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COMPOSITE CLIMATE
INTRODUCTION
 The composite zone covers the central part of India.
 Composite climate displays the characteristics of hot & dry, warm & humid as well as
cold climates. Design here are guided by longer prevailing climatic conditions.
 Their characteristics change from season to season alternating between long hot, dry
periods to shorter periods of concentrated rainfall & high humidity.
 India being a tropical country, most of design decisions would pertain to cooling.
 Examples:
 The general recommendations of hot & dry climates would be applicable for New
Delhi for most of the year except Monsoon where Ventilation is essential.
 Eg: Kanpur, Allahabad.
 This region receives strong winds during monsoons from the south-east and dry cold
winds from the north-east. • In summer, the winds are hot and dusty • The sky is
overcast and dull in the monsoon, clear in winter and frequently hazy in summer. •
The presence of high humidity during monsoon months is one of the reasons why
places like New Delhi and Nagpur are grouped under the composite and not hot and
dry climate.
PROBLEMS: • Complex climate from designer’s point of view and buildings should make provisions
for the conflicting hot-dry and warm-wet seasons. Building materials weaken rapidly due to the high
diurnal range. • People get acclimatized to high temperatures and so their tolerance of cold
conditions reduces.
OBJECTIVES:
 The objectives set out for warm humid and hot dry climates apply to the respective seasons
of the composite climates. Additional problems are created by the third season.
 During the cold season, the temperatures are much lower than in the two warmer seasons.
Physical comfort during this season will depend on the prevention of heat loss from the
body, especially in the night.
 In the warmer seasons, the heat dissipation is inadequate.
Physiological objectives
The physiological objectives set out for warm-humid and hot-dry climates apply to respective
seasons of composite climates.
Additional problems are created by the third season. During this cold season effective temperatures
are much lower than in the two warmer seasons, and physical comfort will depend on the
prevention of heat loss from body, especially at night. In the warm
seasons the heat dissipation is inadequate, the designer attempts to increase it as much as possible,
but in the cold season it may become excessive, creating a sensation of cold discomfort
consequently measures for the retention of heat are necessary. The situation is aggravated by the
fact that during the warm season people get acclimatised to high temperatures, so their tolerance
of cold conditions will be reduced
DESIGN CRITERIA

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Objectives:
 Resist heat gain in summer & heat loss in winter
 Decrease exposed surface area
 Increase Thermal resistance
 Increase Thermal capacity
 Increase Buffer space
 Decrease Air Exchange rate
 Increase shading
 Increase surface reflectivity Solutions:
 Orientation & shape of the building. Use of trees as wind barriers.
 Roof & wall insulation
 Thicker Walls
 Balconies
 Weather Stripping
 Walls, glass surfaces protected by overhangs trees
 Pale colour
DESIGN CRITERIA
 Promote Heat Loss in Summer or Monsoon
 Ventilation of appliances
 Increase air exchange rate  Increase humidity level in Dry Summers
 Decrease humidity in Monsoon Solutions
 Provide exhausts (Artificial)
 Courtyards or Wind towers or Arrangement of openings
 Trees & water ponds for evaporative cooling
 Dehumidifiers
ORIENTATION OF BUILDING
 Orientation: NE, SW This helps in receiving less radiation which results in lesser heat gains
and reduced the overall air-conditioning requirement and hence saves energy.
 Proper orientation also helps in receiving natural light & ventilation
 The orientation of the houses should be such that, penetration of the sun ray’s maximum in
winter and minimum in summer. Proper orientation also helps in receiving natural light and
ventilation.
 Orientation in composite climate: Orient the buildings with the long axes in the east-west
direction so that the longest walls face north and south, and only the short wall face east
and west. Sometimes north west and south east are also beneficial.
 South orientation receives maximum solar radiation during winters which is preferable as
composite climate receives severe winters. East and West receive maximum solar radiation
during summer. West is a crucial orientation because high intensity of solar radiation is
received during summers, when the internal gains are also at its peak. Thus, designers need
to be very careful while designing West facade and spaces behind West facade. Orientation
also plays an important role with respect to wind direction. At building level, orientation
affects the heat gain through building envelope and thus the cooling demand, orientation
may affect the daylight factor depending upon the surrounding built forms, and finally the
depending upon the windward and leeward orientation fenestration could be designed to
integrate natural ventilation.
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 FORM & PLANNING

 Open spaces such as courtyards are beneficial.
 Buildings should be grouped in such a way as to take advantage of prevailing breezes during
the short periods when air movement is necessary.
 A moderately dense low rise is also suitable for this climate, which will ensure protection of
outdoor spaces. Mutual sharing of external walls, shelter from the wind in the cold season,
shelter from dust and reduction of surfaces exposed to solar radiation.
 Reduce heat gain in the building through building envelope.
 Moderately compact internal planning of houses will be of benefit for most of the year.
Courtyard type buildings are very suitable.
 Buildings should be grouped in such a way as to take advantage of prevailing breezes during
the short period when air movement is necessary.
 A moderately dense, low rise development is suitable for these climates, which will ensure
protection of out-door spaces, mutual shading of external walls, shelter from the wind in the
cold season, shelter from dust and reduction of surfaces exposed to solar radiation.
 Houses with separate day and night rooms, which were suggested for hot-dry regions, are
equally good for composite climates, except that they would only be used during the hottest
months. Shading of walls is desirable but not critical.
 Provided that the roof has a low transmittance value and a good thermal capacity, the
question of a double roof does not arise. Thermal loading of roofs in hot-dry and cold seasons
is reduced by outgoing radiation to the clear sky. External openings, however, do require
shading during the hot and warm seasons.
 Building form: Building form can affect solar access and wind exposure as well as the rate of
heat loss or heat gain through the external envelope. The volume of space inside a building
that needs to be heated or cooled and its relationship with the area of the envelope
enclosing the volume affect the thermal performance of the building. Building form can
affect solar access and wind exposure as well as the rate of heat loss or heat gain through
the external envelope. The general design objectives are
  Contain the exposure of external elements by means of compact building envelope and
careful consideration of the treatment of different elevations
  Use sheltering and buffering.
 Compactness: The building form also determines the air flow pattern around the building
directly affecting its ventilation. The compactness of the building is measured using the ratio
of surface area to volume (S/V). The depth of a building also determines the requirement for
artificial lighting. The greater the depth, higher is the need for artificial lighting. The circular
geometry has the lowest S/+ ratio thus the conduction gains from the building envelope as
well as solar gains from windows are least, in circular geometry in comparison to other
building geometries which is most energy efficient in composite climate.
 Sheltering or self-shading: Built form, which is designed such that it is self-shaded through
massing or articulation results in sheltered built forms, and cuts off a large amount of direct
solar radiation. In composite climate, the envelope should be designed so that it remains

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shaded for the greater part of the day; the external walls should be so planned that they
shade each other.
ROOFS AND WALLS
 Roofs and external walls should be constructed of solid masonry or concrete to have a 9-12
hours’ time lag in heat transmission.
 Resistance insulation should be placed at the outside surfaces of external walls or roofs.
Insulation on the inside would only reduce the beneficial effects of high thermal capacity of
walls and roofs.
 The roof pond building type, the passive collector Storage mass has been relocated, from
the Floor & wall of building into the roof for radiant heat distribution to the occupied Space
 Placed at the outer surface of walls and roofs and helps retain cool in summer heat in winter.
This can create a major impact on indoor thermal comfort of the building.
 This orientation minimizes the heat load in summer and is a very effective passive cooling
strategy. The walls should be thicker having time lag over 8 hours. Cavity walls or composite
walls are also very helpful in controlling the heat transfer from outside to inside the building.

ROOFS
 The roof pond system requires a body of water to be
located in the roof, protected Controlled by exterior
movable insulation
 This body of water is exposed to direct solar Gain
which absorbs & Stores. Since Thermal storage of
ceiling of the building It will radiate uniform low
temperature
 terrace gardens
 Roofs should also be properly insulated so as to
minimize heat transfer from the roof to the inside of
the building. Provision of adequate rainwater
drainage is also essential in this climate.

OPENINGS
 Orientation of buildings is determined by 2 factors suitable with so
 Towards the breeze prevailing during the warm humid season to utilize its cooling effect.
 Towards the sun during cold season, to utilize the heating effect of radiation entering
through the windows.
 Large openings in opposite walls are suitable which helps in cross ventilation.
 To reduce the humidity and for ventilation openings (i.e. doors, windows, ventilators and
corridors) are provided large in numbers.

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 SIZE OF OPENINGS: A small inlet opening with a

large outlet provides the largest air velocity. The
best arrangement is full wall openings on both the
sides, with adjustable sashes or closing devices
which can assist in channelling the air flow in the
required direction, following the change of wind.
 POSITION OF OPENINGS: In buildings air
movement must be ensured through the space
mostly used by occupants; through the living zone
(up to 2m height).
 CONTROL OF OPENINGS: A gap between the
building face and canopy would ensure a
downward pressure, thus a flow is directed into the
living zones.

WINDOW SHADES:
 Window shades should cut off sun in the summer but allow the sun in the under heated
period. Further, the window section should enhance air velocity while still acting as shade.
This could be achieved either by introducing a planter at the window sill or else by adding
smaller shades at the glazing.
 light shelves.
EXTERNAL SPACES
 A courtyard is a most pleasant outdoor spaces for most of the year because it excludes the
winds and traps the sun.
 The courtyard should be designed in such a way so as to allow sun penetration during winter
season, but also provides shading in hot season.
 Large projecting eaves and wide veranda are in deeded in composite climate as outdoor
living areas, to reduce sky glare and keep out of the rain and provide shade.
 Large projecting eaves and wide verandahs are needed in the warm-humid season as out-
door living areas, to reduce sky glare, keep out the rain and provide shade, they can also be
an asset in the dry seasons.
 Brise-soleils, louvres and other sun breaks used to protect openings during the hot-dry
period, are also advantageous in the rainy season, serving as protection against rain and
wind driven spray. Shading devices should preferably be of low thermal capacity. During the
cold seasons, when solar gain is welcome, all shading is undesirable.
 For the dry seasons controlled landscape and enclosure walls are necessary to provide
protection against dust and thermal winds.
 They are no great disadvantage in the wet season. The high rainfall makes it easier to
maintain vegetation around buildings, thereby reducing dust. A courtyard is the most
pleasant out-door space for most of the year, because it excludes the wind
 and traps the sun. It should be designed in such a way as to allow sun penetration during the
winter months, but provide shading in the hot season. Deciduous plants can serve a useful
purpose. Courtyards may even be covered by a pergola, carrying deciduous creepers.
 These would provide shade in the hot season but admit the sun in the 'winter'
VENTILATION
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 Position of openings:
 In buildings air movements must be insured through he spaces mostly used by occupants
through the living zone (up to 2mts high). Size of openings;
 The largest air velocity will be obtained through a small inlet opening with large outlet.
 The west arrangement is full wall openings on both sides with adjustable sashes or closing
devices which can assist in channelling the air flow in required direction.
 Controls of openings:
 A gap between the
building face and canopy
would ensure a downward
pressure. Thus a flow is
directed into the living
zone.

COURTYARD
 Plan the building around the courtyard
 Courtyard should be designed in such a way so as to allow sun penetration during the winter
months, but provides shading in the hot season.
 The courtyard provides thermal environmental conditions through its design concept, forms
and heights. During the day, the shading arcades, trees, and vegetation protect the building
from direct solar gain, and the cool mass in the courtyard floor absorbs a significant amount
of solar radiation.
 A massive courtyard floor surrounded by a building provides cooling, primarily by radiation
to the cool and clear night sky.
 The night time radiation cools the mass and the air trapped in the courtyard. When the
courtyard is allowed to receive intensive solar radiation much heat is conducted and radiated
into the rooms as against the induced draft of air, which may be problematic.
 The intense solar radiation in the courtyard also produce immense glare indoors. The best
way is to keep the courtyard shaded and only partially open to sky.
PROJECTIONS:
 Large projecting eaves and wide verandas are needed in composite climate as out-door living
areas, to reduce sky glare, keep out the rain and provide shades.
 When the air movement is necessary, the advantage of prevailing breeze should be taken by
grouping the buildings in relation to the wind direction. Fenestrations should be made on
the walls perpendicular to the wind direction. Direct sunlight must be excluded from the
fenestration and window shades should be designed in such a way so that it cuts the summer
sun but permits winter heat inside the building.
WATER BODIES:
 Water absorbs relatively large amounts of radiation. It also allows evaporative cooling.
As a result, during the daytime areas around water bodies are generally cooler. At night,
however, water bodies release relatively large amounts of heat to the surroundings.
 Location of water bodies: Water is a good modifier of micro-climate. It takes up large
amount of heat in evaporation and causes significant cooling.
 Water has a moderating effect on the air temperature of the micro climate.

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 It possesses very high thermal storage capacity much higher than the building materials
like Brick, concrete, stone.
 Large bodies of water in the form of lake, river, and fountain generally have a moderating
effect on the temperature of the surrounding area due to the higher thermal storage
capacity of water compared to land and cause variations in airflow.
 During the day the air is hotter over the land and rises, drawing cooler air in from the
water mass resulting in land breezes.
 During the night as the land mass cools quicker, the airflow will be reversed. Water
evaporation has a cooling effect in the surroundings. In humid climates, water should be
avoided as it adds humidity
 Fountain to flow over extensive surfaces to maximize evaporation. Water evaporation
has a cooling effect in the surroundings.
BUILDING MATERIALS
 The general building materials: Brick & Stone masonry. Concrete slab, stone wall of 400-500
mm in thickness.
USE OF ECO FRIENDLY MATERIALS:
 Eco Friendly Materials are describing as: A product that has been designed to least possible
damage to the environment. Why eco-friendly materials? Phenomenal growth in the
construction industry that depends upon resources.
LANDSCAPING
 Deciduous trees, creepers and vines provide shade when needed and also allow the sun rays
to penetrate inside in the cool season when they loose their foliage.
 Planting deciduous trees on the southern side of a building is beneficial in a composite
climate. Deciduous plants such as mulberry or champa cut off direct sun during summer, and
as these trees shed leaves in winter, they allow the sun to heat the building in winter which
is suitable in composite climate.
 The use of dense trees and shrub plantings on the west and northwest sides of a building
will block the summer setting sun. Natural cooling without air-conditioning can be enhanced
by locating trees to channel south-easterly summer breezes in tropical climates like India.
Cooling breezes will be able to pass through the trunks of trees placed for shading. Shade
can also be created by using a combination of landscape features, such as shrubs and vines
on arbors or trellises. Trees, which serve as windbreaks or form shelterbelts, diminish wind.
Certain climbers are also useful for shading exposed walls from direct sunlight. Trees also
provide visual relief and a psychological barrier from traffic and thus reduce pollution on the
site.
JALIS:
Jails on the outer facade of the building helps in cooling, shading and ventilation.
WALL THICKNESS:
 Walls work as an insulator of heat so that they don't allow heat to attack inside the building
in summers and to spread outside from the inside in winters. That is why thickness of walls
are provided more than usual at some places.
 cavity walls

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PLINTH:
High plinth is provided to prevent the rainwater for coming inside the building.
SHADING ENVELOP
 All the elements of a building are vulnerable to heat gains. Proper shading is therefore a very
important aspect in solar passive building design.
 It is observed using software simulations that, shading of roof, walls and windows have
considerable potential in reducing the cooling energy consumption.
 This section explains the technical details and advantages of shaded envelope (Roof, Walls
and Windows
SHADING OF ROOF:
 Shading of roof through design features like pergolas or solar photovoltaic panels helps in
reducing the incident direct solar radiation on the roof surface.
 This in turn helps to reduce the air temperature of the roof and conduction gains in the space
below.
 It is observed using software simulations that shading of roof has equal potential in reducing
the cooling energy consumption to that of an insulated roof.
COOL ROOF
 Along with shading of roof, solar passive design also recommends cool roof. Cool roofs are
roofs covered with a reflective coating that has high emissivity property which is very
effective in reflecting the sun ‘s energy away from the roof surface.
 This quality greatly helps in reducing the cooling load that needs to be met by the HVAC
system. Combination of insulated roof with cool roof has high saving energy potential.

SHADING OF WINDOWS:
 Heat gain through window is determined by the overall heat loss co-efficient U-value (W/m2-
k) and solar energy gain factor, and is much higher as compared to that through opaque wall.
Direct sunlight can cause glare.
 Incorporation of shading elements with windows help in: keeping out the sun ‘s heat, block
uncomfortable direct sun, and soften harsh daylight contrasts.
 Shading devices are therefore necessary to allow glare free natural light. Shading devices are
also critical for visual and thermal comfort and for minimizing mechanical cooling loads.
 Shading devices for windows and walls moderate heat gains into the building.
 External shading is the most effective ways of shading, as it cuts off direct sunlight during
summer and allows winter sunlight to enter inside the space. However, in cloudy weather or
if not designed properly, these can reduce daylight availability inside the space.
 For such cases, external moving shading devices are preferred.
 External shading devices should be designed according to the orientation of façade. For
instance, on North orientation minimum or no shading is required.
 On South orientation external shades should be designed after studying the sun path.
Shading devices on South orientation could be permanent in nature, as most part of the day,
Sun remains in South orientation.

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 It is preferable to design movable external shading devices on East and West facades, so that
the shades could be removed after sun faces opposite orientation.
Fixed louvers:
 They can be designed as fixed
and can be cost effective and
can become an integral part of
the building aesthetic but does
not cope with changing
altitude of sun.
 Summers can be exceedingly hot in composite climate; consequently, from an early date,
openings in buildings were partially closed by means of open-work coverings made from
stone, stucco, ceramic or wood. These coverings reduce the heat gain to the building and
also add aesthetic value to the building.
Shading of walls:
 Shading walls from direct sun can be one of the simplest and most effective ways of reducing
the heat load on a building. Clever use of shade can dramatically improve the comfort
conditions inside and reduce reliance on expensive air conditioning systems. As in the
composite climate, the East and West facades receive maximum solar intensity especially in
summers, shading the East and West facades is a challenge. As eastern and western walls
heat significantly in summers,
 overhangs may not be enough. The entire east and west walls have to be shaded to protect
from the strong summer solar intensity
INSULATION
 It is very important in green construction because it helps conserve energy. In the past,
ASBESTOS was used for insulation, but it has since been banned or restricted in many
countries because of health hazards. Good sustainable choices for insulation are those made
from recycled newspaper and wood pulp, soy, cotton, recycled plastic or cork.

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Impact of shaded wall:

In day time use buildings shaded east and west walls have higher energy saving potential than
insulating the external walls. The different kinds of shadings for wall are explained below:
Deep porches and verandas: These are excellent at reducing the solar heat gain in a building
because they completely shade the walls. They also cut the solar intensity creating cool spaces even
without plants or shrubs.
Sun-proof fabric covers: For porches, or sails these can be attached to the building itself, and are a
good seasonal solution. It is possible to get fabrics and shade cloth that cut out more than 95% of
sunlight, and have guarantees of 20 years’ minimum lifespan.
Vertical shading:
Vertical shading is the most advisable form of shading to cut the intensive solar heat gains for east
and west walls especially in summer. It is some form of vertical light blocker that is placed at the
external edge of the overhang or porch roof, extending all the way to the ground.

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INNOVATIVE DAY LIGHTING SYSTEMS:

Day lighting systems help in better daylight integration in the
buildings. There are various day lighting systems. Some of them are as
explained below:
Light pipes: Light tubes or light pipes are used for transporting or
distributing natural or artificial light. In their application of day
lighting, they are also called as sun pipes, solar pipes, solar light pipes,
or day light pipes.

PASSIVE COOLING
 Ventilation: Good natural ventilation requires locating openings in opposite pressure zones.
Natural ventilation can also be enhanced through tall spaces like stacks, chimneys etc. in a
building. With openings near the top of stacks warm air can escape whereas cooler air enters
the building from openings near the ground. (Source: Energy efficient buildings in India,
TERI).
 Wind tower: In a wind tower, the hot air enters the tower through the openings in the tower
gets cooled, and this become heavier and sinks down. The inlet and outlet of rooms induce
cool air movement. In the presence of wind, air is cooled more effectively and flows faster
down the tower and into the living area. After a whole day of air exchanges, the tower
becomes warm in the evenings. During the night, cooler ambient air comes in contact with
the bottom of the tower through the rooms. The tower wall absorbs heat during daytime
and releases it at night, warming the cool night air in the tower.
 Courtyard effects: Due to incident solar radiation in a courtyard, the air gets warmer and
rises. Cool air from the ground level flows through the louvered openings of rooms
surrounding a courtyard, thus producing air flows. At night, the warm roof surfaces get
cooled by convection and radiation. If this heat exchange reduces roof surface temperature
to wet bulb temperature of air, condensation of atmosphere moisture occurs on the roof
and the gain due to condensation limits further cooling.
 Earth air tunnels: Daily and annual temperature fluctuation decreases with the increase in
depth below the ground surface. At a depth of about 4m below ground, the temperature
inside the earth remains nearly constant round the year and is nearly equal to the annual
average temperature of the place. A tunnel in the form of a pipe or otherwise embedded at
a depth of about 4m below the ground will acquire the same temperature as the surrounding
earth at its surface and therefore the ambient air ventilated through this tunnel will get
cooled in summer and warmed in winter and this air can be used for cooling in summer and
heating in winter.

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 Passive downdraught cooling: In this system, wind catchers guide outside air over water-
filled pots, inducing evaporation and causing a significant drop in temperature before the air
enters the interior. Such wind catchers become primary elements of the architectural form
also.

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