problem. Shading can be provided by different means, such as placing buildings closely together, the shape of the building itself
(overhangs etc.), vegetation such as deciduous trees, or attached, special shading devices.

In hot maritime regions, the traditional “mashrabiyas” or “rowshans” are common. These projecting, screened (bay) windows or non-
projecting screened windows consist mainly of wooden, shading screens over large openings and allow cross-ventilation as well as
the passage of daylight while preserving family privacy. Some contain evaporative cooling means such as an earthenware water
pot.

Similar devices can be designed by contemporary means (see Chapter 3.1.5.3).

 Fig 3/113 Traditional screened windows (mashrabias and rowshans)

3.2.5.2 Natural ventilation

(also see Chapter 3.1.5.2, 3.1.4.3 and 3.2.4.3)

Basic principles and concepts

Ventilation is essential and must be regulated to achieve the highest efficiency in keeping hot (and dusty) air out during the daytime,
and cooling the thermal mass at night by air movement; if possible together with outside vegetation. Ventilation can only reduce
temperatures higher than the outside air temperature. However, if the air is very dry, any breeze also helps to evaporate sweat and
thus to cool the body. High rooms promote air circulation and increase the distance to a radiating ceiling. A low ventilation rate
during winter decreases the temperature variation and thus raises night temperatures. A high night ventilation rate in combination
with an internal thermal storage capacity is preferable during summer.

During the daytime, openings should be closed and shaded and ventilation kept to the absolute minimum necessary for hygienic
reasons. Openings should be placed according to the prevailing winds and allow cross-ventilation. Air intake openings should be
located so that the coolest and most dust-free air is taken and, if necessary, the air can be conveyed to the points in the building
where it is needed. Thus the cool conditions existing at dawn can be maintained inside the building for the longest possible period.
Internal heat sources should, if possible, be isolated and separately ventilated.

Electric fans (ceiling mounted etc.) may be used where little or no air movement occurs. (see Chapter 3.1.5.3)

Windcatchers (also see Chapter 3.1.5.2)

Windcatchers are a significant feature in the traditional structures to ventilate and cool buildings in hot desert and hot, coastal
regions. Wind pressure forces air down the wind catcher. Air circulation inside the building is achieved if there are openings on the
opposite side allowing suction of inner air by lower pressure.

Depending to the region, they have a variety of forms, details and ways of functioning, and are known in the Middle East as “malqaf”
and/or “badgir” [ 122, 149, 155 ]

a) Roof windcatcher
One kind of windcatcher (also called wind “chimney”) is built onto the roof. In some places the catchers are unidirectional and
orientated to catch favourable winds or are facing away from it to draw cool air from the court yard through rooms, and expel stale
air and smoke. By change of wind they are anticipated to reverse their function.

In other places pivoted scoops and multidirectional wind towers utilize winds from any direction. Generally, windtowers are square in
plan and have four internal shafts.

The principle involved is to catch an unobstructed breeze at a high level and channel it to areas in the bottom parts of the building.
The increased air-velocity supports perspiration and is thus cooling. The ducts are preferably built in a massive way to absorb the
heat of the incoming air and not exposed to solar radiation (e.g. northern wall), to enhance efficiency. In addition they should be
equipped with evaporative cooling means, such as porous water jugs, moist matting, wet charcoal etc., to achieve efficient cooling
(also see Chapter 3.1.5.3).

Fig 3/114 Unidirectional roof windcatcher

The inlet of the catcher should have a shutter to regulate the air movement and to protect against too cold or too hot air and against
sand. [ 9 ]

In the Middle East, wind catchers can provide sufficient ventilation and cooling during approximately six months of the year for
comfortable inner climatic conditions of today’s comfort requirements, without additional devices or the use of mechanical cooling or
heating systems. [ 155-]
 Fig 3/115 Multi-directional roof windcatcher (-tower); plan, section and perspective view

b) Mid-wall and parapet windcatchers

Structurally integrated wind catchers or scoops and air ducts are a special kind of vents and selective ventilators. A recessed,
horizontal niche on the external wall, e.g. on the floor level and in the roof parapet, creates a slot between two vertical, structural
posts. These mid-wall or parapet wind intakes or series of them may allow for enough cross-ventilation through the internal spaces
in humid weather, while preserving visual privacy. Shutters are necessary to control the air movement. Vertical air shafts integrated
into the wall provide air circulation within the building. [-155, 166-]

Fig 3/116 Mid-wall and parapet windcatchers

Solar chimneys and induction vents(see chapter 3.1.5.2)

These methods can also be applied in hot-arid regions.

Forced ventilation

Electric ventilators or fans represent simple active devices. They may be placed directly in the outer wall or combined with an air
duct system.
(also see Chapter 3.1.5.3)
3.2.5.3 Passive cooling means
(also see Chapter 3.1.5.3)

Cooling means should be integrated into the general ventilation concept of a building. Cooling can be achieved by the evaporation
of water. The dryer the air, the greater is the cooling potential.

A courtyard house with a dry, hot yard and a cool yard with vegetation and a pool represents a good example of such a ventilation
concept. A draft which passes through an evaporative cooler before entering the main rooms is created by the two yards.

Fig 3/117 Cooling system of a courtyard house

External cooling

External cooling External cooling through humidification can be achieved by keeping the surfaces of roofs and / or walls moist. (e.g.
lawn sprinkler) The surface temperature can be reduced by up to 30°C. However, the water consumption is excessive.

Fig 3/118 Sprinklers on the roof

Evaporative coolers

Air cooling and humidification or simple air conditioning devices are important means of internal cooling. Warm and dry air passing
over water is cooled by evaporating the water. Evaporative coolers have a limited effect and should only be used in relatively dry
climates.
 Fig 3/119 Evaporative cooler combined with a wind tower [-122 ]

a) Moist matting

An open weave matting of vegetable fibre (straw) is stretched on a wooden frame and is kept moist. The matting should be as fine
as possible, placed in front of windows and in the path of the natural airflow. The natural airflow should not be reduced and can also
be supported by a fan. The damp matting humidifies and cools the air as well as filters out the dust. [ 136 ]

Fig 3/120

b) Earthenware pots

Another simple system entails the use of large, porous earthenware pots filled with water which seeps through the walls of the pot
moistening the outside and, as it evaporates, cools the passing air. [ 9 ]
 Fig 3/121

c) Wet charcoal and water pools

In wind catchers, beds of wet charcoal over which the air passes before entering the room, are sometimes used. The same principle
can be applied by channelling breezes over pools or water sprays before they enter buildings. A spray pond is more effective than a
still pool of the same size and has the additional advantage that the air is not only cooled, but also cleaned by binding the dust
particles. Availability of water and maintenance aspects should not be neglected. [ 122 ]

Fig 3/122

Roof pond (also see Chapter 3.1.5.3)

A water body covering the roof functions similarly to a soil cover: it minimizes the diurnal temperature range. It is a technically
demanding and expensive solution. It also requires the daily attention of the users and is not very suitable for hot-arid regions of the
Third World.

Thermal walls and solar collectors (also see Chapter 3.1.5.3)

Solar walls are usually used to heat buildings and hence less suitable for hot-arid zones (see Chapter 3.4.5.3). They can, however,
also be used as a cooling device.

A wall exposed to the sun can be built in the form of a solar collector and used to create a draft. The air warmed up by the solar
collector creates a buoyancy which moves the air in the room. The air entering from there is cooled down by an absorber and
perhaps additionally by an evaporative cooler.

Fig 3/123
3.2.5.4 Active devices
(see Chapter 3.1.5.4)

Active devices, such as air conditioners, are often unavoidable and require a different building construction. Many passive means of
climatization, however, are also beneficial in that they drastically reduce running costs. With the increased possibilities for using
solar energy, active devices may become the means of the future.

Heating

In certain regions, particularly on higher altitudes, heating might be necessary in winter. (see Chapter 3.4.5.3)

Fig. 3/124