Think Ice!

Icing Awareness for BAE Systems Regional Aircraft Operators

REGIONAL AIRCRAFT
Think Ice!
Welcome to this latest edition of Think Therefore, in order to help further our surfaces flying through the same moisture
Ice! This is a revised version of the 2010 understanding of icing issues, we would like laden atmosphere that keeps us aloft and in
issue, see preface below for more details. to encourage aircraft operators and any business. The same restrictions, limitations
agencies that provide supporting services to and traps for the unwary therefore still largely
It is essential for aircraft to depart report icing related incidents to BAE Systems. exist.
snow/ice free, but an understanding of the
subsequent actions required to maintain a The hazards of flight in icing conditions have One twist is in the leading edge profiles of
safe aircraft is paramount. Therefore this long been recognised, and various steps have modern aerofoil sections. Even modern
publication includes articles and information been taken in an attempt to counter its turboprop aircraft fly considerably faster than
on air and ground procedures and effects ever since our developing aeronautical their piston engined predecessors thanks
associated products. ability first allowed us routinely to fly in cloud. partially to improved wing aerodynamics. The
However, despite the quantum leap in problem is that the resulting reduced leading
Unlike the content of previous Think Ice standards of understanding and technology in edge radii are better ice collectors than the
editions, which have been limited to ice the last decade or so, icing and the threat it plumper profiles of the older designs, and the
accretion on the outside of the airframe, this poses, remains a major cause for concern higher speeds allow better droplet penetration
edition introduces the issue of ice among aircrews. of leading edge pressure waves.
accumulation inside fuel tanks and its
potential impact on the supply of fuel to the Why should this be? Why, after over a century It may also be that the particular issues facing
feed tanks. In order to maintain a coherent of heavier than air powered flight, should we regional aviation recently have played a part.
message and because the primary aim is to still perceive icing as posing at least as big a De-regulation leading to more direct
indicate the most effective means for a hazard as it has ever been? Have we made competition; code sharing creating stiffened
maintenance regime to keep fuel tanks free of no real progress in countering its effects? Or schedule obligations; advances in technology
water, the complete Feed Low Level subject is have we, manufacturer, operator and regulator, diluting traditional airmanship skills; much
conveyed in one section at the end of the perhaps forgotten some of the basics? improved cockpit facilities encouraging
‘Ground Operations’ chapter. penetration into worse weather conditions.
Totally effective anti-icing systems are, and Perhaps these factors and more have served
Other topics include advice on flying control will remain for the foreseeable future, to distract us from the eternal truths of the
restrictions and the topic of thickened de-icing impossible to achieve within the bounds of causes and effects of icing.
fluids, pre-season de-icing, anti-icing fluid economic reality. But surely we have made
selection plus visual and tactile checking of progress towards lessening the dangers? The following pages therefore offer an
the aircraft. Well, yes, but perhaps not to the extent of opportunity to regain that focus, to refresh our
advances seen in other fields of modern memories of what the problem is all about
Our understanding of aircraft operations and aviation development. and to revisit basic air and ground
the effectiveness of associated controlling The sophistication of modern systems tends procedures.
actions is enhanced by the reporting of to obscure, but not alter, the fact that it is still
incidents that affect those operations. more or less the same wings, tails and control

Preface to Think Ice! 2014

BAE Systems Regional Aircraft has reviewed the use of the word ‘severe’ as used in our
Manuals in reference to icing. Whilst the majority of the information printed in previous
editions of Think Ice remains topical and current, the opportunity has been taken to
revise and update the booklet. We have also taken the opportunity to include Supercold
Large Drops and introduce the new regulatory icing appendices.

It is important to understsand that the intent of this booklet is to supplement the

information in the AFM, FCOM, MOM, CM and AMM and not to supersede it. If there is
any conflict in information then the official publication must be taken to be correct.
Contents
UNDERSTANDING ICING FLIGHT OPERATIONS
Definition of Icing Conditions 2 Taxying 24
The Icing Atmosphere 2 Pre Take-off Inspection 24
Aircraft Ice Accretion 4 Take-off 26
Aerodynamic Degradation due to Ice Good Operating Practices In-flight 26
Accretion 5
Icing Intensity Criteria 27
Icing Certification 9
Approach and Landing 27
After Shutdown 27
AIRCRAFT ICE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Systems Description 12
APPENDICES
Wing and Tail De-icing Systems 13
Appendix I: Jets 28
Anti-icing Systems 13
Appendix II: Turboprops 32

GROUND OPERATIONS
Facts 14
De-icing and Anti-icing Fluids 14
De-icing Procedures 16
Anti-icing Procedures 18
General Precautions 19
Runway De-icers 21
Final Check Before Dispatch 21
Maintenance Recommendations 22
2 Think Ice!

Understanding Icing
Definition of Icing Conditions

The Aircraft Flight Manuals (AFMs) include a In flight, airframe ice accretion will normally
definition of icing conditions for both ground be limited to forward facing surfaces, most
and in-flight operations. These are based on significantly the leading edges of the aerofoil
the Total Air Temperature (TAT) or Outside Air surfaces. The ice accretion can have a large
Temperature (OAT) along with the prevailing variety of shapes and textures ranging from
atmospheric and ground conditions. clear, thin ice (which can be difficult to
detect) to coarse rime and glaze ice forms
The AFM definition of icing conditions vary for with single or double horns. The effects of
the different BAE Systems regional aircraft such accretions on the operation of the
types and according to specific Airworthiness aircraft are assessed during the certification
Authority requirements. process.

Whether ice accretion will actually occur or

not depends upon many factors and therefore
flight crews must be vigilant at all times, both
on the ground and in the air.

The Icing Atmosphere

1. Cloud Forms

In-flight icing results from water droplets n Stratiform n Cumuliform

remaining in a liquid state even at
Icing in stratiform cloud occurs normally in Cumuliform clouds, of which cumulonimbus
temperatures considerably below 0 deg. C,
the middle to lower level clouds below (thunderstorm cloud) is the most hazardous,
called supercooled droplets. In discussing
20,000 ft. Stratiform clouds tend to be quite are important to the icing environment
aircraft icing, cloud types are placed into two
stable and create extensive horizontal because of their rapid development and large
general classifications: stratiform (layer type
coverage at different levels. Flight in icing liquid water content (LWC). They cover less
clouds) and cumuliform (clouds with vertical
conditions can be of long duration and forms area horizontally than stratiform clouds and
development). Fog differs from cloud only in
the criteria most often used for the design of icing intensities can vary from light (in small
that the cloud base is at ground level.
de-icing protection systems for wings, cumulus) to moderate or severe. Consequently
empennage and propellers. Icing intensity they form the criteria often used for the design
generally ranges from light to moderate, with of anti-ice protection systems such as engine
maximum values occurring at upper levels intakes, pitot static systems, heated leading
within these clouds. edges and control surface horns.
 Think Ice! 3

“Frost can also form on

windscreens and fuel tanks
when descending a cold
airframe into warm moist air”

2. Atmospheric Conditions

In addition to supercooled droplets, other

atmospheric conditions can individually or in
combination produce ice accretions.

n Ice crystal clouds n Freezing drizzle and rain n On ground

These are very cold clouds, where moisture Freezing drizzle and rain are large, Aircraft on the ground are susceptible to
has frozen to the solid or crystal state. This precipitating supercooled water droplets additional icing conditions. They include
includes snow, sleet, hail, graupel (pellets of which, on impact with aircraft surfaces, freezing fog, frost and falling or blown snow.
soft ice) and ice crystals. may result in ice accretion which is Frost accumulations can occur overnight and
beyond the capability of the ice protection where aircraft surface temperatures remain
n Mixed conditions systems. These conditions normally occur cold following descent from high altitudes.
at lower altitudes and are associated with
Many icing encounters consist of ice crystals Frost can also form on windscreens and fuel
a melting layer or temperature inversion,
and / or snow in combination with supercooled tanks when descending a cold airframe into
where rain falls through a sub zero
droplets. These can be critical as the mixture warm moist air.
temperature layer. These are extremely
of ice crystals and water droplets can adhere
hazardous conditions.
rapidly and roughly to the airframe, or
accumulate in an engine.
4 Think Ice!

Understanding Icing

Aircraft Ice Accretion

Ice forms in-flight on leading edges and frontal areas of the airframe, engine intakes and
spinners/propellers by a complex process involving both meteorological and aerodynamic
factors. Meteorological factors include the liquid water and ice crystal content of the clouds,
outside air temperature, droplet and crystal size and distributions. Aerodynamic factors include
aircraft speed, configuration, surface geometry and temperature, and surface adherence of
droplets and crystals.

1. Ice forms 2. Accretion efficiency

Three basic ice forms exist: Rime, Glaze Severe continuous icing conditions can be
(Clear) and Frost, although mixtures of Rime found near the freezing level in heavy
and Glaze ice are not unusual. stratified clouds, or in rain. Icing is rare at
higher altitudes as the droplets in the clouds
Rime ice is the most common form. Its are already frozen. However, in cumuliform
rough, opaque appearance results from small clouds with strong updrafts, large water
supercooled droplets trapping air as they droplets may be carried to high altitudes and
freeze on impact with the aircraft surface. It structural icing is possible up to very high
often has a spearhead or streamlined shape altitudes.
conforming to the shape of the surface or
aerofoil and is generally encountered in Indicated airspeed also influences the rate of
stratiform clouds. ice accretion, the higher the speed (below
about 250 knots IAS) the faster ice
accumulates. Kinetic heating due to skin
Glaze ice generally forms in cumuliform friction at speeds above 250 knots reduces
clouds when temperatures are close to risks of icing. In addition the angle of attack
freezing. Accretion is transparent and often relative to the position of the sun also has an
Rime ice accretion on a Jetstream 31.
produces a flat or concave ice shape with effect on ice accretion.
single or double ‘horns’. At the airflow
stagnation point on the leading edge, freezing In general, ice adheres to all forward facing
is delayed due to both friction and the heat surfaces of the airframe. The accretion rate or
released as the water begins freezing. This catch efficiency is primarily dependent on the
leads to runback ice, which initially creates a location and geometry. A relatively large
thin rough layer of ice either side of the radius aerofoil at moderate or low airspeed
stagnation line from which the flat fronted creates a larger pressure wave ahead of the
blunt shapes develop. Within the icing leading edge, which forces the air around it,
atmosphere, conditions vary continuously and carrying most of the moisture with it. Only
often suddenly, allowing both rime and glaze droplets sufficiently heavy to overcome this
ice to form on the same surface. flow will impact on the leading edge. Thus, a
large chord aerofoil with a blunt leading edge
has low ice accretion efficiency. Conversely, a
Frost is a thin layer of crystalline ice that can narrow radius leading edge generates a
form on all exposed areas of the aircraft. It is smaller pressure wave and so the accretion
generally associated with ground operations. rate is greater. The tailplane has in general a
(see page 14) sharper leading edge section and shorter
chord than the wings and consequently can
Glaze ice accretion on a Jetstream 31. accrete ice before it is visible on the wing and
at a greater rate.

3. Freezing drizzle and rain

Freezing drizzle and rain are relatively rare

phenomena. However, such conditions must
be treated with extreme caution as they can
result in severe icing. The water droplets can
be 1,000 times larger than the moisture
droplets in clouds, and ice can accrete
rapidly on the airframe and extend aft of the
normal accretion areas around airflow
stagnation points.
 Think Ice! 5

Aerodynamic Degradation due to Ice Accretion

1. Drag increases, Lift decreases

The effect of ice on aircraft performance and unprotected aerofoils. The result is a reduction
flight characteristics depends largely on the of lift at a given Angle of Attack (AOA) and a
aircraft design but also on the shape, substantial degradation in maximum lift and
roughness and depth of the ice. It generally maximum AOA. As illustrated, the degradation
results in decreased lift, increased drag, is generally more pronounced with glaze ice
increased stall speeds, trim changes and shapes.
altered stall characteristics. In some
circumstances there can be a change in control Large amounts of ice build-up on an
feel and response. The available thrust from unprotected aerofoil may reduce the maximum
engines can also be significantly decreased. lift by 30 to 40%, increasing the stall speed by
Weight increase due to in-flight ice accretion 20 kts or more (for a clean aerofoil stall speed
usually has minimal effect relative to the of 100 kts).
aerodynamic degradation.
The aircraft drag polar can be significantly
The aerodynamic penalties can be significant, affected, particularly on smaller aircraft, as
not only for unprotected surfaces but also for shown in the figure on the right. Ice will
those protected by leading edge boot de-icing increase the drag for a given lift as well as the
systems, since they need to allow some ice optimum lift-to-drag ratio occurring at a lower Typical effect of ice accretion on aerofoil drag polar.
build-up between shedding cycles. lift coefficient.

Wind tunnel and flight testing conducted under Even slight surface roughness, often referred to Control and trim effectiveness may be reduced.
research, development and certification as 'sandpaper' ice, can result in large lift and Aileron, rudder and elevator control systems
programmes, as well as operational experience drag penalties. The majority of maximum lift can be prone to freeze if water deposits, snow
have all demonstrated the significant effect of degradation often occurs with the first 1/4 to or ice are not properly drained from critical
ice on aircraft performance, flight 1/2 inch of ice accretion (6 to 13 mm). areas. Control surfaces may freeze or jam with
characteristics and equipment operation. The external ice accumulation.
areas normally affected include: wings, Further increase in ice depth and surface
horizontal and vertical stabilisers, engine inlets roughness has a less dramatic degradation of The power required to achieve or sustain a
and nacelles, propellers, windshields, radome, lift but will produce additional drag. Lift flight path can be increased significantly due to
antennae, pitot static system and cooling air degradation is associated with an increase in ice formation on the unprotected surfaces
intakes. The degradation of aircraft performance stall speed and decrease in stall AOA. With including areas of the airframe not visible from
and flight characteristics due to ice accretion significant ice accretion, the stall speed is the cockpit. For turboprops, ice accretion on
on such areas is well understood. increased substantially and pre-stall buffet may the propellers can significantly decrease the
precede the activation of the stall warning available thrust. Asymmetric ice shedding from
The figure below shows the typical effect of ice system, particularly on aircraft with an airframe propellers or jet engine fans can also give rise
accretion on the airflow and lift of leading edge boot de-icing system. to vibration.
6 Think Ice!

Understanding Icing

2. Wing stall

The stalling of a regional transport aircraft On the J41 and BAe 146/Avro RJ the signals However, with some of the more adverse ice
wing normally results from flow separation for stick shake and stick push are provided by shapes the stall warning may be preceded by
from the top surface. On the BAE Systems heated angle of attack vanes mounted on airframe buffet and the stick pusher (when
regional aircraft types this usually starts at the each side of the forward fuselage. fitted) may be preceded by some lateral
inboard wing trailing edge or at the wing-to- instability, wing rock, pitch nodding or ‘g’
fuselage and wing-to-nacelle junctions. The With the aircraft clear of ice, the stick shaker breaks. This is more probable on the aircraft
BAe 146 and Avro RJ aircraft are all fitted provides a clearly distinguishable warning of types with wing mounted lift transducers, due
with stall triggers (toblerones) on the inboard approach to the stall. Where the stall to ice accretion around the protected area of
wing leading edges. These simple devices identification is provided by the natural the vanes. With ice accreted on the leading
ensure that the airflow separation initiates on aerodynamic characteristics, acceptable edges, high rates of descent can develop at
the inboard wing. As AOA is increased, the indications include a nose down pitch, heavy high flap angles. It does not require an
separated flow spreads forward and outward, buffeting and aircraft rolling motion. Natural excessive level of ice accretion to generate
preventing any pitch up at the stall. Vortex stalling on aircraft with a stick pusher system these wing stalling characteristics, accretions
generators on the wing top surface are installed should not usually be experienced by of just 12.7 mm (1/2 in) can be sufficient.
commonly used to harness local airflow energy pilots. The Jetstream 41 stall warning and
to delay separation at the trailing edge. identification system was modified so that the
With ice accretion on the wing leading edges, stick shaker and stick pusher operate at a
All of the BAE Systems regional aircraft types the mechanism of stall development remains lower AOA in icing conditions. The ‘Ice Mode'
have a stick shaker installed to provide a clear the same but starts at a lower AOA and system is armed by the pilot's selection of
indication to the pilot that the aircraft is therefore higher speed. In addition the airflow engine anti-icing and ensures that the stall
approaching the onset of a stall. The margin does not have the same level of energy warning and identification system operates
above the stall at which the stick shake around vortex generators (if fitted) for them to correctly when the aircraft has accreted ice on
operates exceeds the minimum airworthiness delay progression of the stalled area as the leading edges. The relevant speeds are
requirements, but will vary with flap effectively as on a clean wing. increased with the ‘Ice Mode’ armed.
configuration, power and rate of approach to
the stall. The overall effect of ice accretion on the On the BAe 146 and Avro RJ the stall warning
stalling characteristics is also dependent on and identification system has been
Stall identification is defined either through the type of airframe ice protection system demonstrated to operate correctly at the
the inherent aerodynamic characteristics of installed. In general, the effect of ice normal AOA settings, with the airframe ice
the aircraft (HS748 and ATP), or by a stick accretion on aircraft with leading edge boot protection operating normally. As a result
pusher device, incorporated in the elevator de-icing systems installed is more adverse there is no adjustment required for flights in
control circuit, that induces an abrupt nose due to the ice accretion required prior to light or moderate icing conditions.
down pitch change (J31/32, J41, BAe 146 operation of the system and inter-cycle ice
and Avro RJ). build-up. Recovery from a stall, with or without ice
accretion on the airframe, is achieved by
The J31/32, HS748, and ATP aircraft utilise Where airframe anti-icing systems are installed reducing the pitch attitude, allowing the speed
lift transducers, located on the leading edge as on the BAe 146 and Avro RJ, the protected to rise and the AOA to reduce after the
of each wing, to sense the airflow pattern areas of the airframe will in general be clear natural stall or operation of the stick pusher,
over the wing and provide the signal for the of ice and so the effect of ice on stalling whilst applying power.
stick shaker and, where fitted, stick pusher. characteristics can be less pronounced.
 Think Ice! 7

3. Tailplane stall

The phenomenon of tailplane stall is of With ice accreted on the tailplane, flow In the worst case, the elevator would be
considerable interest, particularly within the separation may develop on the lower surface, forced to the nose down stop if unrestrained,
regional aircraft industry. It is one that has which will limit the maximum amount of and the aircraft would respond accordingly
affected aircraft throughout the history of downward lift the tailplane can generate and by pitching nose down, often rapidly. This
flight, including modern turboprop and jet cause the tail to stall at a lower AOA. would be in addition to the aircraft’s natural
aircraft. In order to increase the general nose down pitching tendency as the tailplane
awareness and understanding of its The development of flow separation will also loses downward lift effectiveness, and could
mechanism, an explanation of the causes is result in an adverse change in the relative require an extremely high pull force on the
given below. pressure distribution over the upper and lower control column to recover.
surfaces. Since the forces about the elevator
A tailplane stalls when the maximum angle of hinge and the resultant stick forces sensed by
attack for the tailplane, either positive or the pilot are balanced by aerodynamic and
negative, is exceeded. The following mechanical system forces, any change to the
discussion addresses the more common airflow can affect the stick forces.
negative tailplane stall and is concentrated on
aircraft with un-powered mechanical elevator Tailplane stall may therefore be sensed by the
controls and airframe de-icing systems. pilot as a control anomaly (e.g. stick
lightening), pitch instability or nose down trim
Normally, the tailplane creates a force (lift) in change. For un-powered mechanical elevator
the downward direction to balance wing and controls, the magnitude and direction of stick
fuselage pitching moments. Under normal force anomalies will depend upon the size and
conditions, without ice accreted, aerodynamic configuration of the elevator control system
pressures above and below the elevators are and the difference in pressure between the
roughly equal and thus create no significant upper and lower surfaces.
control surface hinge moment (see illustration
below).
8 Think Ice!

Understanding Icing

4. Flap extension

Extending the flaps increases the airflow

downwash angle from the wing and the
tailplane negative AOA (see figure opposite).
For a given flap setting, the AOA on the
tailplane becomes more negative with
increasing speed because of the reduced AOA
of the wing (more nose down, more tail up).
Therefore, at higher flap angles and airspeeds
the wing stall margin is increased, but the
tailplane stall margin is further reduced.

The occurrence of stall on any aerofoil

contaminated by ice almost always occurs at
a lower angle of attack than a clean aerofoil,
hence any ice accretion reduces the tailplane
stall margin further. It is worth emphasising
that ice can form on the tailplane at a greater
rate than the wing, primarily due to its
relative small size and smaller leading edge
radius. This can lead to a significant build
up of ice which is not evident from
observation of ice accretion on other areas
of the airframe.

In general, the most adverse combination of

factors for tailplane stall is ice accretion of
critical shape, roughness and location,
maximum flap extension, forward centre of
gravity, high power and nose down elevator
control inputs (which result in a tailplane
camber adverse to the airflow). On the BAE
Systems Regional Aircraft turboprop types,
higher airspeeds close to the maximum flap
extension speed are also adverse, although Effect of flap angle on tailplane angle of attack.
flight testing of the HS748 demonstrated that
speeds close to the normal landing speeds
can also be critical.

However, it should be understood that

tailplane stall factors can be complex,
and consequently symptoms for crew
recognition and appropriate recovery
actions are specific to the aircraft type
and configuration. This is addressed
further in Appendix II: Turboprops.
 Think Ice! 9

Icing Certification

To be approved for flight into known or Detailed guidance material for ground These flight tests are often preceded by dry
forecast icing conditions, an aircraft must be operations is provided by airworthiness air wind tunnel tests with artificial ice shapes.
equipped with ice protection systems, which authorities, including FAA Advisory Circular The shapes can be defined from icing tunnel
are designed to provide protection for the AC20-117. In all cases the emphasis is on a tests, flight tests in simulated icing conditions,
range of conditions likely to be encountered in ‘clean aircraft’ policy for take-off and this has or more commonly by analysis using computer
service. The BAE Systems Regional Aircraft always been observed for the BAE Systems simulation models.
range of aircraft has been certificated for range of regional aircraft.
flight in icing conditions in accordance with a n Icing flight tests, including natural and
variety of certification bases. Such simulated icing conditions. Flight tests
certifications do not, however, allow 3. Compliance demonstration in measured natural icing conditions are
unrestricted flight with ice on the aircraft. conducted to demonstrate that the ice
They also assume that flight crews follow all In order to demonstrate compliance with the protection systems perform as predicted
drills and procedures and exercise appropriate certification regulations, extensive analysis and to determine the handling and
airmanship. This section provides details of and testing are required for the ice protection performance characteristics or validate the
the current Federal Aviation Authority (FAA), systems and the aircraft handling and results of flight tests conducted with
European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and performance characteristics. artificial ice shapes.
Joint Airworthiness Authority (JAA) certification
requirements for flight in icing conditions. Analysis must be performed to establish the
Additional flight tests in simulated icing
adequacy of the ice protection systems for
conditions are generally conducted for ice
the various components of the aircraft. The
protection systems. However, they may also
1. Certification requirements effectiveness of the ice protection systems
be required for assessment of handling and
and the effect of ice accretion on the aircraft
performance characteristics in specific
The applicable icing environment within which handling and performance characteristics
conditions within the Appendix C icing
the aircraft must be able to operate safely for must then be demonstrated by flight tests.
envelopes.
FAA and EASA certification is defined by These normally include tests in measured
FAR/CS/JAR-25 Appendix C. Design criteria natural atmospheric icing conditions, in
are described in terms of cloud LWC, median combination with dry and icing wind tunnel
volume droplet diameter, ambient tests, dry air flight tests in simulated icing
temperature, cloud type and horizontal extent. condition (behind an icing tanker aircraft) and
The cloud types are stratiform for maximum dry air flight tests with artificial simulated ice
continuous intensity of icing conditions and shapes. Flight tests for icing certification are
cumuliform for intermittent maximum generally conducted in the following stages:
intensity. Small aircraft certificated under FAR
Part 23 rules (such as J31/32) must meet n Dry air flight tests with ice protection
the same icing design criteria as Part 25 large equipment installed. These tests are
transport category aircraft. carried out primarily to ensure all of the
ice protection systems function correctly
and to verify that the systems do not
2. Operational regulations affect the flying qualities of the aircraft in
dry air. Where ice protection is provided by
The operating rules and aircraft ice protection heating, thermal profiles are recorded for
systems required for flight into known or correlation with analysis.
forecast icing conditions, including ground
n Dry air flight tests with predicted
operations, are enforced by the FAA in Parts
artificial ice shapes installed. The
91, 121 and 135 of the regulations. For
installation of artificial ice shapes on the
commercial aircraft operating under European
leading edges allows aircraft performance
regulations the applicable requirements are
and handling characteristics to be
given in EU-OPS 1.
evaluated for specific critical icing
conditions.
10 Think Ice!

Understanding Icing

4. Ice accretion 5. Handling 7. Take-off

During certification flight testing for Detailed advisory material for the Aircraft which are certificated for flight in icing
assessment of the handling and performance demonstration of handling and performance conditions are not certificated for take-off with
characteristics for an aircraft with airframe de- characteristics in icing conditions is provided ice formations or any other surface
icing systems, ice accretion on both the by the FAA, JAA and EASA. Satisfactory contaminant. Such ice formations or
unprotected and protected leading edges stability and control must be demonstrated contamination must be cleared from the
must be considered. The ice accretion with the most critical ice accretion pertinent airframe and the aircraft sustained in a clean
requirements for protected areas must be to each flight phase and related configurations condition prior to take-off.
consistent with the procedures for operating (including take-off, climb, cruise, descent,
the protection system, and should include the holding, approach and landing). In particular, Although not specifically required by
ice accumulation required prior to system extensive flight testing is required to examine Airworthiness Authorities, flight testing has
activation and accretion during the rest period stall warning and stall characteristics, been carried out to investigate the effects on
of a de-icing cycle. In addition, failure of the longitudinal controllability (including pushovers performance and handling by the application
airframe ice protection must also be assessed to zero ‘g’ for assessment of tailplane stall of Type II and IV anti-icing fluids on the BAE
and failures which require the aircraft to leave margin), flaps configuration changes and Systems regional aircraft types. Their
icing conditions established. longitudinal, lateral and directional stability presence on wing and tailplane surfaces was
and trimmability. demonstrated not to affect the aircraft stall
characteristics, climb performance or cause a
6. Performance noticeable loss of lift during take-off. However,
in some cases an increase in stick force was
Assessment of aircraft performance for flight recorded during take-off rotation, but the
in icing conditions must not only account for aircraft remained fully responsive to control
accumulated ice on unprotected surfaces and inputs. In general, the rotation speeds of the
any residual ice on protected surfaces, but BAe 146/Avro RJ are sufficiently high that the
also the effects of the ice protection systems majority of the fluid will be sheared off the
on engine power. wing and tail and stick forces remain normal.

To ensure safe flight in icing conditions, the

effect on performance must be established.
Ice accretion on the Jetstream 41 wing during normal Comparison of climb rates and cruise speeds
operation of the airframe de-icing boots.
of the clean aircraft and the aircraft with ice
accreted should be used to determine the
performance degradation. Stall speeds with
ice accreted are used to establish safe flight
speeds, from which scheduled performance
can be derived.

The level of scheduled performance data

provided in the Aircraft Flight Manual and
Operating Manuals depends on aircraft type
and the requirements of specific Airworthiness
Authorities. It is worth noting that aircraft
performance can be significantly degraded
due to ice accretion on unprotected areas of
the airframe not visible from the flight deck.
Ice accretion on the Jetstream 41 wing following a
simulated failure of the airframe de-icing boots.

Ice accretion on landing gear.

 Think Ice! 11

8. Landing 11. Summary

Assessment of the aircraft handling For certification tests on new aircraft all All regional aircraft types of BAE Systems are
characteristics during approach and landing National Aviation Authorities are introducing certified for flight into known and forecast
can be conducted with either artificial ice regulations to improve the level of safety when icing conditions, and are designed to meet,
shapes or, on an opportunity basis, during the operating in icing conditions. In order to and usually to exceed, the criteria demanded
natural icing trials if substantial ice accretions achieve this Appendix O is being issued to CS by the Airworthiness Authorities.
remain on the airframe. In these circumstances and FAR, and this Appendix will also address
increased landing speed is required. engines and pitot tubes.

10. Systems

Extensive flight testing in a broad range of

natural icing conditions is required to assess
the performance of all de-icing and anti-icing
systems and to establish procedures for their
operation. Ice protection system performance
and effectiveness must be evaluated both for
normal operation and following delayed
activation or simulated failure of the system.

Icing wind tunnels have also been used

extensively for the regional aircraft types of BAE
Systems for assessment of the ice protection
Jetstream 31 engine intake and propeller icing
systems, in particular leading edge de-icing
deliberately accreted during tanker trials.
Post flight ice accretion on the outboard wing of a boots and electrically heated systems
Jetstream 41. such as pitot probes and stall vanes. Engine
ice protection systems, de-icing and anti-icing, However, it should be remembered that the
are generally developed through many hours aircraft are only certificated and approved for
9. Freezing drizzle and rain of ground testing in icing test cells prior to flight flight in supercooled water droplet conditions,
testing in natural icing conditions or in as defined in FAR/CS/JAR-25 Appendix C.
A Turboprop accident in 1994 drew attention simulated icing conditions using a tanker spray
to freezing drizzle and atmospheric icing aircraft. The icing plume created by tanker It is important that flight crews are conscious
conditions that were outside the existing aircraft can lead to ice accretions well beyond that every atmospheric icing encounter is
FAR/CS/JAR Appendix C icing envelope which that generally encountered in natural icing different and that hazardous conditions can
had been used for certification of large conditions. However, if the conditions are within occasionally be met which may be beyond the
aircraft. Another atmospheric icing condition, the design icing envelopes then the protected capabilities of the aircraft's protection
also outside the Appendix C icing envelope is area should remain essentially clear of ice. systems.
freezing rain. These icing conditions constitute
an icing environment known as Supercooled
Large Drops (SLD). Flight through such icing
conditions may cause airframe ice accretion
that exceeds the capabilities of the aircraft’s
ice protection systems, and may seriously
degrade performance and control.

BAE Systems recommend that such

conditions should be avoided or left
immediately.
12 Think Ice!

Aircraft Ice Protection Systems

Systems Description System layout shown on a Jetstream 41.

Vertical Stabilizer De-icing Boot

In order to maintain the safety levels and
Elevator Horn Heating Mat
performance of the aircraft in icing conditions,
all BAE Systems regional aircraft types are Outboard Horizontal
fitted with comprehensive ice protection Heating AOA Propeller Stabilizer De-icing
Vanes Heating Mat Boot
systems. Whilst installations and Windscreen
specifications vary between the different Heating
Elements
aircraft types, the principles remain the same.
Inboard Horizontal
Windshield Wipers Stabilizer De-icing
and Washers Boot

Inboard Wing
De-icing Boot
Heated Static
Plates Heated Pitot Engine Intake Ice Observation Mid Wing Outboard Wing
Ice Detector Head Hot Air Anti-icing Light De-icing Boot De-icing Boot
TAT Probe

1. Concept of de-icing and anti-icing 2. Ice detection methods

It is useful to clarify what is meant by the However, where de-icing is provided by cyclic The certificated primary means of ice
terms ‘Anti-icing’ and ‘De-icing’, since their heating due to a restriction on the power detection on all the BAE Systems regional
sometimes random use when applied to available, and not from a requirement to aircraft types is by visual inspection of the
aircraft systems suggests that some confusion allow deliberate ice accretion for the system airframe by the flight crew. This should
may exist. In strict terms, the following to function effectively (as with inflatable include observation of the following areas:
definitions could be said to apply: boots), it may be argued that it is in reality an
anti-icing operation. Consequently, n Windshield.
n Anti-icing is the prevention of ice descriptions of ice protection systems such as
formation, generally by means of heating electrically protected propellers and engine n Windshield pillars.
(electrical, ducted engine bleed air, engine intakes can appear in manufacturers’ n Windshield wiper bosses.
oil etc.). manuals for example as either:
n Wing leading edges (these can be
n De-icing is the removal of ice that has illuminated at night).
De-icing - Wing and tail leading edges
accreted, normally by means of cyclic
- Propeller leading edges n Propeller or engine fan spinners.
heating or the application of a physical
- Engine intakes
impulse (commonly achieved on leading Ice detection systems, which provide a
edges by pneumatic boot inflation). secondary (advisory) means of detection, are
Anti-icing - Windshields
ns - Engine intakes fitted to some types. These provide the flight
- Pitot heads and static plates crew with a cockpit indication when ice is
- Temperature probes accreted on the detection device.
- Angle of attack (stall) vanes
- Control surface balance horns

Ice accretion on windshield - hazardous icing conditions.

 Think Ice! 13

Tail Anti-ice

Wing Anti-ice

Wing De-ice/Anti-ice

Engine Intake Anti-ice

Windshield
De-ice / Anti-ice
Heated Drain Mast
Windshield
Wipers
Washers

Heated Drain Mast

Anti-ice
Static Plates
Anti-ice
Pitot Head Engine Intake Wing Anti-ice
Q Pot Head
Anti-ice Anti-ice
Airflow Sensor Vanes
Ice Detector
System layout shown on a BAe 146/Avro RJ.

Wing and Tail De-icing Systems

The leading edges of the wings and stabilisers Thus while the jet engine core can absorb 3. Windshield
are de/anti-iced by either inflatable boots or the loss of propulsive power incurred in
ducted bleed air. Operation of hot air systems driving an anti-icing system, similar All forward facing windshields and some side
is prohibited during take-off and landing in extraction demands placed on the turboprop screens are electrically heated. These are
order to limit the amount of bleed taken from would impose proportionally much greater continuously heated to provide not only ice
the engines. Ground operation is also performance penalties. These are normally protection but demisting and on some types
prohibited as overheating could distort the unacceptable when balanced against the to increase the impact strength of the screen.
leading edges. The BAe 146/Avro RJ type has performance degradation due to airframe ice
a hot air de-icing system on the inboard accretion. 4. Elevator horn
section of the wing, designed to remove ice
prior to holding or landing, and a hot air anti- Anti-icing Systems The unshielded elevator aerodynamic balance
ice system on the outboard section of the horns on the J31/32 and J41 are anti-iced
wing and on the tail. 1. Turbo-fan engine using electrically heated mats.

n Hot air versus inflatable boots Engine intakes, compressor inlet ducts and 5. Pitot head, static plate, TAT probe and
fuel control sensors are all heated to prevent AOA vane
The fundamental reason why turboprop
the formation of ice. The systems are
aircraft are generally fitted with pneumatic
designed for continual operation (some To prevent ice accretion on pitot heads, static
boot de-icing systems, as opposed to the
restrictions may apply on the ground) and plates, temperature probes and AOA vanes,
anti-icing heating systems found on most jet
should be selected ON when icing conditions independently switched and sourced electrical
transport aircraft, is found in the power
exist. heating is provided. These systems are
required for them to function.
selected ON during the after start checks or
2. Turbo-propeller the pre take-off checks.
Wing and empennage anti-icing systems must
not only prevent ice forming on leading edges, Each blade is fitted with an electrically heated 6. Continuous ignition
they must also provide enough heat to rubber mat in the root area controlled by a cyclic
evaporate the moisture to prevent it from timer. Any ice forming on the unheated portion Although not normally associated with aircraft
running back and freeze on the unprotected will shed by centrifugal force, the fuselage being de-icing / anti-icing, the use of continuous and
surfaces. Therefore they need very much protected by a Kevlar shield adjacent to the automatic ignition systems is important to
more bleed air to operate than pneumatic de- propeller disc zone (except for the HS 748 type). prevent the flame-out of an engine due to
icing systems do, bleed air that simply is not Propeller heating systems must only be used ingestion of large amounts of precipitation or
available from the turboprop engine. when the engine is running to prevent slush.
overheating of the propeller leading edges.
14 Think Ice!

Ground Operations

The basis for safe flight operations in cold

weather conditions is the ‘CLEAN AIRCRAFT
CONCEPT’. This involves de-icing and if
necessary anti-icing an aircraft so that the
surfaces are clear of ice, snow, slush or frost
at take-off.

This section provides information on ground

operations in cold weather conditions, and
is mostly applicable to all aircraft types. For
more specific details on jet aircraft see
Appendix I, and for turboprops see
Appendix II.

Facts De-icing and Anti-icing Fluids

“Taking off with frost is like walking toward the edge of a cliff blindfolded”. Operators are advised that it is their
Kurt Blankenship, NASA research pilot. responsibility, in accordance with operating
guidelines issued by their relevant
n Any deposit of ice, snow or frost on the n A thorough pre-flight inspection is airworthiness authority, that suitable de/anti-
external surfaces of an aircraft may extremely important when operating in icing fluids are used. BAE Systems Regional
drastically affect its flying qualities winter conditions. At very low Aircraft advise that fluids approved to the
because of reduced aerodynamic lift, temperatures the urge to hurry is natural, latest revisions of the Society of Automotive
increased drag and modified stability and particularly when the aircraft is outside, Engineers (SAE) AMS 1424 and AMS 1428
control characteristics. but unfortunately this is the time when the are suitable for use, if they are applied in
greatest care is needed. accordance with the recommended de-icing
n Freezing deposits, including anti-icing fluid and anti-icing procedures, and an appropriate
residues, may cause moving parts such as n Due to the wide climatic variations inspection and cleaning programme is
elevators, ailerons, flap actuating encountered during cold weather aircraft adopted to minimise the build-up of residues.
mechanisms, etc. to jam and create a operations, individual operators should
potentially hazardous condition. designate a cold weather operations There are four basic types of de-icing /anti-
period (e.g. from October to April in the icing fluids, as follows:
n Engine operation may be seriously Northern Hemisphere) for the
affected by the ingestion of snow, ice or implementation of their cold weather ‘Type I’ Fluids
de/anti-icing fluid into the engine, causing operating procedures tailored to their
n Type I fluids are ‘unthickened’ and have a
engine stall or compressor damage. environment and experience. Early
relatively low viscosity.
preparation for winter season operations
n Most cold weather operating difficulties will always prove beneficial. n They have good de-icing properties but
are encountered on the ground, the most provide negligible protection against re-
critical periods being immediately pre- n Given good maintenance practices, freezing.
flight and post-flight. Proper diligence on including frequent inspections for and
everyone’s part concerning ground cleaning of anti-icing fluid residues, and n They are used predominantly for removing
operation is an important factor in adherence to the recommendations made frozen deposits from aircraft surfaces,
successful cold weather operations. in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual ATA either in the first step of a two-step
Chapter 12, cold weather operations can operation, or where precipitation has
be confidently performed and a high level stopped.
of dispatch reliability maintained. n In undiluted form they are not to be used
at ambient temperatures below -10 deg. C
due to adverse aerodynamic effects.
 Think Ice! 15

n Type I fluids are normally colourless in n Type III fluids reduce in viscosity faster Pre-season Fluid selection
appearance. than type II and type IV fluids and thus
When developing their Winter Operations
provide anti-icing protection for a shorter
policy, in addition to the normal consideration
period.
‘Type II’ Fluids of hold-over times and fluid concentration,
n The holdover time can be extended by operators are strongly recommended to
n Type II fluids contain thickening agents determine the residue forming characteristics
increasing the concentration of fluid in the
which enable the fluid to be deposited as of the Type II, III and IV fluids that are
fluid/water mix.
a film and to remain on the aircraft available at the various stations for their
surfaces until the time of take-off. n Type III fluids are normally bright yellow in operations.
appearance.
n This film provides a longer holdover time It has been seen that fluids with higher
especially in conditions of freezing residue characteristics may lead to heavier
precipitation, providing anti-icing ‘Type IV’ Fluids and faster residue build-up, which increases
protection against re-freezing or further inspection and cleaning frequencies, and the
n Type IV fluids have been developed in
accumulation in precipitation conditions. potential for a frozen control incident to occur.
recent years to increase holdover times by
n The holdover time can be extended by the further addition of thickening agents. Information on the residue characteristics for
increasing the concentration of fluid in the all Type II, III and IV fluids is published by the
n These fluids should only be used on BAE Anti-Icing Materials International Laboratory
fluid/water mix.
Systems aircraft subject to certain (AMIL) on their website at:
n The fluids are designed to flow off the operating restrictions. http://www.uqac.ca/amil/en/, and updated
wings when subjected to shear forces at regularly. Although these residue curves are
n Type IV fluids are normally coloured green.
take-off, causing little effect on the not named, fluid manufacturer contact
As with Type II, their holdover times can
aircraft’s aerodynamic performance. information is provided. It is recommended
be extended by increasing the fluid
n Type II fluids are normally straw coloured concentration in the fluid / water mix. that each relevant fluid manufacturer is
in appearance. contacted to find the position of the fluids
All fluids must be used in accordance with the available on the graph, to determine the best
manufacturers’ recommendations. If fluid for use. The fluid with the lowest curve
‘Type III’ Fluids improperly used, they can cause undesirable
and potentially hazardous changes in aircraft should be chosen to minimise the build-up of
n Type III fluids contain thickening agents performance, stability and control. residues.
which enable the fluid to be deposited as
Fluids used during ground de/anti-icing are
a film and to remain on the aircraft
not intended for, and do not provide, ice
surfaces until the time of take-off.
protection during flight.
16 Think Ice!

Ground Operations

De-icing Procedures 1. Mechanical means

CAUTION: The instructions given in the Soft snow and slush should be first removed Thick accumulation of snow can be removed
Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) are using brooms, soft hand brushes or rubber from aircraft surfaces with the use of an
overriding, therefore only carry out the scrapers. Do not attempt to remove snow by Ingersoll-Rand type heavy-duty air compressor,
procedures permitted in that manual. beating it and do not use tools to scrape or with a cold blast directed from a cherry-picker
scratch compacted snow from surfaces or type boom at a safe distance of two to six
De-icing is the procedure by which snow, ice, from between fixed and movable surfaces metres depending on air pressure used.
frost, and/or slush are removed from all and/or components. Using de-icing fluids
surfaces, openings and hinge points of an initially for complete snow removal is Lighter snow accumulations can be removed
aircraft to provide clean surfaces. ineffective and could result in a weak mixture from fuselage and wing upper surfaces by
re-freezing and creating an icing condition working a length of cotton rope, cloth or
De-icing gives very limited to NO protection more difficult to remove. It is always good small-diameter fabric fire hose back and forth
against further accumulations of ice or snow. practice as a pre-step process to remove over the surfaces.
De-icing measures can be accomplished by large amounts of contamination prior to the
several means, such as: application of de-icing or anti-icing fluids, as it If using warm air to remove snow, continue
reduces the quantity of glycol-based fluid heat application until the surface is completely
n Mechanical means (broom, warm air) needed. dry. Exercise care not to overheat structure or
n Heated hangar system components (see caution; in the
n De-icing fluids Remove snow from upper fuselage areas operating manuals). A heating source
before heating the aircraft interior, as water providing a large volume of warm, dry air is
Mechanical means or a heated hangar should from melting snow might freeze over windows more effective than a small volume of hot air
be used to de-ice the aircraft’s ‘no spray’ and lower fuselage. and can be used with less danger of
zones (Refer to AMM chapter 12). overheating.
Make sure that wing and empennage control
Large deposits of snow and slush must first surfaces are not damaged by implements Hot air can also be used to further clean the
be removed by mechanical means. used for snow removal, and when clearing engine intakes where permitted by the AMM.
snow from upper fuselage, avoid damage These areas should always be inspected, even
to communications antennae. when blanks are fitted. This was once
reported on an aircraft parked outside all night
Remove all snow accumulations on fuselage with blanks fitted. In the morning, the crew
nose forward of the windscreen as snow managed to remove two large handfuls of ice
might blow back and stick to it, restricting per engine, which had formed overnight as a
pilot’s visibility during take-off. result of water entering, pooling and freezing,
despite the blanks having been fitted. If ice
Remove snow from the top surface of the has accumulated on fan blades, hot air is the
horizontal stabilisers forward to the leading only method to clean this deep inside the
edge. After being placed in the neutral engine area.
position, the elevators should be cleaned from
their leading edge towards their trailing edge. For window areas, externally-applied heat
With the rudder in the neutral position, the should be used with care since high
vertical stabiliser and rudder should be temperatures on cold windows will crack or
cleaned from the top, downwards. craze the transparency.

Snow removal from the wings should start at When the aircraft is clean, all openings
the root, working towards the tip and trailing between fixed surfaces and flight controls
edge, avoiding the control surfaces. After should be carefully checked for the presence
being placed in the neutral position, the of snow, slush or ice which could impair free
control surfaces should be cleaned from their movement. Bottled nitrogen or a source of dry
leading edge towards their trailing edge. unheated air may be used to blow snow out
of these areas.
 Think Ice! 17

2. De-icing fluids

The landing gears and wheel wells should be The de-icing fluids are: and in conjunction with a two-step de- and
cleared of snow and slush, preferably using a anti-icing procedure (Refer to Anti-icing
brush. n Heated water (recommended). Procedures chapter).

Check that drain holes are open and flow n Type I fluid.
Removal of snow: a nozzle setting sufficient
freely. n Heated concentrates or mixtures of water to flush off deposits should be used. For heavy
and Type I fluid (recommended). deposits of wet snow a high fluid flow will be
If snow, slush or ice is suspected in seals or
n Heated concentrates or mixtures of water required, whereas with light deposits of dry or
control surfaces, a detailed check is
and Type II fluid. wet snow, similar procedures as for frost
advisable. The aircraft should not be cleared
removal may be employed.
for flight until the seals, gaps and all control n Heated concentrates or mixtures of water
components are completely clear and dry. and Type III fluid. With a heavy accumulation of snow, always
n Heated concentrates or mixtures of water consider removing the worst of the snow
After completing snow and slush removal, a
and Type IV fluid. manually before attempting a normal de-icing
functional check of each flight control system
procedure.
should be performed. The use of Type II, III or IV fluids for de-icing
is not recommended as it increases the build- Removal of frost and light ice: a nozzle
For window areas, externally-applied heat up of residues. setting giving a solid cone (fan) spray should
should be used with care since high
be used. This ensures the largest droplet
temperatures on cold windows will crack or For maximum efficiency, all of the above de-
pattern available, thus retaining the maximum
craze the transparency. icing fluids should be heated (60 to 90 deg. C
heat in the fluid.
at the nozzle exit) and applied close to the
surface of the skin to minimise heat loss. A
Removal of ice and frozen snow: heated
minimum distance of 2.5 yards (2.3 metres)
fluid should be used to break the bond
must be maintained though to prevent
between ice deposits and the aircraft skin.
damage to the skin). The heat in the fluid
Making use of the high thermal conductivity of
effectively melts any frost, as well as light
the metal skin, the adhesion of a large area of
deposits of snow, slush and ice and breaks
frozen snow or glazed ice can be broken by
the bond between frozen deposits and the
directing a jet of hot fluid at close range onto
aircraft structure. The hydraulic force of the
a number of spots.
fluid spray is then used to flush off the
residue.

The fluids must be used in conjunction

with the manufacturer’s instructions and
approved holdover guidelines.

3. De-icing fluid application

BAE Systems recommend the following

methods to de-ice the aircraft:

n Hot type I: apply heated SAE Type I de-

icing fluid (diluted in accordance with
manufacturer's instructions).

n Hot water: apply at a temperature of 60

to 90 deg. C at the nozzle exit. This method
is only permitted with OAT > -3 deg. C
18 Think Ice!

Ground Operations

Anti-icing Procedures

Anti-icing is a procedure which provides 2. Anti-icing fluids

protection against the formation of frost or ice
and accumulation of snow or slush on clean Anti-icing fluids must always be applied on a CAUTION: Anti-icing fluid may not flow evenly
surfaces of the aircraft for a limited period of clean surface. When applicable, always carry over wing leading edges, horizontal and
time (the holdover time). out a complete de-icing of the aircraft before vertical stabilisers. These surfaces should be
starting the anti-icing procedure. checked to ensure that they are properly
coated with fluid.
1. Holdover time The anti-icing fluids are:
Anti-icing fluid should be applied to the
This is the ESTIMATED time for which an anti- n Heated Type I fluid. aircraft surfaces when freezing rain, snow or
icing fluid will prevent the formation of frost or other freezing precipitation may adhere to the
n Heated mixtures of water and Type I fluid. aircraft at the time of aircraft dispatch.
ice and the accumulation of snow on the
protected surfaces of an aircraft. n Concentrates or mixtures of water and
Type II fluid. On receipt of a frost, snow, freezing drizzle,
Holdover times for specific approved fluids freezing rain or freezing fog warning from the
should be obtained from current tables n Concentrates or mixtures of water and local meteorological service, anti-icing fluid
published by the FAA (Federal Aviation Type III fluid. may be applied to clean aircraft surfaces prior
Administration), TC (Transport Canada) or the n Concentrates or mixtures of water and to the start of freezing precipitation. However
AEA (Association of European Airlines) or the Type IV fluid. predictive anti-icing is not recommended as a
specific fluid manufacturer. practise due to the possibility of leaving fluid
residues on the surfaces.
A range of holdover times is often quoted; the The following surfaces should be protected:
lower value is the estimated time for The high fluid pressures and flow rates
moderate precipitation rates and the upper n Wing upper surfaces, leading edges and normally associated with de-icing are not
value is the estimated time for light ailerons. appropriate for this operation, and pump
precipitation rates. speeds should be reduced accordingly. The
n Horizontal stabiliser upper surfaces, nozzle of the spray gun should be adjusted to
Heavy precipitation rates, high moisture including leading edges and elevator upper provide a medium spray.
contents, high wind velocity or jet blasts may surfaces.
reduce holdover time below the lowest time n Vertical stabiliser and rudder. The anti-icing fluid should be distributed
stated in the range. Holdover time may also uniformly in the form of an even thin film over
be reduced when the aircraft skin temperature n Fuselage upper surfaces depending upon the surfaces. In order to control the
is lower than the OAT. Therefore indicated the amount and type of precipitation. uniformity, all horizontal aircraft surfaces
times should be used only in conjunction with should be visually checked during application
n Flaps should normally be retracted whilst
a pre-take-off check. of the fluid. The correct amount is indicated
the aircraft is on the ground so that they
by fluid just beginning to drop off the leading
are protected from any ice formation.
The holdover time depends on the fluid and trailing edges. Over application of the
type, weather conditions and ambient Areas de-iced or anti-iced first will generally fluids will increase the potential for residues
temperature. After determining the freeze first. Therefore areas which are visible to form.
holdover time applicable, the crew should from the cockpit should be anti-iced first so
ensure that it will not be exceeded due to that during the pre-take off check the crew
anticipated taxy and holding times prior to will have the assurance that other areas of
take-off. the aircraft are clean.
 Think Ice! 19

General Precautions

3. Anti-icing fluid application 1. De-icing and anti-icing precautions

The following methods can be used for anti- Snow or ice should be removed from the Do not spray fluid directly into the engine or
icing: fuselage before the aircraft is heated APU intakes and ensure the ECS packs and
internally to prevent melting of the snow and APU air are left OFF for as long as practical to
n Two-step process: subsequent re-freezing, which would make the avoid fumes being drawn into the air
ice more difficult to remove. conditioning system. Ingestion of combustible
1. De-ice with either hot water or hot de-icing fluids and solutions can cause
diluted de-icing fluid as described in internal damage to engines and APU hot
Do not apply fluid in a forward direction. This
De-icing Procedures chapter. section parts and is a potential fire hazard.
is to prevent fluid entering the structure
through aerodynamic fairings.
2. Anti-ice using SAE Type II, III or IV fluid Avoid applying fluid directly to exhausts,
or mixture dependent on holdover scoops, vents, drains and pitot / static heads.
Before starting any de-icing procedure the
required and the local weather
aircraft should be parked nose into wind
conditions. This step must be Application of de / anti-icing fluids should not
whenever possible.
commenced within three minutes of be indiscriminate; antifreeze solutions solidify
starting the first step. when sufficiently cold and components that
An aircraft that has been anti-iced with
undiluted Type II, III or IV fluid should not would otherwise prove trouble-free might
n One-step process: freeze.
under any circumstances receive a further
Anti-ice using heated SAE Type II, III or IV coating of anti-icing fluid. If it is necessary for
fluid OR hot diluted SAE Type II, III or IV an aircraft to be re-protected prior to the next After de / anti-icing fluids have been used, the
fluid (in accordance with manufacturer’s flight, the external surfaces must first be de- surfaces treated should appear glossy, smooth
instructions). iced with a hot fluid mix before a further and wet.
application of anti-icing fluid is made, i.e. a
BAE Systems recommend using a two-step two-step anti-icing process. This is to remove De-ice the aircraft with flaps retracted to
process whenever possible for anti-icing. This contamination of the previous fluid and avoid exposure to precipitation and to prevent
concurs with the latest advice given within minimise the build-up of residues. contamination of flap control mechanisms.
SAE and AEA documentation as a method for
reducing the potential for anti-icing fluid Do not apply fluid in the vicinity of the landing
residues to form and build-up within gear and do not apply spray directly to
aerodynamically quiet areas. windows or window seals.

Only one product can be used for each

step of the de-icing and anti-icing
application.
20 Think Ice!

Ground Operations

2. CAUTION: Type II, III and 3. Clear ice precautions

Type IV (Thickened) Fluids

Type II, III and IV fluids contain thickening However, if the fluid is allowed to dry out
agents which enable the fluid to be deposited residues form, becoming a gel and eventually
as a film and to remain on the aircraft a powder or thin film. This residue can
surfaces. This film provides a holdover time, subsequently absorb water, expand
especially in conditions of freezing significantly in volume and freeze. The
precipitation, providing anti-icing protection rehydrated residue will freeze at temperatures
against re-freezing or further accumulation. approaching the freezing point of water,
depending on how much glycol remains in the
For all types, the holdover time can also be mixture.
extended by increasing the concentration of
fluid in the fluid/water mix. A long period of cold weather followed by a
dry period and finally a period of heavy rainfall
Gel residues maximises this effect. Therefore if there has
been a long period of cold weather when
frequent applications of thickened fluid have
been applied, additional inspection and Clear ice can form on aircraft surfaces below
cleaning procedures must be carried out to a layer of snow or slush. It is therefore
prevent the build-up of residues. important that surfaces are closely examined
following each de-icing operation, in order to
BAE Systems are aware of a number of ensure that all deposits have been removed.
incidents involving airborne handling Significant deposits of clear ice can form in
difficulties. Subsequent inspection of the the vicinity of fuel tanks, on upper wing
relevant control surface(s) has on several surfaces and underwing. Aircraft are most
occasions revealed the presence of these vulnerable to this type of build-up when wing
rehydrated gel residues. temperatures remain well below 0 deg. C
during the turnround/transit and when
A recent investigation has shown that this ambient temperatures between -2 deg. C and
phenomena may be made significantly worse +15 deg. C are experienced.
if the anti-icing fluids come into contact with
Elevator trim tab contaminated with gel residue indicated. potassium and sodium formate and acetate Clear ice can form at other temperatures if
runway de-icers. Even a small amount of the wing temperature remains well below 0 deg. C
Thickened fluids have exhibited the following latter cause instant precipitation of the during the turnround / transit, precipitations
phenomenon, which has serious flight safety thickener in the anti-icing fluids which will occur while the aircraft is on the ground and
implications. increase the amount of residues left on the frost or ice is present on the lower surface of
aircraft surfaces. It will also reduce the either wing.
Residues are formed in aerodynamically quiet holdover capability of the fluid.
areas of the aircraft where anti-icing fluids If the wing skin (fuel tank) temperature after
collect, instead of being sheared off the refuelling is lower than the OAT, the tank
aircraft surfaces by the airflow. These fluids temperature should be used instead of the
dry out at low temperatures and pressures as OAT for determining the de/anti-icing fluid
both water and glycol are lost. mixture and holdover times.
Residues start to form after a 20% reduction
in the weight of the fluid. If more glycol is
added before this point the remaining fluid will
rehydrate, delaying the formation of residues
and helping the fluid to flow off the aircraft.
 Think Ice! 21

This type of ice formation is extremely EASA SIB 2010- 26 discusses that, even a freedom from ice:
difficult to detect. Therefore when the above small percentage of runway de-icer can cause
conditions prevail or when there is otherwise instant precipitation of the thickener in an n Engine inlets, nacelles and pylons.
any doubt as to whether clear ice has formed, aircraft anti-icing fluid. This may significantly n Fuselage, wing upper and lower surfaces,
a close examination should be made contribute to the build-up of residues on the leading and trailing edges.
immediately prior to departure in order to surfaces, and in the aerodynamic quiet areas.
n Horizontal and vertical stabilisers.
ensure that all frozen deposits have in fact On aerodynamic surfaces this may also lead
been removed. Clear ice normally occurs at low to a reduction in Holdover Time if used in a n All control surfaces including gaps
wing temperatures and when large quantities one-step process, as the loss of thickener between fixed and moveable surface
of cold fuel remain in the wing tanks during the leads to a thinner film of anti-icing fluid. The - Ailerons and aileron tabs
turnround/transit and any subsequent refuelling preliminary testing showed that film - Rudder and rudder tabs
is insufficient to cause a significant increase in thicknesses could be half of those of - Elevators, elevator trim tabs and servo tabs.
fuel temperature. It is impossible to see clear uncontaminated fluid, and Holdover Times n Drain holes in control surfaces should be
ice on a wet wing and it is difficult to feel the could be up to 60% lower. checked clear of any obstruction.
difference between a wet skin plate and wet
ice on the wing. The best way to check for ice Final Check Before Dispatch n Windshields.
is to scrape the surface with a knife - without n Antennae.
damaging the skin! An aircraft should not be dispatched for
departure under icing conditions or after a n System inlets.
Runway De-icers de/anti-icing operation until the aircraft has n Fuel tank vents.
received a final check by a responsible
n Wing lift transducers and angle-of-attack
Potassium and sodium formate and acetate authorised person.
vanes.
runway de-icers are salts and are known to
have corrosive effects on several aircraft It may be necessary to make a visual and n Pitot tubes, temperature sensors and
materials. tactile (hand on surface) check of the wing static ports should be carefully checked
leading edge and the wing upper surface is for frozen contamination.
In particular, they can cause catalytic oxidation performed when the outside air temperature n Water drains.
of carbon brakes. The runway de-icer on is less than 42 deg. F (6 deg. C), or if it
contact, dramatically speeds up the natural cannot be ascertained that the wing fuel n Tyres should be checked for proper
carbon degradation process leading to temperature is above 32 deg. F (0 deg. C); inflation, and that they are not frozen to
increased overhauls and early failures. Anti- and the ground or the chocks.
oxidant coatings applied by the manufacturer a. There is visible moisture (rain, drizzle, n The pushback or initial taxy area should be
are the best current reduction technique sleet, snow, fog, etc.) present; or checked for ice and de-icing fluid.
combined with frequent inspection. b. Water is present on the wing; or
c. The difference between the dew point and
On cadmium-plated parts, the runway de-icers the outside air temperature is 5 deg. F Note: Pilots must have a sound knowledge of
cause corrosion of the cadmium coating (3 deg. C) or less; or the de-icing and anti-icing procedures and
causing it to become brittle. Cracks and pits d. The atmospheric conditions have been limitations, both to ensure that ground crews
lead to loss of the coating as well as the wear conducive to frost formation. miss nothing and most importantly, to ensure
and corrosion protection of the base metal that that post anti-icing holdover conditions are
the cadmium plating provides. Exposure of The check should visually cover all critical fully understood and met.
cadmium plating to these fluids should be parts of the aircraft and be performed from
minimised. points offering sufficient visibility of these Both initial and recurrent training for flight
parts, examples are from the de-icer itself or crews and ground crews should be conducted
Caution: should be exercised in the use of from another elevated piece of equipment. A to ensure that all such crews obtain and
both aircraft and runway de-icers in and checklist is useful here to make sure nothing retain a thorough knowledge of aircraft
around electrical / electronic circuitry with is missed. Having ensured that the aircraft de/anti-icing policies and procedures,
noble metal coated wiring or terminals. Contact has been de-iced and anti-iced in accordance including new procedures and lessons
of these with the fluid may cause exothermic with laid down procedures, specific attention learned.
reactions, which can result in a fire. should be paid to the following areas to ensure
22 Think Ice!

Ground Operations

Maintenance Recommendations

1. Detection and removal of thickened 2. Removal of thickened fluid

fluid residue residues

Type II fluids are straw coloured, Type III fluids such as leading edge gaps If control surfaces are contaminated externally
are bright yellow and Type IV are green. The between aircraft, control with anti-icing residue build-ups, these must
dyes are water soluble and so fade rapidly in surfaces and servo / trim tabs. be washed or brushed off. It is advisable to
wet conditions. use hot water and/or Type I de-icing fluid to
- Elevator and tab bearings,
wash down the residues of a Type II, Type III
hinges, gust damper, control
The dry residue is recognisable as a or Type IV fluid, but care needs to be taken
rod areas and rod ends.
white/grey powder, film or hardened black that it does not freeze onto the control
deposit. Residues will become more visible if - Elevator and tab drain holes, surfaces. Water and/or Type I fluid heated to
soaked with water and allowed to rehydrate. including inside control surface 60 deg. C (140 deg. F) and applied at a
Typically the rehydration will take up to 15 adjacent to the control runs. maximum pressure of 10 psi is
minutes, but may require a number of repeat recommended. Higher pressures and
cleaning operations to remove completely. - Trim jack areas. temperatures may damage the aircraft
The residues will swell in volume and become surfaces and corrosion protection.
apparent as gel. The pure gel is colourless but n Stabilisers’ drain holes, including inside
impurities will make it appear dark grey, green control surface adjacent to the control runs For residues found inside the wing and
or blue. tailplane access panels, sufficient panels
Other areas: should be removed to enable a
Residues can build up in many areas of the comprehensive cleaning process. Drain holes
aircraft, some of which are more critical than n Ailerons and tab drain holes, including and vents should be cleared, making certain
others, as they could cause control restrictions inside control surfaces AWAY from the that no blockage exists. The above procedure
after a small number of thickened anti-icing control runs. should be used and repeated until the
fluid applications. n Elevators and tab drain holes, including drained fluid is clear, indicating that all
inside control surfaces AWAY from the residues have been removed from inside the
Critical areas: control runs). structure.

n Ailerons - Aerodynamically quiet areas n Rudder drain holes, including inside One method to thoroughly clean the control
such as gaps between control control surface. surfaces is to block up the drain holes using
surfaces and servo/trim tabs. speed tape or another suitable product,
n Wings and horizontal stabilisers.
partially fill them with hot fluid and
- Aileron and tab bearings,
n Rudder aerodynamically quiet areas and mechanically agitate the filled structure before
hinges, gust damper, control
cavities (gaps around control surface). draining. Repeat this procedure until the
rod areas, interconnect rods
drained fluid is clear, indicating that all
and rod ends. n Rudder bearings, control runs, hinges and residues have been removed from inside the
rod ends. structure. Ensure that the surfaces are
- Aileron and tab drain holes,
adjacent to the control runs. thoroughly drained. If possible, pass copious
amounts of warm, dry air through the
- Trim jacks and drive areas. structure to reduce the risk of corrosion.
n Elevators - Aerodynamically quiet areas
Care also needs to be taken when working
near flying controls to avoid flushing the
grease out of bearings. Once the residues are
rehydrated, they can then be flushed away. It
may be necessary to repeat the water
soak/rehydrate/clean process several times to
ensure complete fluid residue removal. Fluid
residues which have accumulated over several
years and are completely dry will take longer
to rehydrate.

It is recommended that where thickened

(Type II, Type III or Type IV) anti-icing fluids
are used, the aircraft should be inspected for
residues daily. Operators should develop an
inspection and cleaning schedule, taking into
account their own operational environment
and procedures, as well as the factors
affecting the build-up as stated above. If any
residues are found they must be removed
from the aircraft before the next flight.
 Think Ice! 23

3. Technical log

If de-icing and anti-icing is completed away from Icing related Feed Low Level incidents tend to Water Draining
the parking stand, it may not always be occur during the latter stages of cruise or
practicable to complete the Technical Log to during descent and approach. This is because It is recommended that the aircraft be allowed
include this activity. When de/anti-icing is carried these flight phases follow a period of “cold to stand for as long as possible prior to
out after the Technical Log has been completed, soak” at high altitude where the fuel can be performing a water drain: for at least one hour,
and the tear-out copy has been removed, there exposed to temperatures significantly below to ensure that the maximum amount of
should be a procedure in place for advising the zero degrees, a condition that can be entrained water collects at the lower points of
flight crew of the de/ anti-icing activity and how it significantly extended during winter periods the tanks.
should be recorded. when cold temperatures persist at ground
level. Under such conditions, any ice that has To achieve effective water draining, it is
Fuel Feed Low Level Warnings formed within the fuel tanks has a limited recommended that the fuel temperature be
opportunity to melt. raised above -1 deg. C. To achieve this, the
Problem: aircraft may need to be stored in a hangar
Whilst recent European winters have highlighted Prevention: prior to water draining or refuelled in order to
a trend of Feed Low Level warning incidents Minimising water accumulation in fuel tanks is raise the fuel bulk temperature above freezing.
experienced by some European Avro RJ key to preventing Feed Low Level incidents. The desired result may also be achieved by
operators, the colder than average winter of This can be achieved by continued monitoring applying heat to the fuel tanks in the vicinity of
2009/2010 saw a notable increase in that trend. of fuel quality and regular and effective ribs 13, 15 and 18 using heat lamps trained
draining of water from fuel tanks. on the underside of the wing.
Cause:
If water is present in the fuel tanks it can Monitoring of Fuel Quality Caution: should be exercised during heating of
freeze and potentially restrict fuel transfer to the fuel tanks to ensure that no fuel leaks
the engine feed tanks. Water accumulates in Operators should regularly review procedures occur and the temperature of the wing surface
fuel tanks as a result of either condensation or for checking the water content of fuel at uplift. does not exceed 40 deg. C.
contaminated fuel at the point of upload. Though Civil Airworthiness Publication (CAP)
748, Aircraft Fuelling and Fuel Installation To ensure that all of the lines feeding the drain
Aviation fuels absorb moisture from the Management, is primarily aimed at fuel points are purged, it is recommended that a
atmosphere and the resultant water can be suppliers, it does contain some information minimum of 8 litres of fuel/water be drained
held in solution in the fuel or be present as pertinent to aircraft operators. Chapter 4 from each of the drain points. If water is still
suspended particles or in liquid form. At low entitled ‘Detection and Prevention of Fuel present having drained 8 litres, further draining
temperatures, water in the fuel comes out of Contamination’ provides guidance on fuel should be exercised until no more water is
solution and into liquid form. Higher fuel sampling, visual examination for contamination evident.
temperatures result in water becoming and record keeping.
absorbed from the atmosphere to maintain a In order to minimise the amount of water in
saturated solution. The cycling of temperatures Chapter 4 section 1 details advice on fuel fuel tanks during the winter months and,
results in a continuous accumulation of water sampling checks. It recommends fuel quality consequently, Fuel Feed Low Level events, it
which turns to ice at freezing temperatures and checks be made throughout the fuel handling, may be necessary to increase the frequency of
may affect fuel flows. storage and distribution process to ensure that the water draining procedure. Daily water
fuel is free of water contamination and of a fit drains using the best practice procedures
Feed Low Level warnings occur when feed tank state for use by aircraft. Where operators are described here are understood to be effective
levels decrease below full. Under normal not in a position to sample bulk fuel in mitigating Feed Low Level warnings.
operation, the feed tanks are maintained full by installations themselves, they should take the
fuel feed ejector pumps in order that an appropriate steps to ensure that fuel sourced AMM Section 12-10-28, which provides basic
adequate supply of fuel is available to each of from such installations is of a suitable quality procedures for fuel tank water draining, is
the engines. Accumulation of ice in the fuel before it is physically uploaded to their aircraft. being amended to identify appropriate best
transfer system can result in a restriction of the Fuel quality reports may be requested or practice techniques for all operators, whether
fuel supply to the feed tanks. When the fuel advice may be sought from the fuel supplier or not they have experienced Feed Low Level
consumption of an engine exceeds the rate of concerned. incidents.
fuel transfer to the associated feed tank, its
level decreases and a fall from the full level CAP 748 also advises that fuel samples be
triggers a Feed Low Level annunciation on the taken immediately prior to fuelling an aircraft,
flight deck fuel panel. after prolonged heavy rainfall or snow or after
de-fuelling or vehicle washing. Conditions for
The emergency checklist procedure for ‘Fuel fuel to be deemed unfit for use in aircraft are
Tank Low Level’ describes a series of actions detailed in Chapter 4, section 2, entitled
that aim to rectify the problem. However, if the ‘Visual Examination and Testing for
Feed Low Level annunciation persists, the Contamination’.
flight crew should endeavour to “Land as soon
as possible”.
24 Think Ice!

Flight Operations

This section looks at the phases of flight Any contamination of an aircraft’s aerofoil
operations in cold weather from taxy-out to surfaces will adversely affect performance
taxy-in, and is applicable to all aircraft types. and handling, and even small amounts can be
More specific information for jet aircraft can hazardous. Any flight in icing or potential
be found in Appendix I, and for turboprop icing conditions must be in accordance with
aircraft in Appendix II. For full procedures and the icing clearance of the aircraft, as
limitations, see the relevant Aircraft Flight detailed in the approved Aircraft Flight
Manuals and Operations Manuals. Manual.

Taxying Pre Take-off Inspection

When taxyways are wet with standing water, Always perform a full and free check of the It is the captain’s responsibility to ensure that
slush or snow, the aircraft should be taxyed at flying controls before departing the ramp, to he/she does not take-off with snow or ice, or
lower speed than normal to avoid any slush ensure they are not obstructed by ice or with frost other than that permitted, on the
build-up in wheel wells and to leave plenty of snow. aircraft.
room to turn and stop. In order to reduce taxy
speed of the Avro RJ and BAe 146 types, it is Cold set (the condition where the tyre has a In conditions of freezing precipitation, flap
recommended to taxy on the two inner flat spot from parking for prolonged periods) selection should be delayed until just
engines only, whenever it is safe and may induce vibration, but it should disappear before take-off in order to prevent ice or
convenient to do so. However, it is not as the tyres recover their elasticity during taxy. snow from forming on the flaps during taxy.
advisable to taxy-in our turbo-prop types on a If the vibration persists then the take-off run
single engine. Slippery taxyways in should not be made. Just prior to entering the runway, repeat the
combination with strong surface winds could full-and-free control check and carry out a
result in losing lateral control of the aircraft. visual inspection of all parts of the
aircraft that can be seen from suitable
Minimum thrust should be used for taxy to vantage points (but beware - a generous
avoid blowing snow or slush on personnel, application of Type II / IV fluids can
vehicles or other aircraft. Also, the distance completely obscure the view from cabin
behind other taxying aircraft should be windows).
increased, due to reduced braking action and
the negative effect of jet blast on the anti- Any evidence of re-freezing or settling
icing fluid layer. snow must be treated with the utmost
caution and the aircraft returned to
Nosewheel steering should be used for maintenance for additional de-icing and
directional control, supported by gentle use of anti-icing. Upper wing surface slush
asymmetric braking and asymmetric thrust. If deposits should be treated with equal
the nosewheel steering is moved rapidly or caution; the pressure reduction and
selected to large angles, nosewheel skidding consequent temperature drop on take-off
can occur. Adhesion is restored by reducing may cause them to freeze.
the nosewheel steering demand.
 Think Ice! 25

Do not assume freedom from contamination

by observing other aircraft - they may
have been treated more recently or more
effectively. The flow chart shown opposite is a
tool used by one operator to ensure that pre
take-off ice removal requirements are met.

n Be conscious that these inspection

requirements may interrupt ATC
clearances and/or normal sequences of
checks. If in doubt, double check before
runway entry.

Pre take-off check flow chart.

26 Think Ice!

Flight Operations

Take-off Good Operating Practices In-flight

1. Contaminated runway or low friction Icing can occur during flight at any time of the
surface year.

A runway is considered to be contaminated n After take-off, if climb-out performance is Know as much about your operating
when more than 25% of the required surface not limiting, cycle the landing gear to environment as possible. Carefully review
area is covered by standing water, slush or remove any accumulated slush deposits. weather packages for pilot reports (PIREPS) of
loose snow with a water equivalent depth icing conditions, cloud tops reports,
exceeding 3 mm (0.125 inch), by compacted n See AFM for limitations in depth of temperatures aloft, forecasts of icing
snow or by ice or wet ice. A low friction contaminant for take-off, as they vary conditions including freezing drizzle and
surface is considered to be a runway with with aircraft type. freezing rain. Monitor indicated OAT (and
ice patches such that the braking action is Static Air Temperature if available) during
reduced from that experienced on a wet or Some aircraft types have a Flight Manual climb and while en route. Use the weather
dry surface. Appendix containing procedures and radar and be aware that areas of precipitation
limitations for contaminated runway that appear on the radar will be of sufficient
Major airports in cold weather climates operations and data for the calculation of size to produce freezing rain, when
make every effort to keep runways clear of take-off weights. encountered in freezing temperatures or on a
snow, slush and its associated water, but cold soaked aircraft.
there will be times when complete clearance
cannot be sustained. At these times 2. Take-off in icing conditions Remember to be alert for icing at all
continued operation involves a significant temperatures below +10 deg.C. Marginal
element of risk and the wisest course of n Confirm that no frost, ice or snow is freezing temperatures and icing conditions
action is to delay the departure until adhering to the aircraft. should create a heightened state of
conditions improve or, if airborne, divert to awareness.
another airfield. n If not already selected, engine/propeller
anti-ice should be ‘ON’ if icing conditions Be alert to visual cues of unusual icing.
If departure cannot be delayed, the either prevail or may be expected in the Remember that the unpredictable atmosphere
following advice should be considered: take-off or climb. Make the performance can occasionally create conditions that no ice
adjustments required from the appropriate protection system can completely overcome
n A layer of contaminant produces AFM charts. and which can result in rapid and hazardous
additional drag retardation effects on the ice accretion. Should such conditions be met,
wheels, spray impingement and increased n The aircraft should be rotated at the the only safe course of action is to leave
skin friction. Consequently the distance normal airspeed (VR) and pitch rate, them as soon as possible, following the
required to accelerate is increased, and regardless of whether or not the wings advice contained in the AFM. Since these
an early decision to reject the take-off is have been treated with de/anti-icing fluid. unique conditions are usually small in area
required. and associated with specific temperature
conditions, a change in altitude of just 2,000
n A lower decision speed V1 is also ft may place you in a totally different
required due to reduced wheel-braking environment.
performance: reduced wheel to runway
friction and aquaplaning. Exercise the flying controls periodically
whilst in icing conditions to ensure that
n Directional control should be maintained unseen ice has not filled control surface gaps
on a contaminated runway by small or frozen hinge mechanisms.
nosewheel steering inputs until rudder
control becomes effective. Thickened Fluids - a new issue
Most of us are now familiar with the issues
n Be aware of the increased possibility of associated with thickened de-icing fluids, and
engine power loss or system malfunction their unwanted side-effects on flying controls.
due to spray ingestion or impingement. A common factor in these incidents, for the
 Think Ice! 27

Icing Intensity Criteria

aircraft types involved, was that the rotation The following intensity criteria are used for On a contaminated or low friction runway,
speeds were around 100 knots. This is the reporting icing. Be aware that they are not aim to make a positive touchdown and slow
rotation speed recommended after the necessarily the same as forecasting down to a low forward speed before exiting
application of thickened fluids. Additionally, definitions because reporting definitions are the runway. Be aware of extended stopping
these aircraft all had un-powered flight related to the aircraft type and the ice distances required for slippery or
controls. protection equipment installed, they do not contaminated runways, particularly if an
involve cloud characteristics. For similar approach or threshold speed increment has
A series of past incidents at rotation on one reasons, individual aircraft icing certification been added.
ATP alerted us to this issue. During the taxy criteria might differ from reporting and/or
and acceleration phases, thickened fluid forecasting criteria. Tyre traction is considerably reduced on
becomes less viscous as the air flows over it, low friction runways, leading to lack of
and runs back along the tailplane upper directional control. If the aircraft deviates
surface, and into the area forward of the significantly from the centreline during the
elevator leading edge. As the fluid escapes landing run, release the brakes and use
from the airflow, it regains its viscosity. In this rudder and nosewheel steering to re-align the
case, the leading edge gap was below limits, aircraft on the runway. Re-apply brakes when
and the volume of fluid was such that it did directional control is regained.
not all clear from the gap prior to decision
speed. The leading edge gap was effectively After landing, flaps are retracted as part of
sealed, affecting the aerodynamic balance of the after landing checklist. This has the
the control, increasing the forces required to advantage of protecting them against any
deflect the elevator, leading to RTOs, split falling snow, sleet or freezing rain. They
controls etc. A service bulletin has been should be kept retracted until just prior to
issued to check these gaps, and a large take-off so that they do not get contaminated
percentage of the fleet have now been by any slush or snow, which may be thrown
checked. up by the aircraft’s wheels.

During the enquiries, pilots mentioned that However, if it is suspected that ice, snow or
they had occasionally experienced momentary slush may have accumulated on the flaps,
elevator restrictions at rotation on other either during flight or whilst on the landing
aircraft, but had never identified the cause. It roll, then the flaps should be left extended
is worth considering this mechanism when until they have been inspected and confirmed
investigating control restrictions for other clear of significant ice or slush deposits. Any
aircraft types in the future. Approach and Landing deposit found will need to be removed with
the flaps lowered, to avoid damaging the
When in icing conditions, always fly at the Rapid descent to low altitude during mechanisms when they are finally retracted.
icing speeds shown in the AFM. If severe icing approach or other deviations from prescribed
is encountered, as indicated by unusual ice operating procedures are not acceptable After Shutdown
accretion patterns, inform the ATC and means of minimising exposure to icing
request an immediate heading and/or altitude conditions. Inspect the wheel wells area for snow and
change in order to leave these conditions as slush contamination and ensure that the
soon as possible. An icing check should be carried out during maintenance crew understands the need for
the approach. If no residual ice is present on them to be thoroughly cleaned before the
Be particularly vigilant for ice when in a the airframe, the approach speed can be next operation.
holding pattern. If heavy ice accretion is reduced to normal.
encountered, request a change in level or re-
positioning to another hold. Do not hold with The flare should not be prolonged and the
flaps or landing gear extended. thrust levers should be retarded quickly.

Make reports to the ATC and your

Company. There is no better operational tool
available today than first hand reports of
unusual icing conditions. Remember that
because these conditions are usually localised
and can vary rapidly, another aircraft passing
through the same area may experience
different conditions.

If an ice detector is fitted,

don’t rely on it alone. Always
be on the look out for ice!

Ice accumulation in nosewheel bay.

28 Think Ice!

Appendix I: Jets

This appendix has been produced to highlight prior to de-icing and not re-selected during as paint lines or markings underneath.
the areas where jet aircraft differ from the departure section of that flight sector. All However all vents, probes and ports must be
turboprops in terms of winter operations. The engine and APU bleeds must be switched off clear of frost.
content applies to the following BAE Systems prior to de-icing and should also not be re-
jet aircraft: selected for as long as practical (minimum of If frost is present on the aircraft it is
one minute) after de-icing has finished. Flaps recommended that a visual and tactile (hand
n BAe 146 all series. must be UP during de and anti-icing. on surface) check of the wing leading edge
and upper surface is performed.
n Avro Regional Jet (RJ) all series.
De-icing with engines operating
For take-off with the frost permissible, the
Where permitted, aircraft may be de-iced or WAT limited take-off weight must be reduced
Ground de-icing and anti-icing anti-iced with the engines running although it and the net flight path reference and fourth
is preferred with the engine shutdown. segment climb gradients must be obtained
The same principles of de-icing and anti-icing using a weight higher than the actual weight.
apply for both Jets and Turboprops. However, Running engines must not in any way inhibit See Limitations section of the AFM for details
on the BAe 146 and Avro RJ, following the the complete de-icing of the aircraft of this weight differential.
application of Type II or Type IV fluids, the particularly the wing and tailplane.
take-off rotation speed (VR) must not be
below 100 kts. If the VR is below 100 kts, Frost
fluid on the wings and tail may cause adverse
aerodynamics and handling effects. Frost is a light, powdery, crystalline ice which
forms on the exposed surfaces of a parked
aircraft when the temperature of the exposed
At very light take-off weights the calculated VR surfaces is below freezing (while the free air
could be below 100 kts. In this event, a VR of temperature may be above freezing). Frost
100 kts must be used and the take-off degrades the aerofoil aerodynamic
performance calculated for an aircraft weight characteristics.
giving a VR of 100kts. The choice of take-off
flap setting maybe affected by this restriction. It is permissible on the underside of the wings
(unless the aircraft has been certificated by
The APU should be shutdown for aircraft the FAA) over the general area of the fuel
de/anti-icing and for a minute afterwards to tanks, provided that the depth does not
allow the de-ice fluids to drain. If for exceed 3 mm (1/8 inch). It is also permissible
operational reasons the APU has to be kept on the fuselage provided the layer is thin
running, the APU air should be selected off enough to distinguish surface features such
 Think Ice! 29

BAe 146/Avro RJ De-icing/Anti-icing Fluid Application Guide

Taxying

If icing conditions exist on the ground, engine surfaces. Select BRK FANS to either auto for low friction surfaces. Lift spoilers,
ant-ice should be selected ON. Wing and tail (if fitted) or ON for take-off and landing. airbrakes, anti-skid and all wheel brakes must
anti-ice system must not be used during After landing, select OFF when brake be serviceable.
ground operations or for take-off. Prolonged temperature falls below 200 deg. C.
engine running at ground idle in icing Continuous ignition should be selected ON for
conditions can result in ice accretion on the n Brake Temperature Indicator not fitted: the duration of the take-off if standing water,
fan, possibly indicated by unusual airframe If the brakes are suspected to be below slush, ice or snow is present on the runway,
vibration. The ice can be shed by periodic 50 deg. C prior to taxying for take-off, it is since small amounts of contaminant may be
increases of thrust which should be timed to recommended that the brake fans are ingested by the inboard engines during cross-
prevent a heavy build up. An increase of N1 selected OFF. To warm the brakes use wind conditions.
to 60% will usually be sufficient. Use the two symmetric braking of approximately
inboard engines only for taxying in after 500 psi, sufficient to slow the aircraft Engine bleed air is not to be used for cabin
landing, whenever it is convenient and safe to from normal taxy speed on at least three air conditioning during take-off if slush, snow
do so, in order to reduce taxy speed. occasions, but use caution when braking or water is present on the runway in
on low friction surfaces. Select BRK FANS significant quantities.
In cold conditions brake temperatures should to either auto (if fitted) or ON for take-off
be maintained above 50 deg. C to guard and landing.
against the brakes freezing on. This could Take-off in icing conditions
occur following landing gear retraction after
take-off from a runway where slush or Take-off from contaminated runway or low If not already selected, engine anti-ice should
moisture could be deposited on the brakes. friction surface be ON if icing conditions either prevail or may
It is therefore recommended that brake fans be expected before climb power selection.
should be selected as follows to minimise Take-off weights from contaminated runways Make the performance adjustments required
brake icing: (allowing for the failure of one engine) can be from the appropriate AFM charts. Wing and
calculated using the AFM charts or tail anti-ice systems must not be activated
n Brake Temperature Indicator fitted: operational performance software. Particular until climb power has been selected.
Select brake fans as required to maintain attention should be paid to the values of V1
minimum brake temperature of 50 deg. C. required for contaminated surfaces and
Under certain circumstances it may be flexible thrust should never be used.
necessary to warm the brakes to 50 deg. C
with brake applications whilst taxying, but A take-off flap setting of 30 degrees must be
use caution when braking on low friction used and a rolling take-off is recommended
30 Think Ice!

Appendix I: Jets

Maximum crosswind The airframe ice protection must be ON in BAe 146 only: For aircraft without engine
icing conditions, irrespective of whether the rollback modification, flight in icing conditions
The following maximum crosswind ICE DETECTED caption is lit or ice has formed above FL260 is prohibited.
components are recommended for take-off on the airframe, in the following phases of
and landing. For definition of braking action flight: Continuous ignition should be switched on
see Operations Manuals. before entering areas of heavy precipitation
n Below 2,500 ft AGL in the descent. and at any other time when it is considered
there is a possibility of engine flame out.
n Flight with the flaps extended.
With visible ice on the aircraft or if it is
n Prolonged holding prior to the approach.
suspected that ice may be accumulating on
This may reduce the period of time during the the airframe, the enroute climb speed should
descent that the airframe ice protection be increased by 7 kts.
system must be switched, giving potential
benefits in fuel burn. If the aircraft has been in icing conditions and
there is ice remaining on the airframe after use
Engine ANT-ICE must be on during all phases of the anti-ice system, the climb gradient
of flight when icing conditions exist or are should be reduced in accordance with the AFM.
anticipated or if the ICE DETECTED caption is
illuminated. After selection, check ENG VLV Holding in icing conditions
NOT SHUT indicators are illuminated and re-
check periodically. Maintain flaps at 0 degrees for the hold. With
visible ice on the aircraft or if it is suspected
When the ICE DETECTED caption is that ice may ba accumulating on the airframe,
Braking action table. illuminated, or ice has formed on the airframe all speeds including the recommended
as shown by accumulations on the windscreen minimum manoeuvring speeds should be
In-flight procedures wiper arm, cockpit window frame or wing increased by 7 kts relative to the normal
leading edges, the TAIL ANT-ICE and OUTER speeds.
Since the publication of Think Ice! 2007, a WING ANT-ICE must be ON. Firstly select the
review of the use of the airframe ice TAIL ANT-ICE ON and check momentary Select INNER WING DE-ICE for 1 minute at 8
protection for all flight phases has been lighting of NIPS annunciators and MWS to 10 minute intervals and also when altitude
undertaken. This resulted in a change to the WING/TAIL ANT-ICE ON. Then select OUTER is reduced for approach and landing.
criteria for switching on the airframe ice WING ANT-ICE ON and check momentary
protection in the descent. Previously the lighting of NIPS. Maintain a minimum of 67% Engine ANT-ICE must be ON. Maintain a
airframe ice protection had to be selected ON N2. minimum of 67% N2. If ice forms on the
in icing conditions during the descent or in airframe, or if holding is prolonged prior to an
flight with the flaps extended irrespective of When clear of icing conditions, select INNER approach, OUTER WING ANT-ICE and TAIL
whether there was ice on the airframe or the WING DE-ICE to ON for 1 minute and check ANT-ICE must be ON.
ICE DETECTED caption was illuminated. The momentary lighting of NIPS annunciators for L
procedures for climb, cruise and descent have INNER VALVE and R INNER VALVE. Approach and landing
now been standardised, and are as follows:
Prolonged flight in icing conditions at low With visible ice on the aircraft of if it is
In flight, the airframe ice protection must be engine speeds can result in ice accretion on suspected that ice may be accumulating on the
switched ON when either: the fan, possibly indicated by unusual engine airframe, target threshold speed must be VREF
and/or airframe vibration. The ice can be shed + 7 kts.
n The ICE DETECTED caption is lit. by periodic increases in thrust which should
OR be timed to prevent a heavy build-up. An For landing with residual ice on the airframe,
increase of N1 to 80% will usually be the maximum landing weight should be
n Ice has formed on the airframe as shown sufficient. When selecting ice protection reduced in accordance with the AFM.
by accumulations on the windscreen wiper systems OFF, always check momentary
arms, flight deck window frames or wing lighting of all relevant NIPS indicators. For landing on contaminated runways the field
leading edges. lengths required and landing weights
 Think Ice! 31

achievable can be obtained for a particular ingress of fluids to controls and to make
type and depth of contaminant using the AFM mechanisms less prone to restrictions. The
charts or operational performance software. changes are detailed in Modification Service
Bulletin 27-181.
Provided the APU is operating and stable and
the APU generator is providing electrical power, Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL)
the outboard engines can be shut down to
reduce idle thrust as a last resort to slow the The CAA and FAA will permit the BAe 146 or
aircraft. This should only be done when the Avro RJ aircraft to be dispatched into known
aircraft is under control and the speed is below or forecast icing conditions only if all the
60 kts. following ice protection systems are
serviceable:
System failures
n Wing and tail de-ice/anti-ice valve lights.
In the event of any loss of anti-icing or
n Wing and tail anti-icing valves.
de-icing protection systems, icing
conditions should be avoided or left as n P1, P2 and auxiliary pitot heaters.
soon as possible.
n Q feel pitot-static head heating system.
For failures which effect the wing anti-icing or n One of the stall vane heater systems
de-icing protection, wing asymmetric icing (FAA only).
should be minimised. If asymmetric icing
occurs, the wing anti-ice and de-ice switches n Static port heaters. Pockets where Lower Teleflex
should be selected to OFF. n Both of the ‘A’ Windshield heating systems. water collects. Slider.

Following any failure of the airframe ice n One of the ‘B’ Windshield heating
protection system, if ice remains on the systems.
airframe for approach and landing, 15 kts Recommended actions
should be added to the normal approach
Frozen power levers - ISB 71-078
speeds. The landing distances will be Inspection Service Bulletin 71-078 addresses
increased by approximately 20%. these problems in three ways:
Status.
There have been reports of power levers
Flying Control Restrictions n Introduce recommended maintenance for
freezing in flight. Modifications to introduce a
lower Teleflex cable (via Morse Controls
bellows on the slider and to improve pylon
The number of reports of flying control Service Bulletin 188949-76-61):
sealing have been effective in preventing
restrictions has reduced dramatically since its - Clean and relubricate slider at
freezing of the wire cables and the upper
peak over the winter of 2004 to 2005, 600 hours.
Teleflex cable. The majority of recent events
through a combination of maintenance, - Clean and relubricate inner cable
are believed to be due to freezing of the lower
modification and service provider actions. at 3,000 hours.
Teleflex cable.
Unusual weather conditions on one day
caused a blip on the graph. Hail can readily n Introduce drain holes through cowl door
Investigations have found the following:
bounce or slide into the elevator/tailplane skins to prevent water pooling in the
gap, particularly when ground temperatures bottom of the doors.
n On the lower cable, lubricants will dry out
are relatively warm, and stay there. Due to
over time and dirt is likely to accumulate
hail having a relatively high mass and low Fan blades cleaning
on the sliding portion.
surface area compared to snow, it takes
much longer to thaw, and will remain in the Operators should develop their own fan blade
n When the aircraft is parked, precipitation
gap during taxy, rotation and climb. This is cleaning programme, so as to reduce the risk
can enter engine zone 1 via gaps between
why a few pilots found their elevators of induced vibrations in icing conditions. The
the intake cowl, forward cowl doors and
becoming more difficult to control as they cleaner the blades are, the less likely ice will
shoulder cowl. This water runs around the
climbed into lower temperatures, and the hail accumulate.
intake firewall and drips onto the exposed
refroze, attaching itself to the control surface.
sliding portion of the Teleflex cable. When
Ref. eSILs 12-146-RJ-616-1, 12-146-RJ-
the power lever is advanced, the slider
Flying Control Modification to reduce 615-2 and AMM 71-00-00 B. Clean engine
closes trapping water between the inner
restrictions from thickened de-icing fluids fan and compressor.
and outer parts. This water can then
freeze when the slider is exposed to very
Some operators of the BAe 146 and Avro RJ
who used thickened de-icing fluids had
low temperatures in flight. BAE Systems strongly
reported a series of flying control restrictions
n Drainage of water from the cowl doors
recommends that operators
in the elevator and aileron primary and trim
could be improved. Water collecting in the accomplish all parts of this
circuits.
doors while the aircraft is parked is likely Service Bulletin at the
to be blown around engine zone 1 by the
This resulted in the introduction of changes to
very large air flow in this area during earliest opportunity.
facilitate inspection and cleaning to reduce
take-off and climb.
32 Think Ice!

Appendix II: Turboprops

This appendix has been produced to highlight ATP engine intakes Airframe de-icing boots
the areas where turboprops differ from jets in
terms of Winter Operations. The content To avoid torque interupts due to intake icing, The location of airframe de-icing boots on
applies to the following BAE Systems it is essential to ensure that the engine intake leading edges makes them particularly
turboprop aircraft: is free from into wind steps, and that the susceptible to damage by erosion, impact, or
flexible duct is in a satisfactory condition. contact with ground equipment. Winter
n Jetstream 3100 & 3200 conditions increase the risk of such damage
and the importance of regular inspections and
n Jetstream 4100 Ground de-icing and anti-icing
functional testing cannot be over-emphasised.
n ATP
The same principles of de-icing and anti-icing
Pilots flying aircraft with de-icing boots are
n HS 748 apply for both jet and turboprop aircraft.
generally aware that stalling speeds increase
until the ice is shed by operation of the de-
n Increased stick forces have been
The main differences are: icing boots. However, they should also be
experienced at rotation by turboprops after
aware that residual pieces of ice remaining on
application of Type II or Type IV fluids. This
n Turboprops are flown at lower cruise the boots after inflation together with ice
is due to the lower rotation speed of
altitudes and at significantly lower speeds accumulation on other parts of the aircraft
turboprops, at which not all the fluid has
than jets. can significantly affect lift and hence stall
sheared off the wings and elevators,
speed, and also drag.
n Turboprop aircraft employ pneumatic together with collection of fluids in the
airframe de-icing systems, involving control surface ‘gaps’. These characteristics
leading-edge inflatable boots, plus were confirmed by BAE Systems during
propeller de-icing systems. flight tests and assessed as being
within acceptable limits.

It is generally considered that turboprop and

other propeller driven aircraft are more prone
to icing induced wing stall than are large
turbo-jets, due to the lower altitudes and
speeds of operation and the relative
aerodynamic degradation due to ice
accretion.
 Think Ice! 33

Pre-flight In-flight Airframe Continuous De-icing

If icing conditions exist on the ground, engine Significant ice accretion during climb can For all of the turboprop types it is
and propeller anti-icing should be selected seriously degrade aircraft performance due to recommended that approximately 13 mm
ON. It is sometimes necessary to taxy to a de- increased drag, loss of lift, and reduction of (0.5 in) of ice is allowed to build up prior to
icing area or facility. The engines are usually propeller efficiency. The minimum en-route activation of the system. After one or two
stopped during de-icing and the crew should climb speed should be increased in icing cycles of the system it should then be
confirm complete de-icing of visible parts of conditions: see the AFM for details of this switched off to allow a further build up of
the aircraft before starting the engines and increase. 13 mm (0.5 in).
continuing taxying.
Both the icing speed increments and ice BAE Systems are aware of proposed changes
When taxyways are slippery, be prepared to accretiation on the airframe have an effect on to the FAA Part 121 operating regulations,
use reverse if the brakes have no effect. The the aircraft performance. The aircraft should which require airframe de-icing boot systems
serviceability of all ice protection systems be operated in accordance with the to be activated at the first indication of ice
should be checked prior to departure. associated performance information given in formation and continuously cycled until after
the AFM or the operations manual. leaving icing conditions.
Ensure full and free movement of flying
controls when the gust locks are removed Rate of climb can be dramatically reduced The company is supportive of the intent to
immediately before take-off. Every time the such that achieving the desired altitude may improve the level of safety of flight in icing
gust locks are engaged, a full and free check not be possible. In such circumstances, the conditions. BAE Systems is supportive of the
MUST be made when the locks are disengaged. autopilot should be disengaged and the intent to improve the level of safety of flight in
aircraft flown manually. icing conditions. The current procedures, for
In fog or rain at temperatures below +1 deg. non FAA established during extensive icing
C, ice may form on the propellers during If airframe vibration (not propeller) is certification flight testing, are considered to
prolonged taxying or long periods at idle. This experienced, this may be pre-buffet stall, in be safe.
ice build up can affect the airflow into the which case the aircraft should be levelled, the
engines and reduce propeller efficiency. speed increased and icing conditions left as The use of flaps is prohibited in icing
Ensure that correct torque and ITT/EGT soon as possible. conditions when en-route or holding.
readings are obtained prior to releasing the
brakes for take-off. In-flight systems operation During approach, an airframe check should be
carried out for accreted ice at approximately
Take-off in icing conditions Before entering icing conditions select and 1,000 ft AGL. If ice is seen or suspected on
confirm operation of: the airframe, the de-icing system should be
If not already selected, engine and propeller n Continuous/automatic ignition. operated irrespective of the thickness of ice.
anti-ice should be ON if icing conditions either
n Engine anti-icing system.
prevail or may be expected in the take-off or The airframe de-icing system should be
climb. Make the performance adjustments n Propeller de-icing system. switched off passing 500 ft AGL, but no later
required from the appropriate Flight Manual n Elevator horn anti-icing. than 200 ft AGL on the approach to landing.
charts. Wing and tail de-icing systems must n Windshield anti-icing.
not be activated until safely airborne.
n Pitot/static, stall vane and temperature
ATP take-off following application of probe anti-icing.
thickened de/anti-icing fluid When in icing conditions, monitor ice build-up
and operate the airframe de-icing system in
Following the application of a thickened fluid accordance with the AFM and Operations
the ATP is subject to limitations that are given Manuals procedures.
in the AFM (Section 2.10.13). These limitations
require the take-off to be performed by the lhs
pilot, only 7 flap is approved, the crosswind
must not exceed 10 kts, maximum pressure
altitude is limited to 2,000 ft and the
temperature must be between +10°C and
-40°C. Additionally there are performances
penalties.
34 Think Ice!

Appendix II: Turboprops

Encounter with unusual icing conditions

Some icing conditions outside FAR/CS/JAR-25 2. Leave icing conditions as soon as maintain some freedom of movement.
Appendix C may result in ice forming beyond possible. Do not under these circumstances apply
the protected surfaces, which cannot be shed increasing amounts of elevator trim
by the airframe de-icing system. The effect of 3. Hold the control wheel firmly and because if the elevator suddenly becomes
such ice accretion, following flight in freezing disengage the autopilot. free, the aircraft could pitch rapidly.
drizzle conditions, was the subject of an FAA
investigation. An article about freezing drizzle 4. Increase the airspeed as much as
issued by the FAA stated that as a result of configuration will allow, but not above n In the extremely unlikely event of the
this type of ice accretion, ‘Roll upset may be rough air speed (VRA). elevator becoming immovable, attempt
caused by the airflow separation to control pitch by:
(aerodynamic stall) inducing self deflection of 5. Do not engage the autopilot until the
the ailerons, loss or degradation of roll airframe is clear of ice. - Making power changes. To lower the
handling characteristics.’ BAE Systems nose, power would be gradually
successfully completed the test programme Prolonged operations in altitude bands reduced and vice versa.
defined by the FAA to investigate these where temperatures are near freezing and
phenomena and showed that Jetstream heavy moisture is visible on the - Using the elevator trim in the reverse
31/32/41, ATP and HS 748 aircraft are not windshield should be avoided. sense. To pitch the aircraft down, the
susceptible to roll anomalies in these trimmer would be adjusted nose up
conditions. (see caution below).
Restricted flight control movements in
The AFMs were updated to clarify the position conditions of sleet, snow and hail
and to contain the following advice: CAUTION:
It is recommended that the following When using the elevator trim tab as an
n Freezing rain, freezing drizzle and unusual precautions be observed in order to minimise elevator, its effect will be small. However, if
icing conditions may cause heavy the risk of any unseen contamination affecting the ice should clear, the reaction of the freed
accretion which could exceed the the flying controls: elevator to the elevator trim tab may be very
capabilities of the ice protection systems. powerful. Therefore it is most important that
Such ice can also accrete on the n Prior to take-off, carry out the normal the pilot should continue to hold the control
unprotected surfaces. This ice cannot be control check but take care not to operate column firmly, use only small amounts of trim,
shed and may seriously degrade the the elevators or ailerons towards the up and be ready to combat any violent aircraft
performance and control of the aircraft. stop too vigorously, this might dislodge response in pitch.
any precipitation causing it to fall into the
n If the aircraft exhibits airframe buffet control surface gap.
onset, unexpected loss of speed,
uncommanded roll or unusual roll control- n During the climb, make regular small
wheel forces, immediately reduce the deflections of the ailerons and elevators to
angle of attack (AOA) and avoid excessive ensure they are behaving normally.
manoeuvring until the airframe is clear of
ice. n On the HS748, use of the autopilot is not
recommended until established in the
n If ice is seen forming behind the protected cruise with the controls behaving normally.
surfaces or there are unusual roll-trim
requirements or autopilot trim warnings n If the controls become stiff, consider a
then the following actions should be descent or diversion.
taken:
n If the elevator becomes stiff, apply an
1. If flaps are extended, do not retract increasing but controlled manual force to
flaps until the airframe is clear of ice. the control column in an attempt to
 Think Ice! 35

Advice to pilots on icing-induced stall Holding

recognition and recovery

There have been incidents with turboprop aircraft To ensure a safe margin above increased stall
involving loss of control in icing conditions, due speeds with ice accreted, the speed in the
to undetected stalling at speeds significantly hold should be increased - see Operating
above the normal stall speed, accompanied by Manuals for details. When holding in icing
violent roll oscillations. In the light of these conditions, aircrew should be extra vigilant for
events the UK CAA issued an Aeronautical unusual/heavy ice accretion. If such
Information Circular (AIC 98/1999) providing the conditions are encountered, the aircraft
following advice on the recognition and recovery should be flown manually and the conditions
from such insidious icing-induced wing stalls: should be exited as soon as possible.

n Loss of performance in icing conditions Approach

may indicate a serious build-up of
airframe icing (even if this cannot be Rapid descent to low altitude during
seen), which causes a gradual loss of lift approach or other deviations from prescribed
and a significant increase in drag. This operating procedures are not acceptable
build-up of ice can cause the aircraft to means of minimising exposure to icing
stall at speeds significantly above its conditions.
normal stalling speed.
Stall margin: Lift increases with the square
n The longitudinal characteristics of an icing- of speed (V2), thus even small increases in Note: Some of these symptoms may not be detected by
induced wing stall can be so benign that airspeed are useful if the stall margin is in the pilot if the autopilot is engaged.
the crew may not be aware that it has doubt.
occurred. From the pilot’s point of view, the most
Tailplane icing important characteristic of a tailplane stall is
n The stall warning system may not alert the usually the suddenness and magnitude of the
crew to the insidious icing-induced wing The tailplane is naturally more susceptible to nose down pitch change most often
stall, so it should not be relied upon to ice accretion than the wings and the effect of accompanied by unusual stick forces, with the
give a warning of this condition. However, excessive ice accretion on the tailplane can control column moving towards the forward
airframe buffet may assist in identification be sudden and most unwelcome. limit.
of the onset of wing stall.
Tailplane stall is a critical condition, which It makes sense to select flaps early to
n The first clue may be a roll control may occur without warning. Since the AOA of allow adequate height for recovery from
problem; this can appear as a gradually the tailplane becomes more negative with any undemanded manoeuvre that might
increasing roll oscillation or a violent wing extension of flaps, tailplane stall is most likely possibly occur.
drop. encountered when the flaps are fully
extended. It is critical that its symptoms are Comprehensive wind tunnel and flight testing,
n A combination of rolling oscillation not confused with those of the more familiar including zero ‘g’ pushovers, with real and
and onset of high drag can cause the wing stall, since the corrective recovery simulated tailplane ice accreted showed the
aircraft to enter a high rate of descent procedure for wing stall will aggravate a tail J32, J41 and ATP to be free from tailplane
unless prompt recovery action is taken. stall and vice-versa. A tabulated guide is stall tendency at all flap settings. However,
shown opposite. later flight testing on the HS 748 resulted in
n If a roll control problem develops in icing the prohibition of selection of the 27½ deg.
conditions, the crew should suspect that The tailplane stall symptoms may occur flap landing configuration when ice is visible
the aircraft has entered an icing-induced immediately after flap extension and on the airframe.
wing stall and should take immediate subsequent pilot nose down pitch inputs.
recovery action. The de-icing system
should be activated if not already on and
consideration should be given to leaving
icing conditions by adjusting track and/or
altitude.
36 Think Ice!

Appendix II: Turboprops

Tailplane icing - continued System failures Landing

The J31 and J32 have been shown to be free In the event of any failure of the de-icing For flight in icing conditions or with accreted
from tailplane stall tendency at flap settings or anti-icing systems flight in icing ice on the airframe, the approach and landing
of 35 deg. or less. conditions must be avoided. speeds should be increased and the
appropriate performance penalties applied in
n Wing de-ice failure. Following any failure accordance with the AFM of the operations
of the airframe de-icing system on the manual.
Jetstream 31 / 32 or Jetstream 41, it is
Tailplane icing summary recommended that the flaps are not On contaminated runways, greater use of
extended beyond the approach setting. If reverse thrust than normal may be necessary
In the event of encountering tailplane airframe buffet occurs, the airspeed must to achieve satisfactory braking. However if
stall, it is therefore critical that the be increased until the buffet ceases. The possible, it should not be used at low speed
symptoms are recognised and not landing distance required should be to avoid ingestion of contaminants.
confused with those of the more familiar increased in accordance with AFM
wing stall. The main symptoms of a tail procedures. As a result of a review of the Jetstream 31
stall are nose down trim changes (often and 32 information for landing on a slippery
strong and rapid), with pitch control force runway, the factor to be applied to the landing
n Tailplane de-ice failure. The most distances is now standardised at 33%. When
anomalies. This may be briefly preceded
effective means of increasing the tailplane landing on a slippery runway, only the fully
by buffet through the control yoke. The
stall margin during or following flight in factored destination distance must be used.
quickest and most effective recovery is by
icing conditions is achieved by limiting the
pulling the control yoke back and
maximum flaps extension angle. All selections of steering/braking and power
reducing flap to prevent a recurrence.
Consequently, in the event of failure of the adjustments should be made with care.
tailplane de-icing system on the J31 / 32,
J41, HS748 and ATP whilst flying in Taxy-in
actual or potential icing conditions, it is
recommended that the flaps are not Do not taxy-in on one engine. Slippery
extended beyond the approach setting. taxyways in combination with strong surface
Tailplane icing may cause a strong trim winds could result in losing lateral control of
change when flaps are lowered. Allow the aircraft.
adequate height for all flap operations to
permit a stabilised approach. On the
Jetstream 41, large rudder and sideslip
angles should be avoided with ice
accreted on the fin as pedal forces may
reduce and, in extreme conditions, rudder
overbalance may occur.
 Think Ice! 37

References
n Frost, ice and snow removal (All types)
BAe 146 / Avro RJ AMM 12-30-31
J31 & J32 AMM 12-31-05
J41 AMM 12-31-00, 12-31-05
ATP AMM 12-31-00, 12-31-05
HS 748 AMM 12-14-00

n SIL 27/80: Flight Controls - Maintenance and De-icing/Anti-icing Practices

n Fan blades cleaning (BAe 146 and Avro RJ)

eSIL 12-146-RJ-616-1 and 12-146-RJ-615-2
AMM 71-00-00

n ISB 71-078 - Changes to reduce freezing of the throttle control lower Teleflex cable
Morse Controls SB 188949-76-61

n UK CAA Aeronautical Information Circulars

http://www.nats-uk.ead-it.com/public/index.php.html

n UK CAA Flight Operations Department Communications

http://www.caa.co.uk

n FAA web site

http://www.faa.gov

n Association of European Airlines

‘Recommendations for De-icing/Anti-icing of Aircraft on the Ground’
‘Training Recommendations and background information for De-icing/
Anti-icing of Aeroplane on the Ground’
http://www.aea.be

n NASA’s pilot’s guide to ground and in-flight icing courses (All types)
http://aircrafticing.grc.nasa.gov/courses.html
BAE SYSTEMS
Regional Aircraft
Prestwick International Airport
Ayrshire
KA9 2RW
United Kingdom

Telephone: +44 (0)1292 675000

Fax: +44 (0)1292 675700

E-mail: [email protected]
web: www.regional-services.com

© BAE SYSTEMS 2014. All rights reserved.

Whilst every care has been taken to ensure the accuracy of the information contained in this document at the
time of publication no warranty is given in respect thereof and the authors specifically exclude their liability for
any use made of the document to the fullest extent under any applicable law. This publication is intended only
as an informative guide to certain aspects of winter operation and does not supersede or replace any officially
approved aircraft publication or manual. For definitive guidance reference must be made to the Flight
Manuals, Operating Manuals and Maintenance Manuals as appropriate.

pwk_0718 - Sep 2014

Produced by the Graphics and Media Team, BAE SYSTEMS Regional Aircraft, Prestwick Tel: 01292 675840 Email: [email protected]