CHAPTER 3 2

PRINCIPLES OF ENERGY CONSCIOUS DESIGN

Contents:
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Building Envelope
3.3 Passive Heating
3.4 Passive Cooling
3.5 Daylighting
3.6 Building Materials
References
3.1

INTRODUCTION

The energy conscious design approach helps designers and building owners to
economically reduce building operating costs, while improving comfort for the buildings
occupants. The energy consumed by a building depends on its use (whether residential,
commercial or industrial), the type of building (air-conditioned or otherwise), the interaction
of spaces, and the climate. Architects have to ensure that the design of the built form suits the
intended use of the building and the specific needs of the client within the framework of the
prevailing climatic conditions. That is, the parameters of architectural design are based on
need, context and form, the relationships between which are outlined in Fig. 3.1. Appropriate
combinations of these parameters lead to savings of energy required for maintaining healthy
and comfortable indoor conditions.
In any building design, one employs simple techniques such as orientation, shading of
windows, colour, and vegetation among others, to create comfortable conditions. Such
techniques pertain to the building envelope. Building envelopes not only provide the thermal
divide between the indoor and outdoor environment, but also play an important role in
determining how effectively the building can utilise natural lighting, ventilation, and heating
and cooling resources. Thus, intelligent configuration and moulding of the built form and its
surroundings can considerably minimise the level of discomfort inside a building, and reduce
the consumption of energy required to maintain comfortable conditions.
Yet, in extreme climate s, comfortable indoor conditions cannot be completely achieved
by limiting oneself to simple techniques. For example, in a city like Ahmadabad where the
ambient temperatures can reach up to 42 C in summer, simple techniques such as
orientation, shading, colour of external surfaces and insulation may help to bring down the
temperature to around 36 C [1]. A significant reduction no doubt, but the room temperature
is still very much above comfort levels. In such circumstances, additional features need to be
considered. One way is to use passive techniques such as wind towers coupled with
evaporative cooling to cause further cooling of the interiors.

ENVELOPE

MICROCLIMATE

ACOUSTIC, DAYLIGHT
AND VENTILATION

MACROCLIMATE
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

CONSTRUCTION
PROCESS

FO
RM

UTILITIES
ZONING

NT

IMAGE

CONTEXT

CO

CONSTRUCTION TYPE

TRANSPORT NETWORK

T
EX

STRUCTURE
CIRCULATION

NEIGHBOURHOOD
SITE

NEED

FORM

ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROL

NEED
MAINTENANCE

EQUIPMENT

ENVIRONMENTAL
(INDOOR + AMBIENT)

ACCESS

PRIORITIES

RELATIONSHIPS

SPACE REQUIREMENT

ACTIVITIES

OBJECTIVES

Fig. 3.1 Parameters of architectural design

Passive solar techniques involve methods of collecting, storing, distributing and

controlling thermal energy flow by means of natural principles of heat transfer. Passive
systems have no separate devices for collecting and storing energy, nor any mechanical means
for transporting heat. Instead, they make use of the energy available in the immediate
environment and effect energy exchanges through natural processes. However, the term
natural energy flow is certainly not synonymous with unregulated energy flow. In fact, the
natural flow can be reasonably regulated by controls such as dampers, openable windows,
movable insulation or shading devices. Passive systems offer a number of advantages that
afford large savings of energy; they are also easy to incorporate into buildings at little or no
additional cost. Further, the simplicity of design, operation and maintenance invite interest.
Common materials can be used in constructions and the systems subsequently maintained by
laypersons. However, as passive systems are dependent on natural forces, it would be
incorrect to compare their performance with that of air-conditioning systems. When rooms
are required to be maintained at a constant temperature and humidity, it is still advisable to
use conventional systems.
This chapter elaborates on both, the simple techniques pertaining to building envelope
as well as passive solar techniques. Wherever possible, the principles are accompanied by
details of construction. An architect may use the methods described as a starting point for
generating customised solutions. Techniques relevant to Indian conditions such as direct gain,
Trombe wall, ventilation, evaporative cooling, and earth-air-pipe system are explained in
greater detail than others.

The artificial is lighting load on a building can be significantly reduced if its design
allows for effective daylighting. Additionally, building materials also play an important role
in energy conscious architecture. This chapter also describes daylighting as a passive solar
technique, and concludes with a discussion on alternative building materials and their
embodied energy aspects.
3.2

BUILDING ENVELOPE
A building interacts with the environment through its external faades such as walls,
windows, projections, and roofs, referred to as the building envelope. The envelope acts as a
thermal shell, which if thoughtlessly constructed, would result in energy leaks through every
component. Hence, each component needs to be properly chosen to ensure an energy efficient
building. The choice depends on the site and the primary objective is, therefore, to examine
the site conditions. Besides, an ideal orientation of the building at a site and proper building
configuration play a significant role in the buildings performance.
3.2.1

Site
Of the various factors influencing the building design, site conditions occupy an
important position. The environmental conditions experienced on the site are due to the
macroclimate as well as the microclimate (discussed in chapter 2). Site-specific conditions
such as land form, vegetation, waterbodies, open spaces, etc. (section 2.6) play an important
role in building design. Proper analysis of these conditions can enable one to choose a site
and make suitable design plans. This would help save energy and also provide a fairly
satisfactory indoor environment throughout the year.
3.2.2

Orientation
Appropriate orientation of buildings can provide physically and psychologically
comfortable conditions in the building. It can help exclude the undesirable effects of severe
weather to a great extent. For example, in cold climates, a building must be oriented to
receive maximum solar radiation into the living areas for warmth on one hand, while keeping
out the prevailing cold winds on the other. Conversely, in hot regions, solar radiation and hot,
dusty winds need to be avoided in summer, while cool winds must be admitted. Thus,
appropriate orientation can control the amount of solar radiation and wind entering a building.
The best orientation requires that the building as a whole should receive maximum
solar radiation in winter and minimum in summer. To decide on an optimum orientation, it is
essential to have an idea of the suns position on a daily as well as seasonal basis by using
tools such as the sun path diagram (Chapter 2, Fig. 2.1 b). It is also necessary to know the
intensity of solar radiation on various external surfaces of the building as well as the duration
of sunshine. Such information is available in various handbooks (Refer to Chapter 2). Once
the orientation is decided, the heat entering a building can be controlled by (1) area and type
of glazings, (2) types of walls and roofs, and (3) shading.
As mentioned, wind may be desirable or unwanted, depending on the climate. Hence,
it is necessary to study the velocity and direction of the wind on an hourly and monthly basis.
This helps one to identify the duration for which the wind may be desirable. Besides, the
prevalent wind direction can be identified to plan the orientation of apertures for achieving
the desired indoor air motion. It is generally found that a variation of orientation of apertures

upto 30o with respect to the prevalent wind direction, does not significantly affect the indoor
ventilation (average indoor velocity) of the building [2].
Once orientation is fixed, wind can be controlled by:
tilting and projecting surfaces to deflect wind
providing openings of appropriate size
providing windbreakers to reduce wind speed
To illustrate the effect of orientation, let us consider a rectangular conditioned
building having fully glazed wall on one of its long sides. Let us also consider four
orientations such as northwest-southeast, north-south, northeast-southwest and east-west of
this building with respect to its long axis. The estimated annual cooling load of such a
conditioned building in a few Indian cities is shown in Fig. 3.2. It is seen that in warm
climates, the maximum load corresponds to the northwest-southeast orientation (the glass
curtain wall facing southwest). Hence, such an orientation of the building should be avoided.
Northwest-southeast

7000

North-south

6500

Northeast-southwest

Annual Load (GJ/Year)

East-west

6000
5500
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
Jodhpur

Mumbai

Pune

New Delhi

Srinagar

Leh

Place

Fig. 3.2 Effect of orientation on the annual load of a conditioned building in various
cities

3.2.3

Building configuration
Heat exchange between a building and its surroundings occurs primarily through the
skin of the building. Configuring the geometry of the building appropriate to the climate and
usage can control the magnitude of the heat flow. For example, in an extremely cold climate,
one needs to minimise heat loss from the building to the environment. This can be achieved
by:
a) using buffer spaces, e.g., sunspaces and balconies act as sitouts in favourable
weather;
b) locating infrequently used spaces such as store rooms and toilets in the directions
that face prevailing cold winds;

c) maximising exposure to solar radiation, e.g., major living rooms may be arranged
facing the sun to gain heat;
d) locating habitable spaces appropriately, e.g., the most habitable spaces may be
kept on leeward side to avoid cold winds. They may be clustered together to
reduce exposure to cold.
The heat flow due to radiation and air movement can be controlled by varying the
following aspects of the building configuration:
-

surface area to volume ratio (S/V ratio): The ratio of the surface area to
the volume of the building (S/V ratio) determines the magnitude of the
heat transfer in and out of the building. The larger the S/V ratio, the greater
the heat gain or loss for a given volume of space. Conversely, a smaller
S/V ratio will result in the reduction of heat gain/loss. For example, in cold
climates it is preferable to have compact house forms with minimum S/V
ratio. Figure. 3.3 shows the surface to volume ratios for various building
shapes.

16
4

3
4

7.1

2
2

(a)

(b)

SOLID SHAPE SURFACE AREA

'S'

(c)

VOLUME
'V'

SURFACE AREA/ VOLUME

RATIO
'S/V'

96

64

1.5

103.2

64

1.61

136

64

2.13

Fig. 3.3 Surface area to volume ratio (S/V ratio) for a few building
shapes

shape of the building: Wind when obstructed by a building creates

pressure differences, that is, positive pressure on the windward side and
negative pressure on the leeward side. Consequently, a new airflow pattern
is established around the building. Thus, wind pattern across a building can
be modified by shaping it appropriately.
buffer spaces: Buffer spaces such as courtyards, atria, balconies and
verandahs provide shadig and catch wind.

arrangement of openings: Appropriate openings connecting high and low

pressure areas provide effective ventilation. Solid and glazed surfaces need
to be suitably arranged and oriented for receiving or rejecting solar
radiation.
shading: Shading of surfaces can be achieved by the self-shading profiles
of buildings e.g. H-type or L-type as compared to the simple cube. Shading
devices such as chajjas block the solar radiation incident on the exposed
surfaces of a building, consequently reducing heat gain. It has been found
that in a low-rise residential building in Ahmadabad, shading a window by
a simple horizontal chajja of 0.76m depth can lower the maximum room
temperature by upto 4.6 C [3]. Therefore, the shading of windows can
significantly improve the performance of the building. In the case of hot
and dry regions, taller structures may be placed towards the south, so as to
shade other structures in a cluster. Walls can be shaded by the use of
projections, balconies, fins, textured paints and vegetation. Openings can
be shaded with appropriately sized chajjas, fins and awnings externally
(Fig. 3.4), and/or by using openable shutters and movable covers like
curtains and venetian blinds internally. Translucent materials like heat
absorbing or heat reflecting glass, plastics, painted glass, etc. can also be
used for reducing solar heat gains through glasses. The effectiveness of
these shading devices are evaluated in terms of shade factors (defined as
the ratio of the solar heat gain from the fenestration under consideration, to
the solar heat gain through a 3 mm plain glass sheet). Table 3.1 presents
the measured values of shade factors for various types of shading devices;
the corresponding U-values are also mentioned [4,5].

Table 3.1 Transmittance and shade factors of different shading devices [5]
Name of the Shading Device
Plain glass sheet (3.0 mm thick)
Plain glass + wire mesh outside
Painted glass
(i)
White paint
(ii)
Yellow paint
(iii)
Green paint
Heat absorbing glass
Plain glass sheet + Venetian blind inside
(i)
Light colour
(ii)
Dark colour
Plain glass sheet
(i)
100 percent shaded
(ii)
75 percent shaded
(iii)
60 percent shaded

Transmittance
(W/m2-K)
5.23
5.00

Shade Factor

5.22
5.22
5.22
4.65

0.35
0.37
0.40
0.45

3.72
3.72

0.35
0.40

5.23
5.23
5.23

0.14
0.34
0.56

1.00
0.65

As the roof of a building receives the maximum radiation, shading it

with movable canvas covers, plant cover (pergola) or a roof garden can
reduce heat gain.

Fig. 3.4 Types of shading devices

The reduction in yearly beam radiation incident on a typical window of

size 1.2m X 1.2m having different external shading devices (horizontal
and vertical) in some cities of India is presented in Fig. 3.5 [3]. The figure
shows that providing a horizontal chajja can reduce the incident beam
radiation falling on the window in various orientations considerably. The
shading can be further enhanced by providing vertical fins. The results for
various shading devices (horizontal chajjas and vertical fins) on windows
of different sizes and in various orientations is given in Appendix III.1 [3].

Radiation (KWh/m2-year )

700

north
south

600

east
west

500
400
300
200
100
0
Ahmadabad

Mumbai

Nagpur

Pune

Location

(a) Unshaded window (1.2m x 1.2 m)

700

north
south

Radiation (KWh/m2-year)

600

east
west

500
400
300
200
100
0
Ahmadabad

Mumbai

Nagpur

Pune

Location

(b) Window shaded by 0.6 m chajja with 0.15 m extension (1.2m x 1.2 m)
700

north
south

Radiation (KWh/m 2-year)

600

east
west

500
400
300
200
100
0
Ahmadabad

Mumbai

Nagpur

Pune

Location

(c) Window shaded by 0.6 m chajja and full fins (1.2m x 1.2 m)

Fig. 3.5 Reduction in yearly beam radiation incident on windows due to shading [3]

LARGER GLAZED OPENINGS

CAN BE PLACED ON EXTERNAL
WALLS THAT ARE SUBJECT
TO SELF SHADING

SELF SHADING OF
BUILDINGS REDUCE
HEAT GAIN
RECESSED WINDOWS IN
BUFFER SPACES SUCH AS
BALCONIES REDUCE HEAT
GAIN IN ROOMS

WINDOWS ON ADJACENT
WALLS PROVIDE COOLING
BY CROSS VENTILATION

Fig. 3.6 Aspects of building configuration that can reduce heat gains in a hot climate

The physical manifestation of some of the concepts on building configuration that can
reduce heat gain in a hot climate is depicted in Fig 3.6.
3.2.4

Building components
The nature of a building envelope determines the amount of radiation and wind that
will enter the building. It consists of the following elements:
(A) Roof
(B) Walls
(C) Ground-based floor
(D) Fenestrations
(E) External colour and texture
The heat flow through these elements is characterised by their resistance, thermal
capacity, absorption, transmission and emission. The materials for these components have to
be chosen carefully depending on specific requirements. The thermophysical parameters of
materials that must be considered are specific heat, density and thermal conductivity. While
the product of the first two determines the energy storage capacity of a material, the third
characterises the energy-flow behaviour. These three parameters together define the time lag
(or phase shift) and decrement factor. The former refers to the time delay of heat flow
whereas the latter signifies the reduction in the amplitude of heat waves. Thus, depending on
the climatic requirements, one would look for materials that would provide the desired
thermal storage, time delay and amplitude decrement.

Colour and texture define surface characteristics such as emissivity, reflectivity,

absorptivity and roughness. These are vital for heat flow and light distribution. For example,
if the roof of a building is painted white, then the transmission of heat can be reduced by upto
80% as compared to a dark colour.
Generally, the building components can be categorised into opaque and transparent
elements. For example, a brick wall is an opaque element whereas a glazed window is a
transparent element. Transparent elements allow direct solar radiation into the living spaces.
Furthermore, an element may also be openable (e.g. skylight, window, door, etc), thereby
allowing for air exchanges between the building and its surroundings.
Heat loss or gain from various building components may be reduced by insulating
them appropriately. Walls, floors and roofs can be insulated by materials such as polyurethane
foam (PUF), or thermocol, either externally or internally. Another mode of insulation is by
incorporating an air cavity in the external building envelope. In cavity walls, the air gap
inhibits the transmission of the heat into or out of the building as air acts as a bad conductor
of heat. A brief description of various types of insulation is provided in Appendix III.2 [6].
Variations can be achieved by using different insulation materials, adjusting their thickness,
and using them in different locations (internal or external). In cavity walls, the property of the
air gap can be varied by opting for a ventilated or unventilated air cavity, and adjusting its
thickness. It may be noted that water absorption adversely affects the performance of
insulation materials.
The heat gain or loss through individual elements depends on whether the building is
single storeyed or multi-storeyed. For example, in a typical single storeyed building,
maximum heat gain occurs through the roof, whereas in a multi-storeyed building it is
through the walls and windows. The heat gain through various building elements on the
cooling load of a ground + 4 storeyed residential building for some cities of India is given in
Table 3.2 [1]. It is seen that the maximum cooling load on an annual basis, is due to windows
(52.9%-64.7%). The next to highest cooling load is due to conduction through walls (26.5%36.4%). The cooling loads through the roof and ground are not significant as compared to
walls and windows. Windows and walls together account for more than 80% of the cooling
load in all cities. Thus, the control of solar gains through windows and conduction through
walls should be an important consideration for reducing the cooling loads.
Table 3.2 Heat gain through various building components [1]
Building
component

Walls
Roof
Ground
Window
(Conduction
+
Direct Solar)

Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
(223.037 MWh)
(201.892 MWh)
(198.756 MWh)
Cooling Percentage Cooling Percentage Cooling Percentage
load
of annual
load
of annual
load
of annual
(MWh) cooling load (MWh) cooling load (MWh) cooling load
81.141
36.4
66.532
33.0
71.151
35.8
18.996
8.5
15.148
7.5
17.845
9.0
4.957
2.2
4.557
2.3
3.000
1.5
117.941
52.9
115.654
57.3
106.761
53.7
(28.563 +
(12.8
(17.405 +
(8.6
(19.608 +
(9.9
89.378)
+
98.249)
+
87.153)
+
40.1)
48.7)
43.8)

Pune
(137.764 MWh)
Cooling Percentage
load
of annual
(MWh) cooling load
36.487
26.5
12.288
8.9
-0.129
-0.1
89.119
64.7
(6.180
(4.5
+
+
82.939)
60.2)

The heat gain through each element can be varied by:

area of the element
orientation and tilt of the element
material properties (U-value, time lag, decrement factor, transmissivity,
emmissivity, etc)
finishes
control of incoming solar radiation
(A) Roof
The roof of a building receives a significant amount of solar radiation. Thus,
its design and construction play an important role in modifying the heat flow, daylighting and
ventilation. As per Indian Standard I.S. code 3792 1978 [4], the maximum value of overall
thermal transmittance (U-value) of a roof should not exceed 2.33 W/m2-K in hot-dry, and
warm and humid climates. The code recommends that the heat gain through roofs may be
reduced by the following methods:
Insulating materials may be applied externally or internally to the roofs. In case of
external application, the insulating material needs to be protected by waterproofing
treatments. For internal application, the insulating material may be fixed by adhesive
or by other means on the underside of the roofs. A false ceiling of insulation material
may be provided below the roofs with air gaps in between. Shining and reflecting
material (e.g. glazed china mosaic) may be laid on top of the roof.
Roofs may be flooded with water in the form of sprays or in other ways. Loss due to
evaporation may be compensated by make-up arrangement.
Movable covers of suitable heat insulating material, if practicable, may be considered.
White washing of the roof can be done before the onset of each summer.
The second and fourth recommendations would be fully effective if the surfaces are
kept clean, without accumulation of dust. The recommended thickness of some insulating
materials for roofs is given in Table 3.3. Figure 3.7 [6] shows the reduction of ceiling surface
temperature due to some of the above techniques for a flat roof in a hot and dry climate on
two consecutive summer days. It is seen that the ceiling surface temperature can be reduced
by about 100C.
A massive roof composed of material such as reinforced cement concrete (RCC) tends
to delay the transmission of heat into the interior when compared to lighter roofs such as
asbestos cement sheet roofing. Sometimes, the roof is also covered by inverted earthen pots
with a layer of earth over them. The earth and the air inside the pots provide good insulation
for resisting heat gain. A doubly pitched or curved roof provides a larger surface area for heat
loss compared to a flat roof. Thus, both the shape as well as the material have an effect on the
performance of the roof.

Table 3.3 Recommended thicknesses of a few insulating materials for roofs [5]
3

Density Range (kg/m )

S.
No.

1
2

Name and Type of

Insulating Material

Cellular concrete
Coconut pitch
concrete
Light weight bricks
Vermiculite
concrete
Wood-wool board

Minimum

Maximum

Maximum
Thermal
Conductivity
Value
(W/m-K)

NC

NC

Optimum Thickness (m)

Flat Roof

Sloped Roof

320

350

0.081

0.05

0.075

0.10

500

600

0.087

0.05

0.075

0.10

400

450

0.081

0.05

0.075

0.10

480

560

0.105

0.05

0.10

0.125

350

450

0.076

0.025

0.05

0.025

0.075

Foamtex

150

200

0.046

0.025

0.05

0.025

0.05

Thermocol

16

20

0.041

0.025

0.035

0.025

0.05

Fibreglass

24

32

0.041

0.025

0.035

0.025

0.05

Mineral wool

48

64

0.041

0.025

0.035

0.025

0.05

10

Fibre insulation
board

200

250

0.053

0.015

0.025

0.015

0.205

3
4

NC: Non-air-conditioned

C: Air-conditioned

TEMPERATURE (C)

50
OUTSIDE
TEMPERATURE
40
WHITE
WASHING
30

INSULATION

20

10

12

SPRAYING OF
WATER (RSEC)

16

20

12

16

20

TIME (h)

Fig. 3.7 Relative performance of different techniques on a flat roof [5]

The performance indicators such as U-values (thermal transmittance), damping,

thermal performance index and thermal time constant of commonly used flat and sloped roofs
have been discussed in SP:41 (S&T):1987 [5].
The roof can also be used advantageously for effective ventilation and daylighting by
incorporating vents and skylights respectively.

(B) Walls
Walls constitute a major part of the building envelope and receive a large amount of
direct radiation. Depending on whether the need is for heating or cooling, the thickness and
material of the wall can be varied to control heat gain. The resistance to heat flow through the
exposed walls may be increased in the following ways:
The thickness of the wall may be increased
Cavity wall construction may be adopted.
The wall maybe constructed out of suitable heat insulating material, provided
structural requirements are met.
Heat insulating material may be fixed on the inside or outside of the exposed wall. In
the case of external application, overall water proofing is essential.
Light coloured whitewash or distemper may be applied on the exposed side of the
wall.
The performance indicators, such as U-values (thermal transmittance), thermal damping,
thermal performance index and thermal time constant of some typical wall constructions have
been discussed in SP:41 (S&T):1987 [5]. The I.S. code 3972-1978 [4] specifies that the Uvalues of exposed walls should not exceed 2.56 W/m2-K in hot and dry, and hot and humid
regions. In warm and humid regions, they should not exceed 2.91 W/m2-K.
(C) Ground-based Floors
Heat is transferred by conduction from the building to the ground through the floor
which is in contact with the ground. The transfer of heat between the building and the ground
occurs primarily via the perimeter of the building, and to a lesser extent through the central
portion of the floor. In warmer climates, this heat loss is desirable from the point of view of
comfort. On the other hand, in cold climates, heat loss through the ground needs to be
minimised and hence insulation may be provided. The effectiveness of insulation under a
floor will depend on factors such as the moisture content and temperatures of the ground. If
the moisture content is high or the temperature is low, the tendency for heat to be lost through
the floor to the ground will increase. In these instances, insulation (typically of U-value =
0.09 W/m2-K) of thickness of 50mm and depth of 600mm should be provided along the entire
perimeter of the slab. To improve performance, the entire slab should be insulated.
Foundation insulation using foam board on the inside face of the foundation wall may also be
provided. This protects both during construction and during the life of the building.
(D) Fenestration (openings)
Fenestration is provided for the purposes of heat gain, daylighting and ventilation.
Their pattern and configuration form an important aspect of building design. Appropriate
design of openings and shading devices help to keep out sun and wind or allow them into the
building. Ventilation lets in the fresh air and exhausts hot room air, resulting in cooling.
While planning the position of a window, it must be remembered that the tendency of
hot air is to rise. Openings at higher levels would naturally aid in venting the hot air out. The
size, shape and orientation of the opening affect the speed and flow of air inside the building.
For example, openings on opposite walls relieve high pressure on the windward side,
permitting good cross-ventilation of the interior space. Also, a small inlet and large outlet
increases the velocity and distribution of airflow through the room. The percentage changes in
wind speed in a room due to various window locations and orientations are presented in Fig.

3.8 [5]. A negative sign indicates that the wind speed has decreased and a positive sign
indicates an increase.
PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN VELOCITY OF AIR
AS A FUNCTION OF ORIENTATION OF WIND
(%)
0

45

LOCATION OF
WINDOWS

-10

+40

-10

-15

-15

-15

-10

+40

-10

-15

-60

-20

-10

-20

-60

Fig. 3.8 Effect of window location on indoor air motion [5]

Windows are usually glazed, that is, provided with glass. Generally, glass is
transparent to solar radiation but opaque to long wave radiation. This characteristic can be
used to heat a building interior by promoting heat gain. This is desirable in winter, but may

cause overheating in summer. For reducing solar gain during summer, the window size
should be kept minimum in the hot and dry regions. For example, in a city like Ahmadabad,
the number of uncomfortable hours in a year can be reduced by as much as 35% if glazing is
taken as 10 % of the floor area instead of, say, 20%. Thus, though natural light is introduced
into the building through glazed openings, skylights, lightshelves, or clerestories, the amount
of light and glare that enters needs to be controlled. This can be achieved by providing
openable shutters and movable covers like curtains or venetian blinds (section 3.2.3). Besides,
tinted glazing or glazing with surface coatings can be used to control solar transmission,
absorption and reflection. For example, the direct transmission of solar radiation through a
6mm thick absorbing glass can be reduced by about 45% (Fig. 3.9). Reflective glass is usually
made by coating the glass with a layer of reflective material or low emittance layer.
Reflectivity could vary depending on whether the coating is on the outer or inner face of the
glass (Fig. 3.10). Glazing of these types can reduce heat gain without obstructing viewing.
They are usually used for windows which cannot be shaded externally.

Fig. 3.9 Transmission properties of absorbing glass (6 mm thick)

Fig. 3.10 Transmission properties of reflecting glass (6 mm thick)

I.S. Standard 3792-1978 [4] recommends that in the hot and arid, hot and humid,
warm and humid and cold zones, no exposed window should have a shade factor of more
than 0.5 and a transmittance (U-value) of more than 6.51 W/m2-K for unconditioned

buildings; for conditioned buildings, the corresponding values are 0.4 and 3.8 W/m2-K
respectively.
The thermal transmittance (U-values) of some doors and windows are given in Fig.
3.11 [5]. For heat insulation of exposed windows and doors, suitable methods should be
adopted to reduce both solar heat and heat transmission

U = 4.83
LEDGED AND
BRACED DOOR

U = 4.83

U = 4.83

U = 5.18

U = 5.68

SINGLE HUNG
FLUSH DOOR

PANELLED
DOOR

PANELLED AND
GLAZED DOOR

GLAZED
DOOR

U = 5.12

U = 5.23

GLAZED
WINDOW

METAL
WINDOW

Fig. 3.11 Thermal transmittance of doors and windows [5]

This can be achieved by the following means:

external shading such as louvered shutters, and sun breakers such as chajjas
internal shading such as curtains and venetian blinds
use of heat resistant glasses/ films
use of double or triple glasses with air space in between (glasses are held apart by
spacer bars and a desiccant is used to remove moisture)
Information regarding various types of glazing and their properties is given in
Appendix III.3. Under the initiatives of the International Energy Agency (Task 18), a large
number of institutes and research organisations are developing advanced glazing materials.
The target is to develop the scientific, engineering and architectural basis necessary to support
the appropriate use of advance glazing in buildings and other solar applications. Modern
research has brought about significant developments in advanced glazing systems, in the form

of new glazing types and window system encapsulations. There are many approaches to
advanced glazing system design. These include smart windows, evacuated glazings,
transparent insulation materials, monolithic and granular aerogels, low-emittance coatings,
angular selective transmittance coatings, holographic and prismatic materials, and
thermochromic and liquid crystal devices [7,8]. Commercial systems now exist for a few
cases and are being developed for the remaining ones. A basic explanation of energy-efficient
glazing has recently been reported by Bandyopadhyay [9]. A few of the advanced glazing
systems are discussed briefly.
(i) Spectrally selective glazing
Spectrally selective glazing permits some portions of the solar spectrum to
enter through it while blocking others. The glazing admits as much daylight as
possible while preventing transmission of as much solar heat as possible.
Consequently, such glazing when used in windows significantly reduces building
energy consumption and peak demand; the capacity of the building's cooling system
might also be downsized because of reduced peak loads. The spectral selectivity is
achieved by a microscopically thin, low-emissivity (low-E) coating on the glass, or on
a film applied to the glass, or suspended within the insulating glass unit.
Spectrally selective glazings can be combined with other absorbing and
reflecting glazings to provide a whole range of sun control performance. They can be
used in windows, skylights, glass doors, and atria of commercial and residential
buildings. It may be noted that these glazings may not provide glare control even if
solar gain is reduced.
Spectrally selective glazings offer a number of advantages such as:

They are more transparent than tinted glazing, enabling occupants to have an
unimpeded view and a sense of connection to the outdoors.

They offer better night views than reflective and dark tinted glazings.

From the exterior, the appearance of spectrally selective glazing is clear, and not
mirrored or heavily tinted.

(ii) Angular selective solar control

From the point of view of daylighting of a building, the objective is to block or
reflect direct sun light and admit diffuse light. Angular selective faades provide such
control based on the sun's angle of incidence on the faade. These have high
transmittance at low angles of incidence and much lower transmittance at slightly
higher angles of incidence compared to normal glazing. Consequently, the solar
radiation gets transmitted to the building interior during winter (due to lower elevation
of the sun) and is prevented from entering the building when the sun has slightly
higher elevations.
Variations on this theme include between-pane louvers, or blinds with a
mirrored upper surface; these can be used in the clerestory portion of the window
wall. In case of exterior glass lamellas (louvers), the upper surface can be treated with
a reflective coating. These systems fully or partially block direct sun and redirect

sunlight to the interior ceiling plane, given seasonal adjustments. Conventional

louvered or venetian blind systems enable users or an automated control system to
tailor the adjusted angle of blockage according to solar position, daylight availability,
glare, or other criteria.
Frit is the most common angle-selective coating. It consists of a ceramic
coating, either translucent or opaque, which is screen printed in small patterns on a
glass surface. The pattern used controls the light based on its angle of incidence. The
colour of frit controls reflection or absorption, the view and/or visual privacy. Visual
transparency can also be controlled by applying frit to both sides of the glass to make
it appear transparent in some angles and opaque in others. Angle-selective materials
can be thought of as a series of fins or overhangs within a piece of glass, which filter
or block light.

(iii) Smart windows

Smart windows are characterised by their ability to vary the visible light as
well as solar radiation. This is achieved by incorporating a chromogenic material in
the window. Generally, this is done in the form of a thin film having photochromic,
thermochromic or electrochromic properties. As the terms suggest, these devices are
activated by light, heat and electricity respectively.
Electrochromic windows
An electrochromic window is a thin, multi-layer assembly sandwiched
between traditional pieces of glass. The outer two layers of the assembly are
transparent electronic conductors. The next one is a counter-electrode layer and an
electrochromic layer, with an ion conductor layer in between. When a low voltage is
applied across the conductors, the ions move from the counter-electrode to the
electrochromic layer. This causes the assembly to change color. When the voltage is
reversed, the ions move from the electrochromic layer back to the counter-electrode
layer; this restores the device to its previous clear state. The windows operate on a
very low voltage -- one to three volts -- and use energy only to change their
condition, and not to maintain any particular state. The glass may be programmed to
absorb only part of the light spectrum.
Thermochromic windows
Thermochromic windows alter their properties due to heat. In response to
changes in the ambient temperature, clear thermochromic glazings become diffused.
Among the thermochromic technologies, gel-based coatings seem to be the most
promising. In addition to automatically changing from clear to diffuse in response to
heat, the glazings also turn white and reflective, thereby reducing the transmission
of solar heat. This property can reduce air conditioning costs significantly when the
outside is quite hot. As one cannot see through the window once it loses its
transparency, this glazing is probably better suited for skylights rather than view
windows.

Photochromic windows
Photochromic windows respond to changes in light, much like sunglasses that
darken when one moves from a dim light to a bright one. They work well to reduce
glare, but don't control heat gain. This is because the amount of light that strikes a
window does not necessarily correspond to the amount of solar heat a window
absorbs. Photochromic windows are still in the development stage and are yet to be
tested successfully on a large-scale and commercial level.
Smart windows hold promise for reducing energy demands and cutting air
conditioning and heating loads in the future. They offer the next major step in windows
that are increasingly sophisticated and energy efficient.
(E) External colour and texture
The nature of the external surface finish determines the amount of heat absorbed or
reflected by it. A smooth and light-coloured surface reflects more heat and light; a rough
textured surface causes self-shading and increases the area for re-radiation. White or lighter
shades have higher solar reflectivity and therefore are ideally used for reducing heat gain in
warmer climates. Moreover, a heavy texture on these light-coloured surfaces helps to reduce
the glare. Dark colours absorb more radiation, which increases heat gain through the surface,
and can thus be used in cooler regions. An example of the effect of the colour of external
surfaces in the four cities of Ahmadabad, Mumbai, Nagpur and Pune is given in Table 3.4 and
3.5 [3]. It is seen that in all cities, a white painted surface outperforms all other colours in
terms of lowering room temperatures.
Table 3.4 Effect of colour of external surfaces on room temperatures in different
climatic zones [3]

Colour
(Absorptivity,
Emissivity)
White painted
surface
(0.3, 0.9)
White-washed
surface
(0.4,0.9)

Ahmadabad
(Hot and Dry)
Yearly Yearly Yearly H Y
25
min
max
avg

( C)
( C)
( C)
(h)

H Y30
(h)

Mumbai
(Warm and Humid)
Yearly Yearly Yearly H Y
25
min
max
avg

( C)
( C)
( C)
(h)

H Y30
(h)

20.6

42.2

29.7

7140

3908

24.5

34.6

29.6

8605

3350

20.8

42.5

30.0

7319

4123

24.8

34.9

29.8

8667

3654

Dark grey surface

(0.9,0.9)

21.9

44.0

31.1

7830

5599

26.0

36.1

30.9

8760

5535

Cream surface
(0.4,0.9)

21.2

43.0

30.4

7498

4739

25.3

35.3

30.2

8760

4320

Red surface
0.9)

21.2

43.1

30.4

7498

4739

25.2

35.4

30.2

8760

4412

(0.6,

H Y25
H Y30

: Number of hours for which room temperatures exceed 25 C in a year

: Number of hours for which room temperatures exceed 30 C in a year
min : minimum; max : maximum; avg : average

Table 3.5 Effect of colour of external surfaces on room temperatures in different

climatic zones [3]

Colour
(Absorptivity,
Emissivity)
White painted
surface
(0.3, 0.9)
White-washed
surface
(0.4,0.9)

Nagpur
(Composite)
Yearly Yearly Yearly
min
max
avg
(C)
(C)
(C)

Pune
(Moderate)

H Y25

H Y30

(h)

(h)

Yearly Yearly Yearly

min
max
avg
(C)
(C)
(C)

H Y25

H Y30

(h)

(h)

20.4

40.1

29.2

7067

2957

22.0

34.4

27.4

7078

1926

20.7

40.3

29.5

7220

3139

22.3

34.7

27.7

7319

1957

Dark grey surface

(0.9,0.9)

22.2

41.7

30.9

7923

4408

23.7

35.9

28.8

8171

2682

Cream surface
(0.4,0.9)

21.4

40.9

30.1

7494

3715

23.0

35.2

28.2

7894

2172

Red surface
0.9)

21.3

40.9

30.1

7494

3687

22.9

35.2

28.1

7864

2140

(0.6,

3.3
3.3.1

PASSIVE HEATING
Direct Gain
Direct gain is a passive heating technique that is generally used in cold climates. It is
the simplest approach and is therefore widely used. In this technique, sunlight is admitted into
the living spaces directly through openings or glazed windows. The sunlight heats the walls
and floors, which then store and transmit the heat to the indoor environment. The main
requirements of a direct gain system are large glazed windows to receive maximum solar
radiation and thermal storage mass.
During the day, the affected part of the house tends to get very hot, and hence, thermal
storage mass is provided in the form of bare massive walls or floors to absorb and store heat.
This also prevents overheating of the room. The stored heat is released at night when it is
needed most for space heating. Carpets and curtains should not be used to cover floors and
walls used as storage mass because they impede the heat flow rate. Suitable overhangs for
shading and openable windows for ventilation must be provided to avoid overheating in the
summer. Thus a direct gain system has the following components: (a) glazing to transmit
and trap the incoming solar radiation, (b) thermal mass to store heat for night-time use, (c)
insulation to reduce losses at night, (d) ventilation for summer time cooling, and (e)
shading to reduce overheating in summer. A schematic diagram showing the components of
direct gain system is given in Fig. 3.12. Reflectors may be provided outside windows to
increase the efficiency of the direct gain system. Clerestories and skylights may also be used
to gain heat. For example, clerestories used as a direct gain system in a restaurant in New
Mexico, USA can maintain an indoor temperature of about 15oC as compared to an outside
temperature of 1.0oC [10].
Direct gain is the most common, simple, cheap and effective heating approach.
However, overheating, glare and degradation of building materials due to ultraviolet radiation
are some of its disadvantages.

CLERESTOREY
(OPTIONAL)

SKYLIGHT
(OPTIONAL)
OVERHANG
FOR SUMMER
SHADING

INSULATION

MOVABLE INSULATION
TO REDUCE HEAT
LOSS AT NIGHT

REFLECTOR PANEL
TO INCREASE SOLAR
GAIN

INSULATION ON
OUTSIDE FOR
THERMAL STORAGE
WALL

SOUTH FACING
GLAZED WINDOW
THERMAL STORAGE
WALL AND FLOOR
GROUND
LEVEL

INSULATION OF
FLOOR TO REDUCE
HEAT LOSS

Fig. 3.12 Components of a direct gain system

Components:
Glazed windows
The principal function of a glazed window in a direct gain approach is to admit and
trap solar energy so that it can be absorbed and stored by elements within the space. In winter,
the suns altitude is low and its movement is in the southern part of the sky in northern
hemisphere. Hence, the window must face south in the northern hemisphere as it receives
maximum solar radiation in this direction. Large expanses of south-facing windows used for
heating in direct gain applications can, if properly designed, gain significantly more energy
than they lose. The orientation of the window may vary by upto 20% east or west of the south
without significantly affecting the thermal performance. A slight east-of-south orientation
may be desirable to allow the sun to penetrate the living space in the mornings.
Table 3.6 Effect of window-types in cold climates
Annual load (GJ/year)
Place

Srinagar
Leh

Single clear
glass

Double clear glass

212.0

172.0

416.0

329.0

Table 3.6 presents the effect of window-types for a conditioned residential bungalow
in for Srinagar and Leh which represent (i) cold and cloudy, and (ii) cold and dry climates
respectively. It is seen that a significant reduction in heat loss can be achieved by using
double glazing. Triple glazing may be provided in places that experience severe winters.

Figure 3.13 shows an example of a wooden-framed, double glazed and double rebated
window. The extra rebate is provided to reduce infiltration.

CLEAR GLASS
AIR GAP
EPDM GASKET

SHUTTER FRAME
FRAME
BEADING
CAULKING/ SEALANT
INTERNAL PLASTER
MASONRY WALL

Fig. 3.13 Details of a double glazed window

Thermal Storage Mass

In direct gain systems, solar energy can be stored in the floor, walls, ceiling, and/or
furnishings of the living space if these components have sufficient capacity to absorb and
store heat for use at night. Materials such as concrete, brick and water have this capability and
can be used effectively in direct gain applications. Also used, are phase change materials
(PCM) such as salt or wax that store thermal energy when they melt and release heat when
they solidify [11].
Care should be taken to ensure a balanced distribution of mass throughout the living
space. In general, a thin material spread over a larger area will perform better than thick
material concentrated in one part of the space.
Generally, for every square metre of south-facing glazing area, 30 percent of storage
area should be provided to receive direct sunlight. The thickness of the storage floor material
should be 50 to 150 mm, and that of walls should be 50 to 100 mm [12]. The masonry units
used should be solid with full mortar bedding. Storage mass exposed to direct sunlight should
be dark in colour to absorb more heat. It is generally more thermally efficient to provide
thicker rather than thinner storage mass. However, there is an optimum thickness. For
example, in case of the floor being used as the storage mass, the storage effect increases as its
thickness increases. For a thickness beyond 100mm, the rate of increase in the storage effect
is not significant. In fact, the performance decreases for thicknesses greater than 200mm.
Variations and Controls:
Thermal storage materials can be concrete, bricks, stone or water in containers. The
thermal mass is typically located in the external walls, internal walls or floors that receive
direct sun. Direct gain can be admitted through various forms of openings like clerestories,
skylights, greenhouses or glass curtain walls. The colour of internal surfaces also plays an
important role in absorbing radiation, and distributing of daylight. Darker colours absorb
more heat than lighter colours as pointed out earlier. As far as the distribution of light is

concerned, lighter shades are preferred indoors. Thus, the storage surfaces should be of
medium-dark colour, whereas lightweight materials should have light colours to reflect
sunlight on the masonry walls or floors. Reflectors may be provided outside the windows,
clerestories and skylights to increase the efficiency of the direct gain system.
Reflectors can be placed horizontally above or below a window. In cases where
physical obstructions (e.g. trees or other buildings) on or around the building site shade the
window, the provision of reflectors can often increase solar collection by about 30-40%. They
are usually panels coated on one side with a material of high reflectance. When the windows
extend all the way to the ground (e.g. french window or patio door), the reflectors are simply
laid on the ground in front of them. They should be placed so that they slope slightly away
from the window to increase the amount of reflected sunlight and to facilitate drainage (5% is
recommended). The size of the reflector panel should be of the same width as the window,
and roughly 1 to 2 times the height. To be economically and aesthetically justifiable, they
should also be insulated so that they can serve as movable insulation when not in the
reflecting mode. It should be noted that reflecting panels may cause glare and/ or overheating
problems within the direct gain living spaces. Light-coloured exterior landscape elements
such as patios or terraces, can also serve as reflectors. They will not perform as efficiently as
panels with high reflectance, but they will reduce the possibility of glare and overheating.
While windows can admit and trap a great deal of solar energy during clear sunny
days, they can also lose a great deal of heat during prolonged overcast periods and at night.
Providing some form of movable insulation can result in a significant increase in overall
thermal performance. In severe climates, windows may be net energy losers if movable
insulation is not provided. There are two basic types of movable insulation: those applied to
the outer face of the collector, and those applied on the inside. Both can effectively reduce
heat loss during the heating season (winter) and when used like shades, at preventing
excessive heat gain during the cooling season (summer). These devices can be hand operated
or motor driven. Care must be taken to ensure a very tight seal between the insulation and the
collector to avoid heat loss around the edges of the insulation.
To avoid excessive heat gain in the cooling season and to increase overall system
performance, some provision should be made for shading the windows. Common external
shading devices are overhangs (fixed or adjustable), trellises, awnings, louvers (horizontal or
vertical, fixed or adjustable), and wing walls. Interior shading devices, while often not as
thermally effective as exterior units, are generally easier to operate and maintain. Common
interior shading devices include roller shades, blinds, drapes, and movable panels. For
optimum overall performance of the system, these shading elements should also be designed
to provide insulation during the day in the cooling season and at night in the heating season.
Exhausts and vents can be employed to cool the interior spaces through ventilation when the
temperature rises beyond the comfort level.
Heat losses can also be controlled by providing insulation on the storage mass. Direct
gain storage walls and floors that are exposed to the outside should be insulated on their
exterior surfaces. Insulating the interior surface of a storage wall effectively nullifies any
thermal storage capability of the wall, because it prevents solar energy from being absorbed
by the wall. Therefore, insulation should be placed on the outside of any exterior wall, above
and below the plinth that is used for thermal storage. Similarly, floors should also be
insulated on the outside.

Remarks and Practical Considerations:

A direct gain system causes large temperature swings (typically 10 C) because of
large variations in the input of solar energy to the room. Joint reinforcement should therefore
be provided to control cracking caused by thermal movement and shrinkage. Expansion joints
should be provided at the connection between floors and masonry walls to prevent cracking.
Insulation must be protected wherever it is exposed. Cement plaster over chicken mesh or
wire lath or other methods may be employed. Where damp-proofing is used, it should be
allowed to completely cure before applying insulation. Care must be taken to ensure a tight fit
between any insulation and the glass to reduce heat loss at the edges. Continuous sill sealer is
recommended to provide protection against infiltration. In cooler climates, continuous
insulation should be used under the slab which is used as storage mass, and a vapour barrier
should be placed directly under the slab.
Example:
The Himurja office building located in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh employs the direct
gain technique for heating in a cold and cloudy climate. Inside temperatures of 18 to 28 C
compared to outside air temperatures of 9 to 15 C in January have been recorded. The
building does not require any auxiliary heating during winters [13].
3.3.2 Indirect Gain
3.3.2.1 Thermal storage wall
Thermal storage wall systems are designed primarily for space heating purposes. In
this approach, a wall is placed between the living space and the glazing such that it receives
maximum solar radiation (generally the southern face of the building in the northern
hemisphere). This prevents solar radiation from directly entering the living space; instead, the
collection, absorption, storage and control of solar energy occur outside it. The glazing
reduces heat loss to the ambient. Windows can also be integrated into the thermal storage
wall to provide light, view and some direct gain heating. Movable insulation can be applied
outside the glazing faades or in the airspace between the glazing and the storage wall to
reduce heat loss at night. Shading and reflecting devices are typically placed on the exterior.
Different types of storage walls are discussed in this section.
(a) Trombe wall
A Trombe wall is a thermal storage wall made of materials having high heat storage
capacity such as concrete, bricks or composites of bricks, block and sand. A typical Trombe
wall is illustrated in Fig 3.14. The external surface of the wall is painted black to increase its
absorptivity and is placed directly behind the glazing with an air gap in between. Solar
radiation is absorbed by the blackened surface and is stored as sensible heat in the wall. In an
unvented wall, the stored heat slowly migrates to the interior, where it heats the adjacent
living space. If properly designed, the wall can provide adequate heat to the living space
throughout the night. Some of the heat generated in the air space between the glazing and the
storage wall is lost back to the outside through the glass. The hotter the air in the airspace, the
greater is the heat loss. This heat loss can be reduced by venting the storage wall at the top
and bottom. Such units are called as vented Trombe walls. The air, in the space between the
glazing and the wall gets warmed up and enters the living room through the upper vents. Cool
room air takes its place through the lower vents, thus establishing a natural circulation pattern
(thermocirculation) that needs no mechanical means for moving the air.

Fig. 3.14 Working principle of a Trombe wall

A part of the absorbed heat is conducted through the wall and is transferred to the living space
by convection and radiation. This process is illustrated in Fig. 3.14a. Thus, vented Trombe

walls are suitable for buildings having daytime use, such as offices and shops. Care should
be taken to ensure that the circulation pattern does not reverse itself at night. This is because
temperatures in the airspace drop at night leading to warm air from the living space flowing
into the airspace. This warm air then pushes the cooler air in the airspace into the living room.
Thus, the heat may actually be lost from the living space to the environment by the Trombe
wall. To prevent such reverse circulation, simple backdraft dampers or openable louvers need
to be provided on the upper vents.
In a vented system, due to circulation of hot air, the amount of heat available for
storage by the Trombe wall is reduced. An unvented system does not lose heat in this way and
thus has the advantage of storing a greater percentage of the solar energy available to it than
does a vented wall. This stored heat is, however, not readily available for immediate use,
instead, it is transferred slowly into the living area. Hence, un-vented Trombe walls are
provided for residences, which require heating mainly during the night. Furthermore, in cold
climates where daytime as well as night-time heating requirements are high, it is desirable to
provide a certain amount of heat directly to the living space. In such situations, a vented wall
may be provided. In more moderate climates where daytime heating is not as important as
night-time heating, an unvented system may be preferable. The thickness and thermal
properties of the wall materials determine the time lag of the heat travelling from the outside
surface of the unvented wall to the interiors. This may vary from several hours to an entire
day.
A Trombe wall offers several advantages. Glare, and the problem of ultraviolet
degradation of materials is eliminated as compared to the direct gain system. The time lag due
to the storage wall ensures that heat is available at night when it is needed most. Besides, one
is able to provide sufficient storage mass in a relatively small area. However, a storage wall
can block view and daylight. It is desirable to provide movable insulation between the glazing
and storage wall; otherwise, the stored heat can be lost to the ambient at a very high rate at
night due to the difference in temperature between the ambient and the storage wall. It is
noteworthy that in buildings with thermal storage walls, the indoor temperature can be
maintained at about 15oC when the corresponding outside temperature may be as low as
11oC [10].
During summer months, when the suns altitude is high, an overhang is required to cut
off direct sunshine. The Trombe wall can provide induced ventilation for summer cooling of
the space as shown in Fig. 3.14b. Here, the heated air in the collector space flows out through
exhaust vents at the top of the outer glazing, and air from outside enters the space through
openings on the cooler side to replace the hot air. This continuous air movement cools the
living space.
A section of the Trombe wall is shown in Fig. 3.15 giving various construction
details. It consists of a number of components such as, (a) glazed walls to transmit the
incoming solar radiation, (b) thermal mass to store heat for night-time use, (c) air space for
trapping heat, and in case of vented wall, to transfer heat by convection, (d) movable
insulation in air space to reduce losses at night, (e) vents in glazed walls and storage walls
for circulating hot air, and in summer for exhausting heat, and (f) shading to reduce
overheating in summer. Reflectors may be provided outside the glazing to increase the
efficiency of the Trombe wall system. Generally, the thickness of the storage wall is between
200450 mm, the air gap between the wall and the glazing is 50150 mm, and the total area
of each row of vents is about 1% of the storage wall area [10,12].

Fig. 3.15 Details of a Trombe wall

Components:
Glazing
The principal function of the glazing in a Trombe wall is to admit and trap solar
energy so that it can be absorbed and stored by the thermal storage wall. The Trombe wall
must face south in the northern hemisphere to receive maximum solar radiation. A small
variation in the orientation of the wall (east or west of the south) does not significantly affect
the thermal performance. Using double glazing reduces heat loss compared to a single
glazing. If metal framed glazing is used, it should be separated from the wall either by a space
or a wood block, to avoid conductive heat losses from the wall through the metal to the
outside. Seasoned wood may be used in place of metal. Paints applied on the frames should
be able to withstand high temperatures which may go upto 60 C. The frames should allow
for significant expansion (minimum 12mm), particularly in unvented walls. Caulking and
sealants must be able to accommodate such movement. The glazing material itself can be
glass, fibreglass, acrylic or polycarbonate. and should be able to withstand high temperatures.
Vents may be provided in the glazing panels for summer-time exhaust of hot air from the
cavity to the ambient. The surface area of the glazing should be equal that of the storage wall.
Thermal Storage Mass
The effect of a thermal storage wall is largely determined by the walls thickness, type
of material and the colour of the external surface. Materials with high thermal capacity
(concrete, brick, and water) and phase change materials (PCM) can be used effectively in
Trombe walls. The recommended thickness for different materials is given in Table 3.7 [10].
The table also shows the effect of the wall thickness on the daily fluctuation of indoor air
temperature. Generally, it is seen that the thicker the wall, the better is its performance. The
values given in the table are for clear winter days, and correspond to a wall with its external
surface painted dark and having double glazing.
Table3.7 Recommended thickness for various thermal storage walls and their effect
on indoor temperatures [10]
1

Material

Thermal
conductivity
(W/m-K)

Recommended
thickness
(m)

Adobe
Brick
(common)
Concrete
(dense)
Brick
(magnesiu
2
m additive )
3
Water

0.519

0.20 to 0.30

10.0

3.9

3.9

4.4

0.727

0.25 to 0.35

13.3

6.1

3.9

1.731

0.30 to 0.45

15.6

8.9

5.6

3.3

2.8

3.462

0.40 to 0.60

19.4

13.3

9.4

6.6

5.0

0.575
(at 10oC)

0.15 or more

10.0

7.2

6.1

5.6

5.0

1.
2.
3.

Approximate indoor temperature fluctuation as

o
a function of wall thickness ( C)
0.2m
0.3m
0.4m
0.5m
0.6m

Assuming a double glazed wall. Values are given for clear winter days.
Magnesium is added to give bricks a dark colour and also increase thermal conductivity.
If water is used in tubes or other circular containers, use at least 0.23 m diameter tubes
3
2
or 0.15 m of water for every 1 m of glazing.

Storage mass exposed to direct sunlight should have dark colour to absorb solar
radiation. To improve performance, selective coatings can also be applied on the exposed
surface of storage walls. These coatings have high absorptivity for incoming solar radiation

and low emissivity for re-radiation. The interior surface of the wall may be painted or left
untreated. The area of the vents for thermocirculation should be about 2% of the wall area,
divided evenly between upper and lower vents.
Variations and controls:
The distribution of heat into the living space can be almost immediate or delayed
depending on air circulation. Furthermore, the delay can be varied depending on the thickness
of the wall, and the time-lag property of the wall materials. If the vents are provided with
dampers, the air flow can be controlled.
Shading, reflector panels and insulation controls are more or less the same as those for
direct gain systems. Overheating during summer may be prevented by using fixed exterior
shades or movable curtains within the air space. For optimum performance, these curtains or
shading devices should also be designed to provide insulation during the day in the cooling
season, and at night in the heating season.
Another variation is due to wall materials. In addition to conventional building
materials, Phase change materials (PCM) can be used as storage materials for thermal storage
wall, because they have a greater ability to store and release heat during phase changes. Also,
for a given amount of heat storage, PCMs require less space than any sensible storage and are
much lighter in weight. They are therefore, convenient for use in retrofit of buildings.
Commonly used PCMs are hydrated salts and hydrocarbons. Of the hydrocarbons,
paraffin wax has been very popular in building applications. Also used are, (a) a mixture of
stearic acid, paraffin (80%) and mineral oil, and (b) sodium decahydrate. While hydrated salts
are inexpensive and can store more heat than a hydrocarbon, their properties degrade with
prolonged use; they are also corrosive. On the other hand, hydrocarbons are flammable and
require careful handling.
Remarks and Practical Considerations:
The Trombe wall due to its complex construction and weight, may require special
foundations and footings. The availability of daylight and view to the exterior are affected by
the presence of a Trombe wall, and therefore must be taken care of by other design features.
The temperatures in the air space can be quite high. Joint reinforcement should therefore be
provided to control cracking caused by thermal movement and shrinkage. Creaking can be
prevented by providing expansion joints at the connection between concrete or masonry
floors, and the storage walls. Sealants and caulking should also be of high quality to avoid
degradation due to high temperatures. Continuous sill sealer is recommended to provide
protection against infiltration. Periodic maintenance is required to check whether sealants
have cracked. Joints also need to be inspected; otherwise the performance of the Trombe wall
may be affected due to infiltration of cold ambient air. The accumulation of dust on the glass
and on the dark absorbing surface would deteriorate the performance. Hence, provision for
cleaning the glass and wall needs to be made. This has been done in the HP state Cooperative Bank in Shimla, which has incorporated the Tombe wall as a passive heating
systems in the building.
Example:
Trombe walls have been successfully used in the cold regions of Leh. In case of
LEDeG (Ladakh Ecological Development Group) Hostel at Leh, the temperatures inside the

bedrooms have been recorded to be above 8 C corresponding to outside temperatures of 17

C [13].
(b) Water wall
Water walls are based on the same principle as that of the Trombe wall, except that
they employ water as the thermal storage material. Water walls can store more heat than
concrete walls because of the higher specific heat. A water wall is a thermal storage wall
made up of drums of water stacked up behind glazing. It is painted black externally to
increase the absorption of radiation. The internal surface can be painted with any other colour
and can be in contact with the interior space directly, or separated by a thin concrete wall or
insulating layer. A view of the same is shown in Fig. 3.16. As the storage in the water wall is
a convective body of mass, heat transfer is very rapid compared to a masonry wall. Table 3.8
gives the typical wall area required for maintaining the living space temperatures between 18
and 24C for different ambient conditions on a clear day (solar radiation > 4 kWh/m2-day)
[11].

Fig. 3.16 Water wall

Table 3.8 Sizing a water wall for different climatic conditions

(Calculated for a mean U-value of 1.9 to 2.1 W/m2-K for a room) [10,11]
Average winter outdoor
temperature ( C )

Area of wall needed for each

2
square metre of floor area (m )

-4.0

0.70

-1.0

0.55

2.0

0.45

5.0

0.35

Variations and controls:

A large storage volume provides longer and greater storage capacity, while smaller
units enable faster distribution. In order to fix the quantity of water, the thumb rule is usually
taken as 150 litres of water per square metre of south oriented water wall. A variety of
containers like tin cans, bottles, tubes, bins, barrels, drums, etc., provide different heatexchange surfaces to the storage mass ratio. Care should be taken to ensure that steel and
metal containers are lined with corrosion resistant materials. Also, the water should be treated
with algae retardant chemicals. Troughs should be provided as a precaution against leakage of
water from containers or from condensation.
Heat transfer through a water wall is much faster than through a Trombe wall. So a
control on the distribution of heat is needed, if it (heat) is not immediately necessary for the
building. This can be effected by using a thin concrete layer or insulating layer, or by
providing air circulation through vents. Buildings like schools or government offices which
work during the day, benefit from the rapid heat transfer in water walls. To reduce heat
losses, the glazing of the water wall is usually covered with insulation at night. Overheating
during summer may be prevented by using movable overhangs.
(c) Transwall
Transwall is a thermal storage wall that is semitransparent in nature. It partly absorbs
and partly transmits the solar radiation. The transmitted radiation causes direct heating and
illumination of the living space. The absorbed heat is transferred to the living space at a later
time. Heat loss through the glazing is low, as much of the heat is deposited at the centre of the
transwall ensuring that its exterior surface does not become too hot. Thus, the system
combines the attractive features of both direct gain and Trombe wall systems.

A transwall has three main components:

Container made of parallel glass walls set in metal frame.
Thermal storage liquid, which is generally water.
A partially absorbing plate set at the centre of the transwall, parallel to the glass walls.

CLEAR GLASS
(SOUTH FACING)
WATER
SEMI-TRANSPARENT
ABSORBING PLATE
E.G. PERSPEX

TRANSPARENT BAFFLES
HEAT AND LIGHT
TRANSMITTED TO ROOM

Fig. 3.17 Typical section of a transwall

Figure 3.17 illustrates the typical section of a Transwall. It is installed on the south
side of the building (in the northern hemisphere), located directly behind double glazing. To
prevent the growth of micro-organisms in the storage, an inhibiting agent may be added.

Variations and controls:

The dimensions of the storage module are dictated by the hydrostatic pressure exerted
by the liquid. Also important, are the considerations of transportation, the method of
installation, the ways of filling and draining the module, and attachment of the modules to
each other and integration with the building.
As the storage is a convective body of water, the transfer of heat is rapid. This can be
regulated by providing baffles and adding a gelling compound. Baffles are transparent plates
which connect the module walls with the absorbing plate and prevent water movement. The
gelling compound increases the general flow resistance.
3.3.2.2

Roof top collectors

There are a few interesting examples of passive heating systems that can be
incorporated as part of the roof. Thermosyphon air panels and roof radiation traps are
examples of such systems. A brief description of each is given in this section.
(A)

Thermosyphon air panels

A thermosyphon air panel is essentially an absorbing surface, with minimum thermal
inertia on the south face (in northern hemisphere) of the building and a glazing over it, thus
forming a solar air heater. It absorbs incident solar radiation and heats up the air in the
absorber-glazing space. A well-insulated collector limits the heat loss to the outside. The hot
air forces itself into the living space through the vents, and warms it up. Cooler air takes its
place and the cycle is repeated. In addition to heating the space, heat can also be stored for
later use by passing the hot air through a storage mass. Figure 3.18 and 3.19 illustrate the
working principle and detail section of this type of collector respectively.
The storage is generally the inner structure of the building like an internal wall and/or
a concrete ceiling which is not exposed to the outside, thereby minimising the heat loss to the
outside. Besides, during the evening and night hours, the well-insulated collector serves as a
thermal buffer between the house and the external atmosphere, and eliminates the need for
movable insulation.
Dampers and ducts can be used to control the air-flow either to the storage unit or
directly into the living space. The thermal storage may be suitably designed to realise a
desired time lag for the distribution of heat to the living space.
In summer, when relief from high temperatures is required, the system can be
modified to act as a ventilation device. In this case, the hot air is not allowed to enter the
room. On the other hand, the room air enters the collector, gets heated up and is vented out at
the top. This creates a low pressure in the room, leading to cooler air being sucked into the
room from windows. This process continues throughout the day and is known as induced
ventilation. Such a system is shown in Fig. 3.20.

ROOF TOP
THERMOSYPHON
AIR PANEL

HEATED AIR
VENTS SHUT AT
NIGHT TO REDUCE
HEAT LOSS
COOL AIR

INSULATION ON
OUTSIDE FOR
THERMAL STORAGE
WALL

THERMAL STORAGE
WALL AND FLOOR

INSULATION OF
FLOOR TO REDUCE
HEAT LOSS

Fig. 3.18 Thermosyphon air panel: working principle

INSULATION
G.I. SHEET
PAINTED BLACK

ROOF

OUTLET FOR
WARM HEATED AIR

DOUBLE
GLAZING

PLYWOOD

INLET FOR
COOL AIR

INSULATION

Fig. 3.19 Details of a thermosyphon air panel

Fig. 3.20 Variation of thermosyphon air panel for summer cooling

(b)

Roof Radiation Trap

A roof radiation trap can be used for winter heating and summer cooling. In this
technique, the incident solar radiation is trapped and is used for heating the air inside the trap.
Some amount of energy is also absorbed by the roof and is conducted through it to be radiated
into the living space.
In the northern hemisphere, the trap consists of an inclined south-facing glazing and a
north sloping insulated surface on the roof. The latter projects over the glazing to shade it
during the summer. Between the roof and the insulation, an air-pocket is formed which is
heated by solar radiation. A shutter is used to cover the glazing when desired. Figure 3.21
shows the schematic sketch of a roof radiation trap. A roof can have one or several such units.
In winter (Fig. 3.21a), solar radiation penetrates the glazing and is absorbed by the
black roof surface designed to minimise heat loss to the ambient. Further, a movable
insulation reduces heat loss through the glazed plane during nights. Part of the absorbed
energy is conducted and radiated into the living area through the roof, while the rest is
transferred to the air-pocket. This hot air can be drawn to a thermal storage unit (rockbed /
water mass) to be used on cold nights or cloudy days.
The system can also be used for summer cooling. The insulating plane is covered with
a white metal sheet to increase its emissivity. On summer nights, the sheet gets cooled by
nocturnal radiation exchanges and in turn, cools the air blown under it (Fig. 3.21b). This
coolness is stored in the storage unit and used for cooling the living space during daytime.

Fig. 3.21 Working principle of a roof radiation trap

The type of roof material and its thickness determine the pattern of heat flow into the
living space. A hinged insulating panel inside the radiation trap can help to control the

division of heat flow between conduction through roof and convection to storage through air.
External insulation can be used to keep summer radiation out and prevent heat loss on winter
nights.
3.3.3

Isolated Gain
In isolated gain systems, the solar radiation collection and storage are thermally
isolated from the living spaces of the building. This allows in a greater flexibility in the
design and operation of the passive concept. The most common example of isolated gain is
the natural convective loop. In this system, solar radiation is absorbed to heat air or water.
The warm air or water rises and passes through the storage, transferring its heat. The cooler
air falls onto the absorber to get heated up again. Thus, a thermosiphoning heat flow occurs
as shown in Fig 3.22.

Fig. 3.22 Isolated gain

The basic requirements for this system are:

a collector, which absorbs the solar radiation to heat the fluid
a storage mass, which absorbs the heat from the fluid, to be stored for distribution into
the living space
a mechanism to distribute the heat stored in the storage mass

Variations and controls :

The collector can be located at any suitable place and oriented independently of the
building for maximum solar gain. Thus the building design can be flexible. The slope of the
collector is generally equal to the latitude of the place. Its area may range from 20 to 40 % of
the floor area of the living space to be heated. The collector consists of an absorber (usually a
corrugated metal plate with a black paint that can withstand temperatures upto 120o C) and
glazing. Single glazing is the norm except in severely cold climates where more than one is
required to be used. The gap between the glazing and the absorber should be about 5 6% of
the absorber length.

Variations in the storage materials can be achieved by using different types of

materials as well as by varying their location (for example, below the floors and windows or
in the wall). The method of distribution of heat from the storage can be either by radiation or
convection, or it can also be directly from the collector. If water is used as the working fluid,
the hot water can be run through pipes installed in the floor slab, where heat is stored and
radiated into the living space. This can be supplemented by a boiler, or fired by wood/gas
during extended overcast seasons for maintaining comfort conditions.
If the contact area between the collector space and the storage is not large, then the
link between the two can be blocked or disconnected easily to control the performance of the
system. It follows that the larger the area of contact, the greater and quicker the heat transfer.
Therefore performance control can be exercised by designing the area of contact between the
collector space and storage to meet specific heating demands.
3.3.4

Solarium ( Attached Green House / Sunspace)

Sunspaces are essentially used for passive heating in cold climates. This approach
integrates the direct gain and thermal storage concepts. Solar radiation admitted directly into
the sunspace heats up the air, which, by convection and conduction through the mass wall
reaches the living space (as shown in Fig 3.23). A solarium essentially consists of a sunspace
or a green house constructed on the south side (in the northern hemisphere) of the building
with a thick mass wall linking the two. The sunspace can be used as a sit-out during day as it
allows solar radiation but keeps out the surrounding cool air. At night, it acts as a buffer
space.

Fig. 3.23 Working principle of a solarium

The basic requirements of this type of building are:

a glazed south facing collector space attached, yet distinct from the building
thermal storage link between the collector and living space for heat transfer

Variations and controls:

The location of the sunspace depends on the building design and orientation of the
sun. The area of contact between the sunspace and the living space determines the size of the
former.
The thermal mass must be located where winter radiation can reach it. Floors, walls,
benches, rock bed or covered pools of water can be used to store heat. Glazing should
preferably be sloped by about 45o in overcast and 60o in clear and sunny areas. The storage
walls are generally 200 450 mm thick. If a rockbed storage is used, then the typical size is
0.75 1.25 m3 per square metre of the glazed area. Ideally, it should cover the entire floor,
the typical rock size being about 5 7.5 cm in diameter [12].
The temperature inside the sunspace must be controlled depending on its usage.
Shading to prevent overheating in summer, and movable insulation and shutters to prevent
heat loss in winter can be provided.
If the sunspaces are used for plantation or as a green house, humidity control must be
incorporated to prevent mould from growing on the storage mass or other materials kept
inside.
General remarks: The manner of arrangement of the passive components, namely. glazing,
insulation, collector, storage and the living space to be heated or cooled, differentiates one
passive system from the other. The variations and controls that each type offers have been
indicated. Further possibilities within each class are created by using different types of heat
storage materials. Sometimes passive systems also use small fans for direct control over
convective heat distribution. These may be referred to as hybrid systems.
The various passive concepts outlined so far essentially represent passive heating
systems wherein attention is given to efficient collection of solar energy. Movable insulating
curtains are provided to prevent unwanted heat loss to the environment at nights as well as on
overcast winter days. However, as indicated, some of them could also be used for passive
cooling purposes by changing the mode of operation. But there are certain concepts which are
used exclusively for passive cooling. These are outlined in the next section.
3.4

PASSIVE COOLING

The cooling of buildings by using passive methods has evoked great interest. The
underlying principle of passive cooling is to prevent heat from (or at least reduce heat flux)
entering the building, or remove heat once it has entered. In this section, we discuss the
principles governing each of the concepts used for passive cooling of buildings. The various
concepts discussed are ventilation cooling, evaporative cooling, nocturnal radiation cooling,
desiccant cooling and earth coupling. The applicability of these concepts depends greatly
upon the climatic conditions prevailing in a particular place.
3.4.1

Ventilation Cooling
Ventilation is generally defined as the replacement of stale air by fresh air. It also
provides cooling by air movement. Hence, it would be appropriate to define the term
ventilation as the supply of outside air to the interior for air motion and replacement of
vitiated air. An indoor air speed of 1.5 2.0 m/s can cause comfort in warm and humid
regions where the outdoor maximum air temperature does not exceed 28 32oC [14]. The

scheduling of natural ventilation in arid climates (allowing only night-time ventilation) can
reduce the maximum indoor temperature by about 5 8oC compared to that of the outdoor.
Providing proper ventilation in buildings calls for due consideration in the design
phase of buildings. A faulty design resulting in inadequate ventilation will result in higher
energy consumption in the building for creating comfortable indoor conditions. Therefore, the
ventilation requirements of different seasons, for different types of occupancies should be
determined first. A ventilation system should then be suitably designed to meet the required
performance standards.
There are many ways in which ventilation can improve comfort. For example, opening
the windows to let the wind in, and thus providing a higher indoor air speed, makes people
inside a building feel cooler. This approach is termed as comfort ventilation. In hot
environments, evaporation is the most important process of heat loss from the human body
for achieving thermal comfort. As the air around the body becomes nearly saturated due to
humidity, it becomes more difficult to evaporate perspiration and a sense of discomfort is felt.
A combination of high humidity and high temperature proves very oppressive. In such
circumstances, even a slight movement of air near the body gives relief. It would, therefore,
be desirable to consider a rate of ventilation which may produce necessary air movement. If
natural ventilation is insufficient, the air movement may be augmented by rotating fans inside
the building.
The air movement indoors is mainly due to stack effect (stratification of temperature)
and wind pressure. Manipulating these two effects can considerably improve the ventilation.
For example, a solar chimney works mainly on the stack effect. The solar chimney is used to
exhaust hot air from the building at a quick rate, thus improving the cooling potential of
incoming air from other openings. Similarly, wind towers use wind pressure for cooling. The
wind is captured at the top of the terrace and is diverted to the indoors using wind towers.
Windows can also be arranged to take advantage of stack effect and wind pressure.
An indirect way of cooling is to ventilate the building only at night to cool the interior
mass of the building. During the following day, the cooled mass reduces the rate of indoor
temperature rise and thus provides a cooling effect. This strategy is termed as nocturnal
ventilative cooling.
This section provides more details about cross ventilation, wind towers, and nocturnal
ventilation.
3.4.1.1

Cross ventilation
Requirements for air motion in the early summer and late post-monsoon periods are
usually small. These can be easily met by providing adequate cross ventilation through rooms.
When a building is cross ventilated during the day, the temperature of the indoor air and
surfaces closely follow the ambient temperature. Therefore ventilation in daytime should be
considered only when indoor comfort can be experienced at the outdoor air temperature (with
acceptable indoor speed).
The indoor wind speed varies due to factors such as the area and location of windows
in the room, direction of incident wind, weather shades such as louvers, chajjas, verandahs,
etc., and the type of interconnection between different rooms of a building. For example, the
available wind velocity in a room with a single window on the windward side is about 10% of

the outdoor velocity at points upto a distance of one-sixth of room width from the window.
Beyond this, the velocity decreases rapidly and hardly any air movement is produced in the
leeward end of the room. Therefore, it is better to provide two windows on adjacent or
opposite walls to improve ventilation. The window area and the direction of wind affect the
performance of this cross ventilation. Figure 3.24 [5] shows how the window area affects the
average indoor air velocity. The plot corresponds to the case where there are two windows of
identical size on opposite walls; the wind direction is perpendicular or normal to the window.
For example, for windows that are 20 percent of floor area, the average indoor wind velocity
is about 25 percent of outdoor velocity.

Fig. 3.24 Effect of window area on indoor air speed

3.4.1.2

Wind tower
Wind tower is generally used in hot and dry climates for cooling purposes. The tower
is meant to catch the wind at higher elevations and direct it into the living space. The air
flow passages in the tower may have equal or different areas. The tower may have only one
opening facing the wind, if wind is predominantly in one direction, or may have openings in
all directions in locations with variable wind directions. Such systems have been used for
centuries in West Asian countries for natural ventilation and passive cooling [15,16]. A prerequisite for using a wind tower is that the site should experience winds with a fairly good
and consistent speed. A wind tower operates in various ways according to the time of day and
the presence or absence of wind. The cardinal principle of its operation lies in changing the
temperature and thereby the density of the air in and around the tower. The difference in
density creates a draft, pulling air either upwards or downwards through the tower, shown
schematically in Fig. 3.25. The detail section of a wind tower is given in Fig. 3.26.
Working: Night
The tower area is so designed that the top part provides large heat storage capacity,
and also has a large surface area for heat transfer. The tower walls and the internal walls of
the air-flow passages absorb heat during the day and release it at night, warming the cool
night air in the tower. Warm air moves up creating an upward draft and is exhausted through
the openings. The pressure difference thus created pulls the cool night air through the doors
and windows into the building. In the absence of wind, the tower acts as a chimney. The
nocturnal radiation through the roof and the external walls brings about further cooling.

Fig. 3.25 Working principle of a wind tower

In the presence of wind, the cool night air enters the tower and forces itself down into
the structure. Though it is warmed slightly during the process, sufficient cooling can be
achieved due to forced circulation. Again, cooling due to nocturnal radiation adds to this
process.

Fig. 3.26 Detail of a wind tower

Working : Day
The hot ambient air coming in contact with the cool upper part of the tower gets
cooled. It becomes cold and dense, and sinks through the tower and into the living spaces,
replacing the hot air. In the presence of wind, the air is cooled more effectively and flows
faster down the tower and into the living area. It must be noted that the temperature of the
tower soon reaches that of the ambient air and hence, in the absence of wind, the downward
flow ceases, the tower then begins to act like a chimney. The operation of the tower depends
greatly on the ambient fluctuations like the wind velocity, air temperature changes, etc.
Variations and controls:
Variations in wind tower design can be achieved by altering tower heights, cross
section of the air passages, locations and number of openings, and the location of the wind
tower with respect to the living space to be cooled. The variations are aimed at providing the
desired air-flow rates, heat transfer area and storage capacity. Air flow through different parts
of the buildings can be controlled by the doors and windows.
Due to small storage capacity, the sensible cooling may stop after several hours of
operation on hot summer days. In order to improve the efficiency of its operation, evaporative
cooling may be introduced. The air flowing down the tower is first sensibly cooled, and then
further cooled evaporatively. This can be achieved by providing a shower/spray or dripping of
water at top of tower, or a fountain at the bottom. The reduction in the temperature of air can
be as much as 10 15o C in arid climates [14].
Wind towers can easily be incorporated in low-rise buildings. It may be noted that
wind towers may need to be shut off when cooling is not required, and hence, such provisions
may be included in the design. Due consideration must also be given to prevent the entry of
dust, birds and insects.
3.4.1.3

Induced Ventilation
Passive cooling by induced ventilation can be very effective in hot and humid climates
as well as hot and dry climates. This method involves the heating of air in a restricted area
through solar radiation, thus creating a temperature difference and causing air movements.
The draft causes hot air to rise and escape to the ambient, drawing in cooler air and thereby
causing cooling. In effect, a solar chimney is created to cause continuous air circulation.
Figure 3.27 illustrates the principle of induced ventilation and some of its variations.
Variations and controls:
Arrangements may be made to draw air from the coolest part of the structure as
replacement, to set up a continuous circulation and cool the living spaces. Curved roofs and
vents are used in combination for passive cooling of air in hot and dry climates, where dusty
winds make wind towers impracticable. The system works on the principle of cooling by
induced ventilation, caused by pressure differences. This principle is illustrated in Fig. 3.28.
Wind flowing over a curved surface creates a pressure difference across it. If vents are
provided on the surface, air is sucked out of the structure through the openings. Therefore, the
hot internal air forces its way out through the vents inducing air-circulation. Air vents are
usually placed above living rooms.

Fig. 3.27 Induced ventilation: principle and variations

Fig. 3.28 Section showing induced ventilation through curved roof and air vents

The cooling effect can be enhanced by providing evaporative cooling. A pool of water
is usually kept on the floor directly below the vents so that the air flowing into the room gets
cooled, in turn cooling the living space. The air vents are usually provided with protective
caps which help to direct the winds across them.
3.4.1.4

Nocturnal Cooling
Buildings may be cooled indirectly by ventilating at night, if the ambient air is cooler
than the room air. This cools the interior mass of the building and on the following day, the
cooled mass reduces the rate of indoor temperature rise and thus provides a cooling effect.
This strategy is termed as nocturnal ventilative cooling.
Because buildings are usually occupied during the day, nocturnal ventilative cooling
can be effective only to the extent that it can lower indoor temperatures the following day. It
is particularly important that the indoor maximum temperature the next day be lowered. Such
lower indoor temperatures can be achieved only if the building is kept closed and
unventilated during the daytime hours. In this respect, daytime comfort ventilation and
nocturnal cooling are mutually exclusive. At any given place on any given day, one or the
other should be considered as the best approach to provide daytime comfort.
There are several design options to provide the thermal mass that will serve as the
nocturnal cold storage:
structural mass of the building such as walls, partitions, floors, etc., cooled by
whole space ventilation
embedded air spaces (passages) within floors, ceilings and/ or walls through which
outdoor air is circulated
specialised storage such as a rock bed or a water tank with embedded air tubes,
cooled at night by outdoor air
The applicability of nocturnal ventilation cooling is limited to a certain range of
conditions. Limitations on applicability are posed on the one hand by climatic conditions, and
on the other by the comfort and functional needs of occupants. These limitations particularly
affect the decision to leave windows open throughout the night to obtain effective nocturnal
ventilation cooling.

3.4.2

Evaporative cooling
Evaporative cooling is a passive cooling technique in which outdoor air is cooled by
evaporating water before it is introduced in the building. Its physical principle lies in the fact
that the sensible heat of air is used to evaporate water, thus cooling the air, which in turn
cools the living space in the building. Evaporation occurs at the water-air interface. An
increase in the proportion of the contact area between water and air enhances the rate of
evaporation and thereby the potential for cooling. The presence of a waterbody such as a
pond, lake or sea near the building, or a fountain in the courtyard can provide a cooling effect.
Cisterns or wetted surfaces can also be placed in the incoming ventilation stream. Such direct
systems typically use little or no auxiliary power, are simple and can avoid the need for large
surfaces of water and movement of large volumes of air. They are, therefore, particularly
suited to hot and dry regions.
The airflow in these systems can be induced mechanically or passively for example,
evaporative cooling towers that humidify the ambient air can be used. This is direct
evaporative cooling. The main disadvantage of direct systems is in the increased moisture
content of the ventilation air supplied to the indoor spaces. High evaporation may result in
discomfort due to high humidity. However, passive evaporative cooling can also be indirect
the roof can be cooled with a pond, wetted pads or spray, and the ceiling transformed into a
cooling element that cools the space below by convection and radiation without raising the
indoor humidity [14].
The efficiency of the evaporation process depends on the temperatures of the air and
water, the vapour content of the air, and the rate of airflow past the water surface. The
provision of shading and the supply of cool, dry air will enhance evaporation. A
comprehensive discussion on evaporation has been reported by Bansal et al. [11]. The most
commonly used evaporative cooling system in north India is the desert cooler consisting of
water, evaporative pads, a fan and a pump. It is a hybrid type of direct evaporative cooling
system [17].
Watt [18] has proposed the following guidelines for using evaporative cooling:
Direct evaporative coolers should have an average saturation efficiency of 70% or
more, and the cooled air should enter the indoor space without any additional heat
gain.
The maximum indoor air velocity induced by the cooled air must be 1 m/s.
The room temperature should be reduced by at least 3C before the cool air is
discharged out of the room.
The temperature of the cooled space should be about 4 C below the outdoor dry
bulb temperature. This is necessary to counteract the incoming radiant heat.
On a psychrometric chart, evaporation is characterised by a displacement along a
constant wet bulb line, AB in Fig. 3.29 [19]. When the decrease in the dry bulb temperature is
accompanied by an increase in the moisture content of the air, the process is commonly
referred to as direct evaporative cooling. The passive downdraft evaporative cooling system
is an example of this process. When the evaporation of water takes place on a surface, or
inside a tube, resulting in a decrease of surface temperatures, it is possible to cool air adjacent
to these surfaces without increasing its moisture content. In this case, the process is referred
to as indirect evaporative cooling and is characterised by a displacement along a constant
moisture content line CD shown in Fig. 3.29. An example of this is the roof surface

evaporative cooling system. These techniques are discussed in detail in the following
sections.

Fig. 3.29 Psychometric chart showing evaporative cooling

3.4.2.1

Passive Downdraft Evaporative Cooling (PDEC)

Evaporative cooling was extensively used in the vernacular architecture of Pakistan,
Iran, Turkey and Egypt. Wind catchers called 'malqafs' captured wind and directed it over
porous water pots, thus cooling the air as a result of latent heat of vaporisation. This system
maintained a balance between two important parameters of passive cooling thermal
performance and ventilation effectiveness.
Contemporary passive downdraft evaporative cooling systems consist of a downdraft
tower with wetted cellulose pads at the top of the tower. Water is distributed on the top of the
pads, collected at the bottom into a sump and recirculated by a pump. Certain designs exclude
the re-circulation pump and use the pressure in the supply water line to periodically surge
water over the pads, eliminating the requirement for any electrical energy input. In some
designs, water is sprayed using micronisers or nozzles in place of pads, in others, water is
made to drip. Thus, the towers are equipped with evaporative cooling devices at the top to
provide cool air by gravity flow. These towers are often described as reverse chimneys. While
the column of warm air rises in a chimney, in this case the column of cool air falls. The air
flow rate depends on the efficiency of the evaporative cooling device, tower height and cross
section, as well as the resistance to air flow in the cooling device, tower and structure (if any)
into which it discharges. [20]
This system depends on two basic factors that determine its effectiveness: (1) amount
of cooling of the ambient air achieved, and (2) the rate at which this conditioned ambient air
replaces the stale air within the building. The former can be easily achieved by increased airwater contact zone. This factor usually dictates the height of the tower and in turn, influences
the massing of the building design. The second factor, however, requires a complex interplay
of different variables to achieve an effective performance. These variables dictate the

configuration of the tower termination, the positioning of multiple towers within the building,
the circulation pattern within the building, and even the configuration of openings between
adjacent spaces served by these towers [14].
The temperature of the incoming ambient air drops while crossing the pads.
Therefore, the height of the tower and the area of the wetted pads are not expected to have
any appreciable effect on the temperature of the air in the tower in a given combination of
ambient dry and wet bulb temperatures. However, these two system design factors affect the
airflow rate, and hence the total cooling effect generated by the system [14].
Performance Analysis
PDEC systems have been used with various types of cooling devices such as, spray
devices (pressure and ultrasonic nozzles), aspen fibre pads, corrugated cellulose pads, etc.
The performance analysis would thus vary depending on the evaporating cooling facilities
provided in the tower. Aspen pads cause a high pressure drop relative to sprays and
corrugated media, but they are low in cost. Spray devices may require efficient mist
eliminators for removing fine droplets from the air because mist impedes air flow [20].
Givoni [21] has proposed a semiempirical model to estimate exit air temperature and
flow rate of a PDEC tower. The tower uses vertical wetted cellulose pads called CELdek.
Water is distributed at the top of the pads, collected at the bottom into a sump, and is recirculated using a pump.
The exit air temperature (Texit ) is given by
Texit = Tdb 0.87(Tdb Twb ) 0.4 + 0.3 * w

(3.1)

where Tdb = dry bulb temperature of ambient air (0C)

Twb = wet bulb temperature of ambient air (0C)
w = wind speed (m/s)
The flow rate of air can be estimated from
.

m air = 0.03 Awpad * H * (Tdb T wb )

(3.2)

and exit air speed is given by

.

air = m air / Atower

where,

m air = towers air flow rate (m3/s)

Awpad = area of the wetted pads (m2)
H = height of the tower (m)
Atower = cross sectional area of the tower (m2)
These equations can be applied mainly as a tool in the initial design stages [21].

(3.3)

Givoni [22] has developed performance equations for the shower tower. It consists
of an open shaft with showers at the top and collecting pond at the bottom. The water
collected at the bottom of the pond is recirculated by a small pump. When drops of water are
sprayed vertically downward from the top of the shaft, they entrain a volume of air which
flows down the shaft with falling water. The air thus gets cooled and can be used for cooling
of a building. The shaft should be installed adjacent to an opening of the building and kept
open to the outdoor air. The system can use even brackish or sea water since evaporation
takes place in the free air stream.
The exit air temperature is given by

Texit = Tdb 0.9 * (Tdb Twb ) * 1 e 1.5* H * 1 e 0.15 m water

(3.4)

m water = water flow rate (litres/minute)

The flow rate of air is given by

mair = 7 m water H / 600

(3.5)
These relations are valid for a particular type of shower. Givoni [22] has compared the
performance of the shower tower under the three different climatic conditions, namely,
Riyadh (Saudi Arabia), Los Angeles (USA) and Yokohama (Japan). He has demonstrated
that the system can provide effective cooling in all these climates and the relations are
validated through measurements.

Example:
Passive downdraft evaporative cooling tower has been used successfully at the Torrent
Research Centre in Ahmadabad. The inside temperatures of 29 30 C were recorded when
the outside temperatures were 43 44 C. Six to nine air changes per hour were achieved on
different floors [13].
3.4.2.2

Roof Surface Evaporative Cooling (RSEC)

In a tropical country like India, the solar radiation incident on roofs is very high in
summer, leading to overheating of rooms below them. Roof surfaces can be effectively and
inexpensively cooled by spraying water over suitable water-retentive materials (e.g., gunny
bags) spread over the roof surface. As the water evaporates, it draws most of the required
latent heat from the surface, thus lowering its temperature and reducing heat gain. Besides,
evaporation also cools the air above the roof. The cool air slides down and enters the living
space through infiltration and ventilation, providing additional cooling. This is an example of
the passive indirect evaporative cooling technique.
A critical factor determining the performance of a RSEC system is the sustained
wetness of the roof surface. The surfaces may be sprayed intermittently, as it is only necessary
to keep them moist. Evaporation of the water from a roof pond ( a large mass of water stored
on the roof) can also be used for reducing the cooling load in summer. However, to use this
cooling technique, the roof has to be made structurally strong and waterproof. Comparatively,

cooling by sprinkling water is more advantageous as it provides a larger surface area for
evaporation without the need for any storage.
For installing a roof surface evaporative cooling system, the following points need to
be taken note of:
1) Suitable waterproofing treatment of the roof should be done.
2) The roof must be covered with water absorptive and retentive materials such as gunny
bags,
brick ballast, sintered fly-ash, coconut husk or coir matting. On account of their
porosity, these materials when wet, behave like a free water surface for evaporation.
The durability of such materials is rather good, but they have to be treated for fire
safety.
3) During peak summer, the quantity of water needed is approximately 10 kg/ day/ m2 of
roof area.
4) The roof must be kept wet throughout the day using a water sprayer. The sprayer can
be manually operated or controlled by an automatic moisture-sensing device. The
sprayer usually works at low water pressure which can be achieved either by a water
head of the storage tank on the roof, or by a small water pump.

Performance Analysis
The effectiveness of RSEC depends on:
ambient air temperature and humidity
intensity of solar radiation
wetness of the roof surface
roof type
The effect of evaporation increases when the air humidity is low and the air
temperature as well as the intensity of solar radiation falling on the roof surface are high. A
uniform and constant wetting of the roof surface is essential for continuous evaporation. It
should be noted that the roof needs to be adequately treated with water proofing material.
The evaporation of water causes cooling of the roof surface. This sets up a
temperature gradient between the inside air and outside roof surface, resulting in loss of heat
from the inside to outside. Thus, heat transfer through the roof is the dominant aspect in the
overall performance of RSEC. Higher the rate of heat transfer, more effective is the RSEC.
Consequently the RSEC system is most effective when the roof has a high thermal
transmittance (U).
The equivalent temperature of the outer surface of the roof in the presence of RSEC
can be calculated from [23]:

eff

= I

+ h + 0.13h R T 0.013h R (1 ) R / h + 0.13h R

g 0
c 1 a
c 2
c 1
o

(3.6)

where

=
Ig =

absorptivity of the roof surface

global solar radiation on the roof surface (W/m2)

ho =

total heat transfer coefficient from roofs surface (W/m2-K)

hc = convective heat transfer coefficient from roofs surface (W/m2-K)

relative humidity of air
=
emittance of the roof surface
=
R = net exchange of long wavelength radiation between the roof surface and the sky
(W/m2)
R1 & R2 = coefficients of correlation between saturation vapour pressure and temperature (R1
is in Pa/oC and R2 is in Pa)
Ta = ambient temperature (oC)
Kumar and Purohit [23] have investigated the performance of RSEC for various roof
types under different climatic conditions. The basis of comparison for unconditioned
buildings is the discomfort degree hours (DDH), defined as:

DDH

(T

month

TC )

(3.7)

day

where TR and TC refer to the indoor air and set point temperatures respectively; the +
superscript means that only positive values are to be considered. In case of conditioned
buildings, the authors have used the monthly cooling load for establishing the effectiveness of
the RSEC system. Table 3.9 presents the percentage reduction of DDH by employing RSEC
for a few roof types under New Delhi climatic conditions, and for a set point of 270C for nonconditioned buildings. The table also presents the percentage reduction of the cooling load for
the month of May for conditioned buildings under similar conditions. It is seen that the lower
the U value of the roof, the lesser is the effect of the RSEC system.
Table 3.9 Percentage reduction of yearly DDH due to roof surface evaporative cooling
[23]

RCC

4.29

55.0

Monthly cooling
load reduction (%)
52.2

RCC- mud phuska-tile

2.60

38.2

37.1

Insulation- RCC

1.10

19.2

18.9

RCC- lime concrete

2.76

39.9

38.7

Roof Type

U (W/m2-K)

DDH reduction (%)

DDH: Discomfort degree hours

Example:
A wet gunny bag system was installed at the Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited factory
at Haridwar during the summer of 1979. The building over which the cooling system was
tried, is a four-storeyed engineering building which has a large number of offices and rooms.
A monitoring of the performance showed that a reduction of 17 C and 8 C was observed in
the peak value of ceiling temperature and indoor air temperature respectively [17].
3.4.2.3 Direct Evaporative Cooling using Drip-type (Desert) Coolers
Desert coolers are very popular in the northern parts of India. They can cool large
volumes of outside air through evaporation of water. This air is delivered to the indoors

where it absorbs heat from walls, ceilings, furnishings and the occupants. The warm air is
finally discharged to the outdoors. Fresh outside air should be used rather than employing
recirculation because, in the latter case, the wet bulb temperature continues to increase,
resulting in unsatisfactory conditions. The cooler consists of a wetting pad, a water circulating
pump, a fan, and a cabinet to hold these components. The water pump lifts the sump water up
to a distributing system, from which it runs down through the pads and back into the sump.
The wetting pad usually made of aspen wood fibres is fixed to the three sides of the
coolers walls in such a way that only air enters through the pads. A propeller-type fan or a
centrifugal blower is used above the base of the cooler. The choice of the evaporating pad is a
critical factor in determining the performance. The coolers are usually designed for a face
velocity of 1 to 1.5 m/s with a pressure drop of about 30 N/m2. In addition to providing
cooling of the incoming air, the pads also act as air filters preventing the entry of particles
having a size greater than 10 micrometers. The pads are chemically treated to prevent the
growth of bacteria, fungi and other micro-organisms. When the cooler is used only for
ventilating purposes, supplementary fibre glass filters are also used. It must be noted that the
material used in the construction of the pump, sump, water-distribution system, and casing
should necessarily be corrosion resistant.

3.4.3

Nocturnal Radiation Cooling

Nocturnal radiation cooling refers to cooling by exposure of any element of the
external envelope of the building to a cool night sky. Warm objects directly exposed to the
sky radiate their heat out to it at night. Heat loss occurs by emission of long wavelength
radiation, and hence surfaces should ideally have high emissivity. The presence of clouds at
night limit the amount of heat that can be radiated to the outer space, but on a clear night, the
effective sky temperature can be significantly lower than the ambient air temperature. The
heat accumulated during the day is lost by radiation to the cool night air, thereby cooling the
envelope. The envelope thus acts as cold storage during the day, drawing the heat away from
the living space. The method works efficiently in arid climates, where ambient temperatures
in the night are significantly lower than the day temperatures. Nocturnal radiation cooling
works without consuming any water, unlike evaporative cooling systems. Its operation is
illustrated in Fig 3.30.

The roof, being the part exposed to the sky, is the most effective long wave radiator.
The rate of heat exchange depends on the temperature difference between the emitting surface
and the surrounding atmosphere. Regions with large diurnal temperature variations will have
higher nocturnal radiation cooling. Vapour pressure and the presence of clouds in the sky also
affect the heat exchange.
For effective radiant cooling, the thermal link between the emitting surface and the
living space has to be good. Otherwise, the cooling resulting from radiation exchange will
only serve to cool the ambient air, rather than the living space. The roof pond is an example
of the concept of nocturnal radiation cooling . In this system, a mass of water is stored on the
roof of the building. During summer days, the pond is protected and insulated by an external,
movable and reflective insulation. The insulation prevents solar radiation from reaching the
water mass and keeps it cool. The cool water then absorbs heat from the rooms below and
cools the indoor air. At night, the insulation is removed and the water cools by convection
and radiation. The effectiveness of the roof pond may be gauged from the fact that an indoor
temperature of 21oC can be maintained when the outside temperature is as high as 35oC [10].

Fig. 3.30 Nocturnal radiation cooling: working principle

In winter, the panel positions are reversed. During the day, the insulation is removed
so that heat is absorbed by water for heating the interior. At night, the insulation cover
reduces the heat loss. The effectiveness of the roof pond in winter is no less than that in
summer: the indoor temperature can be maintained at about 21C while the outside is as low
as 1.1oC [10]. The principles involved in this technique are schematically represented in Fig
3.31.

Fig. 3.31 Working principle of a roof pond

Water in transparent bags or in metal / fibreglass tanks is kept on the roof, the depth
ranging from 150 to 300 mm. The top of the container/bag must be transparent to solar

radiation whereas its bottom (inside surface) should be of a dark colour. If both sides of the
container are transparent, then the top surface of the roof needs to be blackened for absorbing
solar radiation. A clear top and black bottom helps in minimising temperature stratification in
the pond water. Otherwise, hot water at the top would lose its heat to the exterior, and the
cold water at the bottom would inhibit the heat transfer to the interior of the building. The
movable insulation is usually of 50 mm thick polyurethane foam, reinforced with fibreglass
strands and sandwiched between aluminium skins. The water-proofing layer of the roof
should not inhibit the heat transfer from the pond to the interior [10]. The details of a roof
pond are shown in Fig. 3.32. Radiation is responsible for the thermal interaction between the
roof and the living space. Therefore, the ceiling of the room must not be very high, as the
intensity of the radiation reduces with height or distance. This technique is effective for one
or two storeyed buildings.

Fig. 3.32 Detail of a roof pond

Variations may be achieved by altering the ratios of heat transfer surfaces to thermal
mass. The larger the storage volume, the greater and longer the heat storage. Smaller
containers provide greater heat exchange as the surface area increases, resulting in faster
distribution. During winter, a transparent cover may be provided over the water bags, leaving
a gap. Air is blown through these gaps, forming an insulation cover to reduce heat loss.
During summer the gaps are flooded with water and the transparent cover is removed.
Another way of using nocturnal radiation cooling is to expose lightweight radiators to
the night sky. Through these radiators, a fluid is circulated which gets cooled. The cooled
fluid can be used to cool a thermal storage system at night. The cold storage can be used the
following day for space cooling.
Radiative cooling is effective in the hot and dry climate where nights are clear. In the
case of humid atmosphere, condensation may occur on the radiating surface due to a decrease

in its temperature to below dew point. The condensate transfers the latent heat of vaporisation
to the surface, keeping it warm. As a result cooling is not achieved.

3.4.4

Desiccant Cooling
Desiccant cooling is effective in warm and humid climates. Natural cooling of human
body through sweating does not occur in highly humid conditions. Therefore, a persons
tolerance to high temperature is reduced and it becomes desirable to decrease the humidity
level. In the desiccant cooling method, desiccant salts or mechanical dehumidifiers are used
to reduce humidity in the atmosphere. Materials having high affinity for water are used for
dehumidification. They can be solid like silica gel, alumina gel and activated alumina, or
liquids like triethylene glycol. Air from the outside enters the unit containing desiccants and
is dried adiabatically before entering the living space. The desiccants are regenerated by solar
energy. Sometimes, desiccant cooling is employed in conjunction with evaporative cooling,
which adjusts the temperature of air to the required comfort level.

3.4.5

Earth Coupling
This technique is used for both passive cooling as well as heating of buildings, a feat
which is made possible by the earth acting as a massive heat sink. The temperature of the
earth's surface is controlled by the ambient conditions. However, the daily as well as seasonal
variations of the temperature reduce rapidly with increasing depth from the earth's surface. At
depths beyond 4 to 5m, both daily and seasonal fluctuations die out and the soil temperature
remains almost stable throughout the year. It is equal to the annual average ambient air
temperature at that place. The temperature of the soil at depths beyond 4 to 5m can however
be modified by suitable treatment of the earth's surface. For increasing the temperature, the
earth's surface can be blackened/ glazed, and for decreasing it's value the surface can be
shaded, painted white, wetted with water spray or can have thick vegetation. Thus, the
underground or partially sunk buildings would provide both cooling (in summer) and heating
(in winter) to the living space. Besides, load fluctuations are reduced by the addition of earth
mass to the thermal mass of the building. The infiltration of air from outside is reduced, and
there is a decrease in noise and storm effects. An earth-sheltered structure has to be heavier
and stronger to be able to withstand the load of the earth and the vegetation above. Besides, it
should be suitably waterproofed and insulated to avoid ground moisture. For this, a high level
of design and supervision in construction is required.

A building may be coupled with the earth by burying it underground or berming.

Figure 3.33 shows an example of earth berming. Another possibility of utilising the ground
effect is through earth-air pipe systems, and is discussed in the following section.

3.4.5.1 Earth-air pipe system

The earth-air pipe system consists of a pipe of appropriate dimensions buried at a
depth of about 4 to 5m in the ground. Ambient air is blown through it by a blower at one end
of the pipe. The other end is connected to the building to which it supplies conditioned air.
Figure 3.34 shows the schematic of such a system. As explained earlier, the temperature at a
depth of about 4 to 5m is very stable and is equal to the annual average ambient temperature.
It remains unaffected even if heat is withdrawn from or supplied to the ground, due to its
large thermal capacity. The earth-air pipe system takes advantages of this fact. Ambient air

flowing through the pipe gets cooled (in summer) or heated up (in winter) before entering the
living space of a building. If the pipe is of adequate length (for a given air flow rate), the
desired heating or cooling effect can be realised.

Fig. 3.33 Working principle of earth-berming

To meet the thermal load requirement of the building, one may use more than one
pipe buried at the same depth a few metres apart. However, it is possible for the relative
humidity of the air from the earth-air pipe system to be higher than the ambient humidity,
depending on the soil conditions. If the air fed to living spaces is not reused, the system is
called single pass system. The earth-air pipe system can also be used in the re-circulation
mode. In that case air from the living space is re-circulated through earth-air pipe and is
supplied back to the living space.
By using an earth-air pipe system, energy and peak load requirements for space
conditioning of a building can be significantly reduced. This would lead to energy
conservation. The use of such systems has gained increasing acceptance during the last few
years, and a number of them are being installed in India, China, USA and Europe.

FROM
BLOWER
ROOM

Fig. 3.34 Earth-air pipe system: working principle

Performance Analysis
The performance of the earth-air pipe system depends on the rate of heat transfer
between the air and surrounding earth, which in turn is governed by the resistances offered
by: (i) the convection between air and inner surface of the pipe, (ii) conduction through the
thickness of the pipe wall, and (iii) conduction through the surrounding earth. Thus, the
performance of the earth-air pipe system depends on [24,25]:

system parameters (depth of the pipe from the earth's surface, its length and radius,
thermal conductivity of the pipe material, and air speed through the pipe)
soil parameters surrounding the pipe (thermal conductivity, specific heat, density and
moisture content)
weather conditions (solar radiation, ambient temperature)
earths surface conditions (shaded, blackened, white-painted or wetted with water)

The longest resistance to the heat flow is due to the soil surrounding the pipe, and it is
the main factor in controlling the rate of cooling/heating of the air in the pipe. Soil having
higher thermal conductivity is desirable, and so wet soil is more effective in heat transfer.
Resistance to the heat flow due to pipe material is comparatively very less, hence pipe
thickness and its material is of little consequence to the process. The configuration (cross
section and thickness) and material of the pipe is decided purely on the basis of cost
considerations. Thus, a duct made of brick/stone or a concrete pipe will be almost as
effective as a copper pipe.
The temperature T AL

at the end of a pipe of length L can be written as [24,25]:

T AL = TEO + (T AO TEO ) exp L

L
p

(3.8)

where,

L p = m a C PA R th ; m a = R ip2 v A A

2
Z
Z
1
+
Rop
ln

R
R
ln

op
op

R
ip
1
Rth =
+
+
2Rip hi
2k p
2k g
2t

TEO = TEM + (TE max TEM )exp Z cos

Z
t

t y kg

( g C pg )

TAO = TAM + (TAMax TAM )cos 2t '

th

(3.9)

C PA = specific heat of air (J/kg-K)

C pg = specific heat of the soil (J/kg-K)
hi =
kg =
kp=

connective heat transfer coefficient for the inner surface of the pipe to air (W/m2-K)
thermal conductivity of the soil (W/m-K)
thermal conductivity of pipe material (W/m-K)

Rip = pipe inner radius (m)

Rop = pipe outer radius (m)
t=
t' =
th =

time (zero on the day when TE max occurs) (s)

time (measured from the time when maximum temperature of the day occurs) (s)
duration of the day (24 x 3600 s = 86400 s)

ty=

time duration of a year in seconds (365 x 24 x 3600s = 31.5 x 106 s)

TEM = annual mean ambient air temperature (oC)

TE max = maximum of the daily mean temperature of the year (oC)

T AM = daily mean ambient air temperature (oC)

T A max = maximum temperature of the day (oC)
v A = air flow velocity (m/s)
Z = pipe depth (m)
g = density of the soil (kg/m3)
A =

air density (kg/m3)

It is seen that the temperature of the air T AL at the end of the pipe depends on pipe
parameters, air parameters and soil parameters.
The hourly cooling potential Qc (in kWh), and heating potential Q h (in kWh) can be
calculated from the relations:

Q c = m A C PA (TAO TAL )

(3.10)

Q h = m A C PA (TAL TAO )

(3.11)

The performance of an earth-air pipe system has been estimated for Delhi climate
conditions. For the weather data of June (summer) and January (winter), T AL and Qc are
calculated for various soil and systems parameters. The values of air properties and other
quantities used in the calculations are:

g C pg = 3 x10 6 J/m3-K , A = 1.17 kg / m 3 , C pA = 1000 J/kg-K ; k A = 0.0265 W/m-K;

t = 0 in June and 302400 s in January; TEmax = 34.2oC in June and 13.6oC in January;
TAO = 38.5oC in June and 8.5oC in January; TEM = 24.9oC; Friction factor = 0.08
Table 3.10 presents results for summer conditions in New Delhi. It is seen from the
table that T AL decreases as depth of the pipe (Z) increases. The cooling potential also
increases. Variations of T AL is significant for low values of Z. After a depth of 5m, it hardly
changes. Similarly the effectiveness of the earth-air pipe system improves when the pipe
length (L), thermal conductivity of the soil (kg), as well as that of the pipe (kp) increase. The
performance decreases with increase in pipe radius (R), pipe thickness Rop Rip , and

velocity (v A ) of the air in the pipe. While the effects of Z, L, R, vA and kg are quite
significant, the effects due to k p and thickness of the pipe are insignificant.
Table 3.11 shows similar effects for winter conditions in New Delhi. The results demonstrate
the effect of various parameters from the point of view of designing an earth-air pipe system.

Example:
Earth-air pipe systems have been installed at many places in the country. RETREAT
building, Gwalpahari, Gurgaon; Dera Library, Radha Swami Satsang, Beas, Dilwara Bagh;
Country House of Reena and Ravi Nath, Wazirpur, Gurgaon[13], etc. use this system to name
a few.

Table 3.10 Variation of delivery temperature (TAL) and cooling potential (Qc) of an
earth-air pipe system due to various system parameters for June conditions of New
Delhi

Variable

Depth of
pipe Z (m)

Length of
pipe L (m)

Radius of
pipe R (m)

Air Velocity
in pipe VA
(m/s)
Conductivity
of pipe kp
(W/m K)

Conductivity
of soil kg
(W/m K)

Value
1
3
5
7
20
40
60
80
Rip.= 0.075; Rop= 0.085
Rip.= 0.150; Rop= 0.160
Rip.= 0.225; Rop= 0.250
Rip.= 0.300; Rop= 0.325
Rip.= 0.150; Rop= 0.175
Rip.= 0.150; Rop= 0.190
1
3
5
7
0.2
0.5
1.0
1.5
3.0
0.2
0.6
1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0

Delivery
temperature
TAL
(0C)
31.2
27.5
26.5
26.7
31.9
28.4
26.5
25.5
24.4
26.3
29.8
32.2
26.5
26.7
26.5
31.8
34.0
35.1
27.3
26.5
26.3
26.2
26.1
35.8
31.9
29.4
27.5
26.5
25.8

Cooling
potential
Qc
(kWh)
0.6
0.9
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.8
1.0
1.1
0.3
1.0
2.1
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.7
1.9
2.0
1.0
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.2
0.5
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.0

Drop in
temperature
(Inlet - Delivery)
(C)
7.3
11.0
12.0
11.8
6.6
10.1
12.0
13.0
14.1
12.2
8.7
6.3
12.0
11.8
12.0
6.7
4.5
3.4
11.2
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
2.7
6.6
9.1
11.0
12.0
12.7

Rip =Internal diameter of pipe

Rop=External diameter of pipe
The inlet air temperature is taken as 38.5 C (i.e. monthly average maximum air temperature in June)

Table 3.11 Variation of delivery temperature (TAL) and cooling potential (Qc) of an
earth-air pipe system due to various system parameters for January conditions of
New Delhi

Variable

Depth of
pipe Z (m)

Length of
pipe L (m)

Radius of
pipe R (m)

Air Velocity
in pipe VA
(m/s)
Conductivity
of pipe kp
(W/m K)

Conductivity
of soil kg
(W/m K)

Value

Delivery
temperature
TAL (0C)

Heating
potential
Qc(kWh)

1
3
5
7
20
40
60
80
Rip.= 0.075; Rop= 0.085
Rip.= 0.150; Rop= 0.160
Rip.= 0.225; Rop= 0.250
Rip.= 0.300; Rop= 0.325
Rip.= 0.150; Rop= 0.175
Rip.= 0.150; Rop= 0.190
1
3
5
7
0.2
0.6
1.0
1.5
3.0
0.2
0.6
1.0
1.5
3.0

18.1
21.0
22.3
22.5
16.2
20.2
22.3
23.5
24.7
22.6
18.6
15.8
22.3
22.1
22.3
16.2
13.7
12.5
21.5
22.4
22.6
22.7
22.8
11.8
16.4
19.3
21.3
22.9

0.8
1.0
1.1
1.2
0.6
1.0
1.1
1.2
0.3
1.2
1.9
2.4
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.9
2.2
2.3
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
0.3
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.2

Rise in
temperature
(Inlet Delivery)
(C)
9.6
12.5
13.8
14.0
7.7
11.7
13.8
15.0
16.2
14.1
10.1
7.3
13.8
13.6
13.8
7.7
5.2
4.0
13.0
13.9
14.1
14.2
14.3
3.3
7.9
10.8
12.8
14.4

Rip =Internal diameter of pipe

Rop=External diameter of pipe
The inlet air temperature is taken as 8.5 C (i.e. monthly average maximum air temperature in January)

The earth-air pipe system is used to cool about 120 m2 of floor area in the Dilwara
Bagh house. Two rectangular pipes of cross sectional area of 0.6m x 0.8m, and a length of
60m are employed at a depth of 4m. A blower of 3 hp is used to force air into the system, and
is housed in a blower room about 67.5m away from the house. It maintains an air velocity of
about 6m/s in the pipe, which is made of brick and sand stone. A cross-section of the pipe and
a sketch plan of the system are shown in Figs. 3.35 and 3.36. The outlets of the system to the
rooms are protected by earth-berms. A cross-section of the same is shown in Fig 3.37.

Fig. 3.35 Cross-section of pipe at the Dilwara Bagh House, Gurgaon

Fig. 3.36 Sketch plan of earth-air pipe system at the Dilwara Bagh House, Gurgaon

Fig. 3.37 Section showing earth berm at the Dilwara Bagh House, Gurgaon

Extensive post occupancy evaluation studies have been carried out by Thanu et al.
[26]. Figure 3.38 shows a typical performance of the system during summer and winter
conditions. It is seen that in summer, the exit or delivery temperature is about 290C when
outside can be as high as 380C. Further, the fluctuation in room temperature is only 2.20C as
compared to 11.80C for outside air. In winters, the delivery temperature is maintained at about
200C, when outside air is about 80C an increase in temperature by about 120C. Thus, the
earth-air pipe system performs well both in summers as well as in winters. The system
provides an average daily cooling potential of 242 kWh (thermal) in a summer month and
about 365 kWh in a winter month. As the blowers power is 3 hp (2.2 kW), the coefficient of
performance (COP) of the system is 4.5 in summer and 6.8 in winter.

(a) Summer

(b) Winter
Fig. 3.38 Typical performance of the earth-air pipe system

3.5

DAYLIGHTING
Vision is by far the most developed of all our senses and light has been the main
prerequisite for sensing things. Light is that part of the electromagnetic radiation which is
capable of exciting the retina of the eye to produce visual sensation. It is a vital and
invaluable component of human life. Considerable care is therefore essential for creating
effective visibility and providing visual satisfaction.

The visible spectrum, to which the human eye is sensitive, is a narrow band of
wavelengths between 380 and 780 nm. Buildings must have sufficient lighting in this band.
Light has a major effect on the way one perceives spaces and their functions. Sufficient light
is required to carry out everyday tasks in homes, offices and factories. The illumination
requirements for the comfortable performance of various tasks need to be suitably considered
in design. For example, very bright lighting is required in a diamond polishing industry while
soft lighting may be sufficient in a bedroom. The required illumination can be provided by
daylight through windows and/ or by artificial light in the form of tubelights and lamps. In
artificial lighting, the light source is under the users control in the sense that the illumination
level is independent of location, climate or even the construction of the building. On the other
hand, daylighting strongly depends on external conditions and its control depends on the way
a building is constructed. Very often, one finds numerous tubelights burning in offices,
factories and homes during daytime even though there is plenty of sunlight outside. Because
of its variability and subtlety, natural light has a more pleasing effect than monotonous
artificial lighting. Building components such as windows and skylights, which admit light,
enable a visual communication with the outside world. Besides, plentiful daylight also has
energy-saving implications. Since most buildings are largely used during the daytime,
effective daylighting makes economic sense. Because a good daylighting system involves
many elements, it is best to incorporate them in the building design at an early stage. The
manner in which daylight enters and distributes itself in a room depends on the size and
location of openings, type of glazing, configuration of the room, and reflective properties of
walls, ceiling and other surfaces. The intensity of daylight and the daylight factor (explained
under 3.5.1) also depend on the height and the location of the opening on a wall; the intensity
reduces as the distance from the opening increases.
The pattern of artificial lighting in a building differs from climate to climate. For
example, in hot and dry climates, internal shading devices are often used to protect the
building from overheating by high solar radiation. This will drastically reduce the daylight
entering the room, thereby increasing artificial lighting load. However, in cold and sunny
climates shading devices are not required, so there is less need for artificial lighting. Correct
daylighting design will reduce not only the energy cost but also the cooling cost, caused by
lighting devices.
Under a European research programme, 60 buildings were monitored and documented
from the point of view of daylighting. These case studies provide a valuable resource to
building designers. Fontoynont [27] presents both quantitative as well as qualitative
assessments of a range of daylighting solutions. The designing aspects of daylight systems in
buildings have been explained by Baker and Steemers [28] in an accompanying publication.

3.5.1

Basic Principles of Daylighting

The ultimate source of daylight is the sun. By the time sunlight reaches the earths
surface, it has been subjected to atmospheric attenuation, scattering and reflection. The
daylight received on the earths surface is composed of direct light (light directly received

from the sun) and diffuse light (light received from all parts of the sky due to atmospheric
scattering and reflection). Light reaching a particular point inside a building may consist of,
(1) direct sunlight, (2) diffuse light or skylight, (3) externally reflected light (by the
ground or other buildings), and (4) internally reflected light from walls, ceiling and other
internal surfaces [29,30]. This is depicted graphically in Fig. 3.39.

Fig. 3.39 Distribution of daylight

The availability of light within a building depends on its planform, orientation, the
location and size of openings, characteristics of glazing, and internal reflections. Because of
the variations in outdoor lighting levels, it is difficult (and perhaps meaningless) to calculate
interior lighting in photometric illumination terms. However, inside a given building at a
given point, the ratio of indoor illumination to the corresponding outdoor illumination can be
taken as constant. This constant ratio, expressed in percentage, is the daylight factor (DF),
given by:
DF = E i 100
Eo

(3.12)

where,
Ei = indoor illumination at the point of consideration
Eo = outdoor illumination from unobstructed sky hemisphere
The three components contributing to daylight factor are: (a) sky component (SC), (b)
externally reflected component (ERC), and (c) internally reflected component (IRC)

Thus,
DF = SC + ERC + IRC

(3.13)

Each component can be calculated by following standard procedures outlined in the

BIS Handbook [5]. The magnitude of each of these components depends on design variables
as follows:
Sky component (SC) - The area of sky visible from the point considered and its
average altitude angle (luminance of the sky at that angle), window size and position
in relation to the point, thickness of window frame, quality of glass and its clearness,
and any external obstructions.

Externally reflected component (ERC) - The area of external surfaces visible from
the point considered, and the reflectance of these surfaces.
Internally reflected component (IRC) - The size of the room, the ratio of surfaces
(wall, roof, etc.) in relation to the window area, and reflectance of indoor surfaces.
Direct sunlight is excluded from the definition of daylight factor as it is not desirable
from the perspective of the quality of the light. It creates problems of shadows and severe
brightness imbalances that cause glare. Direct sunlight also brings excessive heat in summer.
Adequate shading devices are therefore recommended not only for thermal comfort but also
for visual comfort.
The outdoor illumination level Eo can be established for a given place by analysing the
long-term illumination record. This is taken as design sky illumination value. For India, it is
taken as 8,000 lux for clear design sky [5].
For example, if Ei = 300 and Eo = 8000 lux, then,
DF =

300
100 = 3.75
8000

(3.14)
Design variables such as window size can be manipulated to achieve this daylight
factor. This method will ensure that 90% of the time, the inside illumination level is at the
required level or exceeds it. For the remaining 10% of the time, one can rely on human
adaptability. Recommended daylight factors for typical building interiors are presented in
Table 3.12.

3.5.2

Daylighting Systems
The conventional modes of introducing daylight into the building include windows,
clerestories, skylights (Fig. 3.40) and light shelves (Fig. 3.41). They can normally provide
adequate daylight in the perimeter of buildings up to 5m of window or skylight. Light shelves
are reflective horizontal surfaces that extend from the exterior to the interior of a building.
They reflect sunlight onto the ceiling, which in turn reflects into the interior space. They can
prevent unwanted direct sunlight, which is a source of glare, from entering the space. Light
shelves are intended to modify daylight distribution by reducing the sky component and
increasing reflection from the ceiling resulting in a more uniform daylight distribution [27].
Reflective blinds offer good control of glare and solar protection. These also maintain

reasonable light levels inside, provided the ceiling is bright. One can use atria and courtyards,
or use daylighting optical systems to deliver light to deeper parts of the building. Atria (Fig.
3.42) can help reduce heat losses, but their daylighting efficiency depends on the brightness
of their walls and the shading on windows [27]. Daylighting optical systems require a
collection system to gather and redirect the available light. This is then transmitted to the
point of use inside the building and finally distributed as per the illumination requirement.
Table 3.12 Recommended daylight factors [10]
Building

Dwellings

Schools
Offices
Hospitals

Libraries

Area/Activity
Kitchen
Living room
Study room
Circulation
Class room
Laboratory
General
Drawing, typing
Enquiry
General wards
Pathology laboratory
Stack room
Reading room
Counter area
Catalogue room

Fig. 3.40 Skylight

Daylight factor
(%)
2.5
0.625
1.9
0.313
1.9 3.8
2.5 - 3.8
1.9
3.75
0.625 1.9
1.25
2.5 3.75
0.9 1.9
1.9 3.75
2.5 3.75
1.9 2.5

Fig. 3.41 Light shelf

Certain systems capture and distribute light to the interiors using a pipe (Fig. 3.43) or
lightwell (Fig. 3.44). These systems usually do not have any moving parts. Aluminium pipes
with a clear acrylic dome on top and a translucent acrylic dome at the bottom are installed on
the roof and used as sunpipes. The pipes are lined with silver to reduce reflection losses. The
translucent dome at the bottom creates diffuse light in the living space. In reflective light
guides (Fig. 3.44), mirrors are used inside ducts to guide or direct light coming from the
skylights to the interiors. The ducts may open at various levels. The light guides transport
light using multiple specular reflection at the reflective inner wall surface. Using highly
reflective silvered polyester semi-collimated mirrors, light can be transmitted over 30 m with
only small losses.
Mirrors and lenses can be used to augment the availability of daylight. These follow
the path of the sun by appropriate tracking mechanisms and direct the light to the desired area
using sensors and control systems. Such arrangements can be used to catch the very low-angle
light that the sun produces at dawn and dusk, and extend the period of useful daylight by a
few hours. Figure 3.45 shows a tracking reflector with a receiver in front for directing
daylight deep into the interior in conjunction with lightwells. Additionally, there are systems
that can be used to direct light to some fixed points. For example, in the Himawari system
(Fig. 3.46), a honeycomb of Fresnel lenses focus the suns light onto the ends of quartz-glass
optical fibres. The fibres are used to distribute the light deep within the interiors. A six-fibre
cable of length of approximately 40 m can provide light which is comparable to the output of
a 75-watt incandescent lamp.

Fig. 3.42 Atrium

Fig. 3.43 Light pipe

Fig. 3.44 Light well

Fig. 3.45 Sun tracking unit

Fig. 3.46 Himawari system

Laser cut light deflecting panels (LCP) can be used to deflect collimated light at low
angles to penetrate the deeper zones. Light deflection results from the inner surfaces within
the dielectric material, angled incident light upwards into the interiors due to total internal
reflection. LCPs are formed by making laser cuts of about 2mm through a clear acrylic sheet.
Each laser cut becomes a narrow mirror internal to the sheet which reflects light incident on
the sheet from directions other than normal. The angle of the laser cuts or panels can be
varied for different uses:
It can be used to direct light to the ceiling for deeper penetration. This improves
daylighting and reduces glare on working planes.
When used in skylights, (e.g. pyramidal skylights), or angle selective glazings, the
noon time radiation which is directly overhead can be reflected back to the sky so
that interiors do not overheat. When the angle of the sun is low (e.g. in winters,
mornings and evenings), the light is directed inside.

They can be used as louvers, which when opened, deflect the direct light back to
the sky. This prevents glare and allows breeze to penetrate the building for
summer cooling. When closed, they reflect light to the ceiling for deeper
penetration of light in winter. Figure 3.47 shows a sketch of the working
principles of LCP louvers.

Fig. 3.47 LCP louvers

(a) tilted, (b) open

Refractive devices are devices that can be mounted on a window to redirect sunlight
towards the ceiling of a room over a wide range of sun elevations. The basic component of
such a device is a single solid section of dielectric with a sloping curved base and a v-shaped
trough as the top surface. These are stacked together to form a module. An enclosed air gap is
created between two sections. This module can be permanently mounted in a window to
redirect sunlight towards the ceiling by total internal reflection. The device is generally placed
in the upper parts of windows (i.e. above head height) to reduce possibility of glare and
distortion of view. Figure 3.48 shows a sketch of a refracting daylighting device.

Fig. 3.48 Schematic sketch of a refractive daylighting device

3.6

BUILDING MATERIALS
There are many techniques for improving energy efficiency in buildings, and it is the
responsibility of the occupants to operate it in an energy-conserving way. But occupants can
operate it only within the range provided by the buildings designers. It is ultimately up to the
designers to provide the most energy efficient building to owners and occupants. Not only is
this a service from an economic standpoint, but it will also prevent the building from
becoming impracticable due to high energy costs.

Building materials play a significant role in energy conscious architecture. The rate of
heat flow through various components of a building, its time lag and amplitude decrement, as
well as the energy storage capability of the building are all governed by the materials used.
The choice of materials is therefore crucial from the perspective of the thermal performance
of the building. Besides, the materials provide the required structural strength for the
building. While the conventional building materials are well known to architects, building
scientists and users (Refer to Appendix IV.1), it is desirable to focus on alternative materials
to reduce costs and energy consumption. It may be noted that a certain amount of energy is
consumed for the very production of the building materials from their basic raw ingredients.
This is known as the embodied energy of the materials. This aspect has a bearing on the
choice of building materials.

3.1.1

Embodied Energy of Building Materials

Energy used in the construction process and particularly in the building materials used
should be minimised as a whole. Energy consumed in the procurement, manufacture,
processing and recycling of building materials affects the cost of construction. The process of
energy analysis consists of three steps: (i) the energy used in the production of raw materials
(ii) the energy used in the making of the finished materials, and (iii). the energy used for the
machinery and equipment required in the manufacturing process [31]. Sum total of these
three is known as energy intensity.

Building materials have been categorised into three types based on their energy
intensities. High energy materials are those with energy intensities greater than about 5GJ per
tonne of manufactured materials and include items like aluminium, steel, plastics, glass and
cement. Medium energy group materials comprise those requiring energy inputs between 0.5
to 5 GJ per tonne of material and include concrete, lime plaster and most types of blocks
based on cement, lime, flyash and fireclay bricks and tiles. Low energy group materials
include fine and coarse aggregates for construction, pozzolona types of soil and stabilised
soil. It is essential to promote low cost, low energy and medium energy materials for energy
efficiency in building construction. However, these materials should also be durable, require
less maintenance and should be recyclable. It may be noted that materials such as aluminium
and steel although being highly energy intensive, can be recycled very cheaply in terms of
energy.
A detailed study of the embodied energy of various building materials has been
carried out by Development Alternatives, New Delhi [32]. The document provides
information for different building materials and components at various levels, namely,
manufacturing, processing and fabrication. A designer can obtain information on material
description, technology and resources, environmental implications, production statistics, and
world status on energy data. The report also presents data on energy that is consumed at the
quarrying, production and transportation of raw materials, intermediate materials and finished
goods. The embodied energy of various materials is provided in Table 3.13. In addition to
conventional materials, the table also includes a few alternative building materials. The
primary energy required by weight, volume and/or surface area of the product is listed in the
table.

Table 3.13 Energy requirements of different building materials [32]

Material
Primary Materials
Coarse Aggregate (25-40mm)
Lime (quick)
Cement (OPC 33 grade)
Steel (semis)
Mini (billets)
ISP (ingots)
PVC (billets)
Secondary Materials
Bricks weight (average 2.75 kg)
Solid Concrete Blocks
(30 x 20x 15) cm
Hollow Concrete Blocks
(20 x 20 x 40) cm
FalG Block (30 x 20 x 15) cm
Aerated Concrete block
(19 x 19 x 39) cm
Steel Rods (6, 8, 10mm etc.)
Steel RSJ (standard sizes)
Steel Cold Rolled Sheets
Steel Hot Rolled Sheets
CGI
Ferrocement (1 inch thick)
Cement Bonded Board (40 mm)
MDF (Including raw material
energy)(19 mm)
MDF (excluding raw material
energy)(19mm)
Plywood (6mm thick)
Plywood (19mm thick)
Flush door (35mm thick)
PVC pipe (40 cm diameter)

3.1.2

Density
(kg/m3)

Primary Energy M J thermal

3
2
Per tonne
Per m
Per m

2240
640
1440
7800
32000
1500

240
6220
6700
23000
158000

538
3968
9648
-

1800
2000

1286
580

2235
1002

518
209

1300

700

910

121

2000
1278

4400
6400

879
818

127
138

7800
7800
7800
7800
1687
1250
770

28212
42840
51642
34715
48276
3669
6487

8109

302
186
324
472

770
700
700
700
1500

188
-

142
312
482
-

Alternative Building Materials

This section presents a summary of various alternative building materials and technologies
that have been developed to reduce energy consumption as well as cost [31-37].
a) Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC)
Autoclaved aerated concrete is known more by its patented or trade name such as
Siporex, Trustone and Environcrete in various parts of the world. It is a factoryproduced light weight precast concrete which is available in a wide variety of shapes
and sizes. A typical 200 mm thick AAC wall can be about half the weight of an ordinary
hollow-core concrete block. Further, AAC blocks can be bonded by a thin layer of
adhesive and thus do not need mortar. AAC blocks are made from a mixture of Portland
cement, lime, silica sand or fly ash, water and aluminium powder or paste. When mixed,
millions of tiny hydrogen bubbles expand the mix to approximately five times its
original volume. AAC can be reinforced and can be easily cut using ordinary carpentry
tools. It is a stable, non-polluting, fire resisting, thermally and acoustically insulating,
and durable material. However, it needs to be plastered for protection from rain.

b) Fly ash
Fly ash is a by-product of coal in thermal power plants. It consists of organic and
inorganic matter that is not fully burnt, and can be recycled for use in a variety of
building materials. The properties of fly ash make it suitable for the manufacture of
bricks, hollow and solid blocks, cellular concrete, partial replacement of cement, filler
material in concrete, wood substitute, and also for use in the manufacture of emulsion
paints, building distempers, etc. Using fly ash in building materials can result in a
number of advantages. For example, fly ash bricks can replace burnt clay bricks, which
require use of fertile agricultural soil. They are dimensionally stable having a smooth
finish and fine edges, and are available in a number of sizes. They also have good
resistance to weathering and need not be plastered. The bricks can be made in a number
of colours using pigments. This material is being tried and tested at Central Building
Research Institute, Roorkee. It has been used at IIT Delhi and The Energy Resources
Institute, Gwalpahari and shown to have good results [31]. Fly ash is also used to make
FaL-G (hydraulic cement). The name FaL-G stands for fly ash (Fa), Lime (L) and
Gypsum (G) which are its ingredients. It can be used as an alternative to ordinary
Portland cement as a binder, and to burnt clay bricks as a masonry block. It can also be
used for road pavements, and in plain concrete in the form of Fal-G concrete.
c) Compressed earth blocks
The manual production of earth blocks by compressing them in small moulds has been
practised for centuries. The process has now been mechanised and a variety of presses
are used, including mprocessanual and hydraulic . The soil for compressed earth blocks
consists of a mixture of pebbles (1.5 parts), sand (5 parts), silt (1.5 parts) and clay (2
parts). About 5 % cement is used to stabilise the earth blocks. Products range from
accurately shaped solid, cellular and hollow bricks, to flooring and paving elements.
Compressed earth blocks are sun dried and do not need to be burnt. They are also
economical, strong, energy saving and simple to manufacture. Soil stabilised hollow
and interlocking blocks can provide better thermal insulation than bricks. Mud blocks
stabilised with Fal-G are much stronger, absorb less water, and are cheaper than cement
stabilised blocks. Development Alternatives, New Delhi [32] and Auroville,
Pondicherry have carried out extensive research on this material. A number of buildings
at Auroville, Pondicherry have been built using compressed earth blocks.
d) Clay red mud burnt bricks
Clay red mud burnt bricks are produced from alumina red mud or bauxite, an industrial
waste of aluminium producing plants, in combination with clay. The brick possesses
all the physical properties of normal clay bricks. Incidentally, they also solve the
problem of waste disposal and environmental pollution. In addition, they have good
architectural value as facing bricks due to their pleasing colour.
e) Lato blocks
Lato blocks are bricks made from lateritic soil and cement or lime. The blocks are
moulded under pressure to produce strong and good quality blocks which consume
lesser energy than conventional bricks, and hence are cheaper. They are available in
various colours ranging from cream to light crimson.

f) Precast hollow concrete blocks

Precast hollow concrete blocks are manufactured using lean cement-concrete mixes and
extruded through block making machines of the egg laying or static types. They need
lesser cement mortar and enable speedy construction as compared to brick masonry. The
cavity in the blocks provide better thermal protection. Further, the blocks may not need
external or internal plastering. These can be used as walling blocks or as roofing blocks
along with inverted precast tee beams.
g) Bamboo/timber mat based walls
These walls are made up of bamboo mat placed between horizontal and vertical
timber/bamboo frames. The plastering is done using mud or cement mortar on either
side. These are easy to construct, cost less and are popular in hilly areas as they can be
self-assembled. However, these are not load bearing and need a supporting structure.
This upgraded traditional technology is a relevant option for walling from the
perspective of earthquakes to minimise damage in the event of a collapse
h) Rat trap bond
The rat trap bond is an alternative brick bonding system for English and Flemish bond.
It is economical, strong and aesthetically appealing. It can save about 25% of the total
number of bricks and about 40% of the mortar cost for a wall. The rat trap bond is
simple to build and has better insulation properties.
i) Composite ferrocement system
The system is simple to construct and is made of ferrocement (rich mortar reinforced
with chicken mesh and welded wire mesh). These reduce the wall thickness and allow a
larger carpet area. Precast ferrocement units in trough shape are integrated with RCC
columns. Ferrocement units serve as a permanent skin unit, and as a diagonal strut
between columns. Inside cladding can be done with mud blocks or any locally available
material. These are ideally suited for seismic areas.
j) Coconut fibre and wooden chips roofing sheets
Coconut fibre and wooden chips or fibre are soaked in water for two hours and after
which the water drained off. These are then mixed with cement, laid over a corrugated
mould and kept under pressure for 8 to 10 hours. After demoulding, the sheets are
cured and dried before use.
k) Cement bonded fibre roofing sheets
These are made from coir waste, coconut pith, wood wool or sisal fibre in combination
with cement as binder, for production of corrugated or plain roofing sheets. These
sheets use lesser cement than AC sheets and are 50% cheaper than AC/CGI sheets.
Besides, they are light weight, fire resistant, water proof and can be used for sloping
roof options.
l) Micro concrete roofing tiles
Micro concrete roofing tiles are made of graded cement mortar layer and formed over
sloping mould. They are used in pitched roofing systems and are less expensive than
ACC/CGI sheets. These tiles are appropriate where fired clay tiles are not available, and
timber supporting skeletal system is costlier. The rafter and purlin system cost less

when micro concrete roofing tiles are used. Further cost reduction can be made by using
ferrocement rafters and purlins.

m) Stone patti roofing:

Stone patti roofing is a flat roofing system with sand stone slabs (patties) resting over
steel or slender RCC section beams. The slabs are overlaid with terracing for
insulation. This type of roofing is appropriate where (sand) stone slabs are available,
and is more economical than RCC slabs. In places like the states of Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh where large granite stone patties are available, the beams
are not needed as the pattis can rest on walls.
n) Precast brick arch panel system
In this technique, precast brick arches of size 50cm x 50cm are cast on a platform. The
arches are placed side by side over the partially precast joist. The haunches between the
arches are filled with cement concrete to have a level surface on the top. Such
roofs/floors are 30 percent more economical when compared with conventional RCC.
o) Filler slabs
Filler slabs are normal RCC slabs in which bottom half (tension) concrete portions are
replaced by filler materials such as bricks, tiles, cellular concrete blocks, etc. Filler
materials are so placed as not to compromise structural strength; they replace unwanted
and non-functional tension concrete, thus resulting in economy. These are safe, sound
and provide aesthetically pleasing pattern for ceilings. An additional advantage of filler
slabs is that they do not need plastering.
p) Particle boards
Particle boards are made from wood waste, cotton stalk and bagasse, and bonded by
resin. They can be used as inserts, and with veneering, they can be used as an alternative
to timber in panelling, false ceiling flooring, partitioning and furniture.
Table 3.14 gives the possible savings that could be achieved by using alternative
building materials [37].

Table 3.14 Estimated cost savings on using innovative building materials [37]
S. No. Cost-Effective Technologies
I.

FOUNDATIONS

1.

Pile foundation (under reamed)

2.

Brick Arch foundations

II.
1.

In place of Conventional options

% of Saving

Traditional stone/bricks

15

Footings

25

WALLING (SUPER STRUCTURE)

230 mm Thick wall in lower floors

330 mm brick walls

2.

180 mm Thick wall in bricks

230 mm brick walls

13

3.

115 mm thick recessed walls

230 mm brick walls

20

4.
5.

150/200 mm Stone block masonry'

Stabilised mud blocks

Random rubble masonry

Burnt brick walls

30-20
20

6.
7.
8.

FaL-G Block masonry

Fly ash brick walls
Rat trap bond walls

Clay brick walls

Gay brick walls
English/Flemish bond

20
25
25

9.
III.
1.

Hollow blocks walls

ROOFING
85 mm thick sloping RCC

Solid masonry

20

110 mm RCC

30

2.

Tiles over RCC rafters

Tiles over timber rafters

25

3.

Brick panel with joists

RCC

20-25

4.

Cuddapah slabs over RCC rafters

CS over timber rafters

20

5.

L-panel sloping roofing

RCC

10

RCC planks over RCC joists

RCC

10

7.
8.
9.
10.

Ferrocement shell roofing

Filler slab roofing
Waffle roofing
RCC channel units

RCC
RCC
RCC
RCC

40
22
15
12

11.

Jack arch brick roofing

RCC

15

12.
13.
14.
15.

Funicular shell roofing

Brick funicular shell roofing
Precast blocks over inverted T-beams
Micro-concrete roofing tiles

RCC
RCC
RCC
Clay tile roofing AC sheet roofing

18
30
25
20-15

IV.
1.
2.
3.

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS
RCC door frames
Frameless doors (only inserts)
Ferrocement door shutters

Timber Frames
Frames and shutters
Timber shutters (second class timber)

30
50
30

4.

RCC window frames

Timber frames

30

5.

RCC jellies

Timber windows/ventilators

50

6.

Precast thin lintels

RCC lintels

25

7.

Cast sunshades

30

RCC lintel-cum-sunshades

50

9.

Precast sunshades
Ferrocement sun shades-cumlintel
Brick on edge lintels

RCC lintels

50

10.

Corbelling for lintels

RCC lintels

40

11.

Brick arch-for lintels

RCC lintels

30

12.

Precast RCC shelves units

Timber/concrete

20-35

13.
14.
15.

Precast Ferrocement shelves

Ferrocement manhole covers
Ferrocement water tank

Timber/concrete
Casion/concret e
Rigid PVC

35-45
50-40
60

8.

References
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Centre, MNES, Govt. of India, New Delhi, 1999
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No.1 and 2, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1990
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recommendations for modifications of building bye-laws, Final Report, R & D Project no.
10/86/95-ST, 1999.
4. IS:3792-1978, Guide for heat insulation of non-industrial buildings First Revision, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1979
5. SP: 41 (S&T) -1987 - Handbook on functional requirements of buildings, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, 1987.
6. Vaughn Bradshaw, P.E., Building control systems, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1985
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8. Advanced glazing materials - part B, Solar Energy, Volume 63, No. 4, 1998.
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India (ed. M. Majumdar), Tata Energy Research Institute, New Delhi, 2001.
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11. Bansal N.K., Hauser G. and Minke G., Passive building design, Elsevier Science, New York,
1994.
12. Levy M.E., Evans D. and Gardstein C., The passive solar construction handbook, Rodale Press,
Pennsylvania, 1983.
13. Majumdar M., Energy efficient buildings of India, Tata Energy Research Institute, New Delhi,
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14. Givoni B., Passive and low energy cooling of buildings, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York,
1994
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issue no.2, 144, 1978.
16. Bahadori M.N., Natural cooling in hot arid regions, in Solar Energy Application in Buildings,
pp. 195 225 (edited by A.A.M. Sayigh), Academic Press, New York, 1979.
17. Sodha M. S., Bansal N.K., Bansal P. K., Kumar A. and Malik M. A. S., Solar passive building:
science and design, Pergamon Press, Oxford, New York, 1986
18. Watt J. R., Evaporative air conditioning, The Industrial Press, New York, 1963
19. Goulding J.R., Lewis J. O. and Steemers T.C. (Ed.), Energy in architecture the European
passive solar handbook, B.T. Batsford Ltd., London, 1992
20. Thompson T.L., Chalfoun N.V. and Yoklic M.R., Estimating the performance of natural draft
evaporative coolers, Energy Conversion and Management, 35, 909, 1994.
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50, 425, 1993.
22. Givoni B., Performance of the shower cooling tower in different climates, Renewable Energy
10, 173, 1997.
23. Kumar A. and Purohit I., Thermal performance evaluation of roof surface evaporative cooling
system for Indian locations, Proc. ICORE 2005, Pune, pp. 179 186, 2005.
24. Sawhney R.L. and Mahajan U., Heating and cooling potential of an underground air-pipe
system, Int. J. Energy research, 18, pp. 509 524, 1994.
25. Sodha M.S., Mahajan U. and Sawhney R.L., Thermal performance of parallel earth air-pipe
system, Int. J. Energy research, 18, pp. 437 - 447, 1994.
26. Thanu N.M., Sawhney R.L., Khare R.N. and Budhi D., An experimental study of thermal
performance of an earth air-pipe system in single pass mode, Solar Energy, 71, pp. 353 364,
2001.
27. Fontoynont M. (Ed.), Daylight performance of buildings, James & James (Science Publishers)
Ltd., London, 1999.

28. Baker N. and Steemers K., Daylight design of buildings, James & James (Science Publishers)
Ltd., London, 2002.
29. Misra A. and Kumar P., Energy efficient lighting and daylighting in buildings-a primer, Tata
Energy Research Institute Report, 1995.
30. Koenigsberger O.H., Ingersoll T.G., Mayhew A. and Szokolay S.V., Manual of tropical housing
and building, part 1 climatic design, Orient Longman, Madras, 1975.
31. Bansal N. K. and Cook J. (Ed), Sustainability through building, Omega Scientific, New Delhi,
2001
32. Development Alternatives, Energy directory of building materials, Project Sponsored by
Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council, BMTPC, 1995
33. HUDCO Build-Tech, Brochure of housing and urban development corporation ltd., New Delhi,
November, 1999.
34. Bhanumathidas N. and Kalidas N., FaL-G: the hydraulic cement, Proc. National workshop on
alternative building methods (Ed. K.S. Jagadish and K.S. Nanjunda Rao), January 16 18, IISc.,
Bangalore, 2002, pp.17 23.
35. Jagadish K.S. and Rao K.S.N., Ferrocement: materials and applications, Proc. National
workshop on alternative building methods (Ed. K.S. Jagadish and K.S. Nanjunda Rao), January
16 18, IISc., Bangalore, 2002, pp.24 32.
36. Ganesh K.R. and Reddy B.V.V., Appropriate roofing alternatives and their relevance, Proc.
National workshop on alternative building methods (Ed. K.S. Jagadish and K.S. Nanjunda Rao),
January 16 18, IISc., Bangalore, 2002, pp.66 69.
37. Suresh V., Alternative building materials and technology dissemination, Proc. National
workshop on alternative building methods (Ed. K.S. Jagadish and K.S. Nanjunda Rao), January
16 18, IISc., Bangalore, 2002, pp.163 170.

APPENDIX III.1
EFFECT OF SHADING DEVICES
The heat gain through windows has a major role in controlling the indoor temperatures in
case of non-conditioned buildings and heating and cooling load in case of conditioned buildings. It is
therefore necessary to examine the effect of various chajja-fin combinations to reduce the heat gain.
For this purpose the amount of direct solar radiation incident on windows has been considered as the
basis. The effect of size of chajja, fin, gap, extension and windows in the four cardinal directions (i.e.
north, east, south and west) has been studied. These terms are defined as follows:
Fin/Chajja depth:

Projection outward from the wall,. (When a chajja is assumed to have a

depth of say X meters, all the fins are also assumed to have a depth of X
meters. The chajja and fin meet at an edge at top)
Fin length
:
Length measured from the top edge of the window to the bottom of
the fin. (Four cases considered are: no fin, fin upto one third of window height measured downwards
from top edge of window, fin upto two third of window height measured downwards from top edge of
window and fin upto window height measured downwards from top edge of window).
Gap

Extension

The distance between the top edge of window and the chajja
The distance between the left or right fin to the nearest vertical edge of
window. In case there is no fin, it is the length by which the chajja extends
beyond the width of the window.(Extension is assumed equal on both sides of
the window)

Figure III.1 illustrates these terms graphically.

The various cases considered are:
Window size

0.6 x 1.2 , 0.6 x 1.8, 1.2 x 1.2, 1.2 x 1.8,

1.8 x 1.2, 1.8 x 1.8 (m2)

Fin/Chajja depth

0.0, 0.3, 0.6, 1.0 (m)

Fin length

:
:
:
:

No fin,
Upto 1/3 of window height measured from top.
Upto 2/3 of window height measured from top.
Equal to the window height.

Gap

0.0, 0.15(m)

Extension

0.0, 0.15(m)

Windows are given a set back of 0.1 m from the exterior surface of the wall.
Beam radiation incident on the window per unit area ( i.e., Beam radiation on window X
(Window area - Shaded area) / Window area) is found out for the hours between 9 a.m. to 4 p.m.
(IST) for all days of the year. This particular time span has been chosen to avoid the absurd values,
which may crop in due to the low magnitudes of the trigonometric functions for hours before 9 a.m.
and after 4 p.m. It may be mentioned that the intensities of solar radiation before 9 am and after 4
p.m. are generally small. So the assumption does not lead to significant error. Further, this calculation

has been used for relative comparisons. These hourly values are summed up over the year to yield
yearly total radiation incident on window.
Yearly beam solar radiation incident on windows for various chajja-fin combinations have
been estimated for Mumbai, Pune, Ahmedabad and Nagpur. Table III.1 presents results of such
calculations for a window of size 1.2m X 1.2m. Tables show the percentage radiation incident for
various chajja-fin combinations as compared to an unshaded window (with no chajja or fin). The
radiation falling on an unshaded window (over the year) in each of the directions corresponding to
different climates is given at the end of the table. To find out the actual radiation per unit area of
window with shading device/s, multiply the radiation on unshaded window with the corresponding
number from the table and divide by 100.

PxQ
Wh/m 2 - year
100
PxQxR
Total radiation on the window =
Wh/year
100
Where : P = Percentage of radiation falling on shaded window.
Q = Radiation on unshaded window
Radiation falling on window =

...(III.1)
.........(III.2)

R = Window area (m 2 )
The radiation blocked by the shading device is the difference of the radiation on the unshaded
window and that on the shaded window. The smaller is the value of P, the better is the performance
of window shading device combination. By keeping this fact in mind, one can find out the best
window shading device combination for any of the four cities and in any of the four directions.
It is seen that providing a chajja in general reduces the radiation incident on windows. This is
as expected. If, however, a gap between the top of the window and chajja is provided, the shading
decreases and the percentage of radiation increases. In addition, if fins are provided, the percentage
further reduces in general. However, providing an extension leads to a decrease in shading since the
fins are moved apart. This leads to an increase in the percentage of radiation incident. But the reverse
is the case if a window does not have fins. From these results the relative performance of the shading
combinations can be found out. For an example, consider a window with 0.6m chajja, 0.15m
extension, zero gap and no fin, the percentage of radiation incident on south window is 72.3%
compared to an unshaded window for Ahmedabad climate. But for a window with 1.0m chajja, zero
extension, zero gap and full fins, the corresponding number is 14.8%. A graphical representation of
such behaviour for all cities corresponding to a few cases has been shown in Fig. III.2. The results for
other window sizes are reported in Table III.2.
From Tables III.1 and III.2, the best combination of shading devices can be identified. For an
example, for north facing window in Ahmadabad, the percentage of radiation incident is the least
(57%) for a chajja depth of 0.3m, full fin length, zero extension and zero gap. Such combinations
have been identified for all window sizes corresponding to four cities and are listed in Table III.3.
The magnitudes of the radiation incident on such windows are also listed in the table. The numbers in
parentheses give the corresponding radiation value for unshaded window. These provide ready
reference for comparison of different cases.
Appropriate window sizing and shading combinations in different orientations can be found
from the table. For example, it is found that in Ahmadabad, a large window of 1.8 m x 1.8 m in the
north shaded by a chajja of depth 0.6m and full fins performs better than a well-shaded smaller
window of 0.6 m x 1.2 m (protected by 1.0m chajja and full fins) in the east, west and south. The

magnitude of radiation incident on window reduces by more than 3 times. Thus, it may be inferred
that larger windows should preferably be located in the north. Conversely, smaller windows should
be provided in the other directions and they should be well shaded. It is also seen that out of two
windows (width 1.2m, height 1.8m and width 1.8m, height 1.2m), the one with higher height is better
since the percentage of radiation incident is lower. This is because of the fact that the shading
increases for a window of higher height compared to a wider one, when fins are also provided. A
combination of deep chajjas and full-fins of 1.0m depth can significantly reduce the radiation falling
on a large window (1.8m X 1.8m); the values are ranging from about 3.5 times in the east to 4.9
times in the south. Hence, chajja and full-fin combinations are very effective in reducing the heat
gain through windows.

Fig. III.1

Illustrations of chajja depth, fin length, gap and extension

700

Radiation on window (KWh/m2)

600

north

east

south

west

500

400

300

200

100

0
Ahamadabad

Mumbai

Nagpur

Pune

Location

Fig. III.2 (Case 1) Radiation on unshaded 1.2m x 1.2 m window

700

Radiation on window (KWh/m2)

600

north

east

south

west

500

400

300

200

100

0
Ahamadabad

Mumbai

Nagpur
Location

Fig. III.2 (Case 2) Radiation on 1.2m x 1.2 m window shaded by 0.6 m chhajja with
0.15 m extension

Pune

700

Radiation on window (KWh/m2)

600

north

east

south

west

500

400

300

200

100

0
Ahamadabad

Mumbai

Nagpur

Pune

Location

Fig. III.2 (Case 3) Radiation on 1.2m x 1.2 m window shaded by 0.6 m chhajja and full
fins

Table III.1 Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (1.2m wide by 1.2m height)
Parameters

Percentage radiation incident (%)

Ahmadabad

Mumbai

Nagpur

Pune

ext

fin

gap

CL

North

East

South

West

North

East

South

West

North

East

South

West

North

East

South

West

0.3

95.30

94.74

95.84

96.35

89.86

94.22

95.88

96.37

91.12

94.81

95.43

95.59

83.18

94.48

94.86

95.92

0.6

95.30

76.97

75.98

76.59

89.86

75.94

72.83

77.54

91.12

71.69

74.62

80.84

83.11

74.04

71.65

75.78

95.30

58.64

57.21

55.74

89.86

58.94

52.62

57.73

91.12

50.25

55.81

62.77

83.11

54.15

52.75

54.97

0.15

0.3

98.79

97.10

98.06

98.47

93.79

96.95

98.20

98.49

96.25

97.72

97.96

97.58

88.90

97.09

97.36

98.13

0.15

0.6

98.79

85.13

85.43

84.96

93.77

84.27

83.16

85.63

96.25

80.91

84.24

87.80

88.82

82.99

81.80

84.24

0.15

98.79

67.85

65.81

65.30

93.77

68.19

61.90

67.65

96.25

59.19

64.40

71.68

88.82

63.87

61.64

64.89

1/3

0.3

75.10

91.75

92.01

93.70

75.01

90.59

91.98

93.55

67.34

91.85

91.42

93.19

61.95

91.71

90.73

93.47

1/3

0.6

75.10

68.93

65.17

68.93

74.82

66.54

61.51

69.20

67.34

63.24

63.35

74.11

61.17

66.66

59.80

68.50

1/3

75.10

45.81

40.46

43.14

74.82

44.32

35.24

43.96

67.34

37.09

38.73

51.27

61.17

42.35

35.20

42.94

1/3

0.15

0.3

70.59

92.40

91.93

94.24

73.75

91.35

91.99

94.00

63.42

93.01

91.54

93.72

59.93

92.80

90.83

94.21

1/3

0.15

0.6

70.59

73.53

69.75

73.90

73.52

70.84

66.85

73.64

63.42

68.85

67.89

77.92

59.00

72.42

64.78

73.74

1/3

0.15

70.59

49.93

42.32

47.72

73.52

47.96

37.74

48.54

63.42

41.04

40.43

55.47

59.00

47.54

37.27

48.17

2/3

0.3

59.20

87.52

86.22

89.65

64.55

85.73

86.09

89.30

48.19

87.44

85.33

89.52

45.92

87.89

84.62

89.73

2/3

0.6

59.20

60.26

53.05

60.55

64.31

56.81

49.09

60.21

48.19

54.43

50.70

66.30

44.98

58.92

46.94

60.58

2/3

59.20

33.70

24.29

31.24

64.31

31.14

19.21

31.25

48.19

25.39

22.28

39.88

44.98

31.65

19.06

31.77

2/3

0.15

0.3

60.83

88.44

86.40

90.34

66.82

86.81

86.28

89.93

50.19

88.84

85.69

90.23

49.01

89.17

84.95

90.61

2/3

0.15

0.6

60.83

65.69

58.55

66.23

66.58

62.13

55.41

65.42

50.19

60.93

56.17

70.72

48.07

65.44

53.01

66.49

2/3

0.15

60.83

39.43

28.26

37.34

66.58

36.68

24.06

37.51

50.19

31.09

26.19

45.35

48.07

38.33

23.50

38.45

full

0.3

56.99

84.03

81.25

86.15

62.24

81.79

80.89

85.66

43.56

83.86

80.01

86.35

42.09

84.71

79.34

86.47

full

0.6

56.99

54.11

44.39

54.47

62.01

50.16

40.55

53.75

43.56

48.52

41.59

60.38

41.16

53.54

38.29

54.82

Continued ...............

Table III.1 Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (1.2m wide by 1.2m height) Continued from previous page
Parameters

Percentage radiation incident (%)

Ahmadabad

Mumbai

Nagpur

Pune

ext

fin

gap

CL

North

East

South

West

North

East

South

West

North

East

South

West

North

East

South

West

full

56.99

26.28

14.76

23.94

62.01

23.36

10.18

23.62

43.56

18.77

12.45

32.33

41.16

25.31

9.98

24.95

full

0.15

0.3

60.48

85.70

82.54

87.60

66.16

83.81

82.36

87.09

48.68

86.14

81.54

87.64

47.81

86.74

80.98

88.03

full

0.15

0.6

60.48

61.39

52.83

62.03

65.93

57.62

49.99

61.00

48.68

57.04

50.13

66.36

46.88

61.77

47.54

62.50

full

0.15

60.48

34.61

22.34

32.68

65.93

31.72

18.57

32.70

48.68

27.01

19.97

40.23

46.88

34.31

17.98

34.10

0.15

0.3

89.89

94.06

95.22

95.89

84.52

93.35

95.28

95.85

83.96

94.20

94.76

95.07

75.66

93.82

94.09

95.42

0.15

0.6

89.89

74.01

72.28

73.69

84.32

72.27

68.65

74.39

83.86

68.10

70.81

78.49

75.01

70.84

67.14

72.78

0.15

89.89

52.70

49.76

49.69

84.32

52.02

44.33

51.10

83.86

43.20

48.38

57.58

75.01

47.79

44.28

48.66

0.15

0.15

0.3

95.55

96.66

97.73

98.25

89.36

96.41

97.89

98.22

91.13

97.42

97.61

97.24

82.69

96.69

96.89

97.87

0.15

0.15

0.6

95.55

83.03

82.97

82.86

89.15

81.61

80.37

83.32

91.04

78.20

81.72

86.14

81.98

80.67

78.69

82.06

0.15

0.15

95.55

62.90

59.49

60.30

89.15

62.34

54.81

62.18

91.04

53.06

58.13

67.43

81.98

58.44

54.32

59.61

0.15

1/3

0.3

67.77

92.61

93.23

94.78

70.69

91.53

93.40

94.76

60.32

92.87

92.64

94.10

56.76

92.60

91.93

94.52

0.15

1/3

0.6

67.77

68.21

63.84

68.25

69.65

65.35

59.86

68.50

59.27

61.88

61.73

73.92

53.38

65.85

57.85

67.89

0.15

1/3

67.77

42.29

35.06

39.48

69.65

39.99

29.03

40.02

59.27

32.46

32.98

48.50

53.38

38.70

28.66

39.37

0.15

1/3

0.15

0.3

67.55

94.71

94.86

96.70

71.96

93.99

95.18

96.73

60.41

95.57

94.56

95.92

58.29

95.07

93.80

96.65

0.15

1/3

0.15

0.6

67.55

75.17

71.28

75.46

70.85

72.30

68.26

75.37

59.23

69.87

69.18

79.86

54.68

73.97

65.92

75.45

0.15

1/3

0.15

67.55

49.04

39.58

46.66

70.85

46.42

34.26

47.44

59.23

38.92

37.31

55.23

54.68

46.43

33.37

47.26

0.15

2/3

0.3

57.47

91.46

91.13

93.72

63.89

90.15

91.33

93.79

46.72

91.60

90.36

93.29

46.13

91.67

89.60

93.76

0.15

2/3

0.6

57.47

63.36

55.96

63.61

62.79

59.81

51.76

63.57

45.54

56.89

53.29

69.85

42.57

61.86

49.41

63.81

0.15

2/3

57.47

34.31

22.87

31.53

62.79

31.17

16.98

31.59

45.54

24.80

20.36

41.14

42.57

32.04

16.46

32.31

0.15

2/3

0.15

0.3

62.65

93.75

92.98

95.75

68.03

92.84

93.23

95.88

52.21

94.47

92.45

95.25

51.89

94.28

91.62

95.98

0.15

2/3

0.15

0.6

62.65

71.05

64.29

71.44

66.92

67.65

61.06

71.11

51.04

65.64

61.61

76.31

48.28

70.61

58.46

71.91

Continued ...............

Table III.1 Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (1.2m wide by 1.2m height) Continued from previous page
Parameters

Percentage radiation incident (%)

Ahmadabad

Mumbai

Nagpur

Pune

ext

fin

gap

CL

North

East

South

West

North

East

South

West

North

East

South

West

North

East

South

West

0.15

2/3

0.15

62.65

42.48

29.51

40.08

66.92

39.34

24.60

40.51

51.04

32.81

26.89

48.99

48.28

41.06

23.60

41.45

0.15

full

0.3

56.99

90.86

89.66

93.09

63.11

89.46

89.77

93.28

44.74

90.96

88.63

92.86

44.72

91.21

87.88

93.35

0.15

full

0.6

56.99

60.67

51.23

60.91

62.01

56.94

47.15

60.81

43.56

54.34

48.06

67.36

41.16

59.78

44.67

61.47

0.15

full

56.99

30.43

17.21

27.64

62.01

27.22

11.85

27.68

43.56

21.58

14.27

37.12

41.16

29.08

11.26

28.97

0.15

full

0.15

0.3

62.63

93.44

92.00

95.41

67.95

92.50

92.23

95.64

51.91

94.16

91.27

95.01

51.75

94.07

90.54

95.78

0.15

full

0.15

0.6

62.63

69.54

61.68

69.94

66.85

66.14

58.69

69.63

50.73

64.36

58.67

74.80

48.13

69.52

56.03

70.64

0.15

full

0.15

62.63

40.47

26.70

38.12

66.85

37.40

22.16

38.65

50.73

31.35

23.73

46.74

48.13

39.64

21.12

39.83

Radiation on unshaded window (1.2m wide by 1.2m height)

2

Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune

North (Wh/m -year)

7219
5865
9537
16700

East (Wh/m -year)

394074
199200
307567
394949

South (Wh/m -year)

654682
414788
598595
581880

West (Wh/m -year)

482717
308871
564900
494051

Table III.2(A) Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (0.6m wide by 1.2m height)
Percentage radiation incident (%)
Parameters
ext

fin

gap

Ahmadabad
CL

North

East

South

Mumbai
West

North

East

South

Nagpur
West

North

East

South

Pune
West

North

East

South

West

0.3 100.00

96.07

97.04

97.32

99.78

96.05

97.08

97.55 100.00

96.07

96.75

96.68

98.64

95.82

96.36

96.98

0.6 100.00

82.67

82.89

82.16

99.78

83.63

80.76

84.18 100.00

78.45

81.73

85.55

98.64

80.17

80.00

81.55

1 100.00

69.87

71.36

67.32

99.78

73.35

68.57

71.65 100.00

63.38

70.07

72.91

98.64

66.20

68.63

67.26

0 0.15

0.3 100.00

97.91

98.72

98.93

99.90

98.03

98.82

99.08 100.00

98.25

98.66

98.27

99.23

97.89

98.27

98.74

0 0.15

0.6 100.00

89.07

90.10

89.00

99.90

89.81

88.42

90.55 100.00

85.97

89.02

91.15

99.23

87.46

87.53

88.56

0 0.15

1 100.00

76.87

77.87

74.44

99.90

80.08

75.52

78.94 100.00

70.18

76.59

79.81

99.23

73.95

75.31

75.01

1/3

0.3

98.15

90.87

90.10

92.41

94.10

89.76

89.81

92.05

93.98

90.44

89.54

92.27

86.59

90.91

88.59

92.15

1/3

0.6

98.15

69.75

66.39

69.42

94.10

68.20

63.34

69.80

93.98

64.77

65.02

73.81

86.59

67.49

62.36

68.79

1/3

98.15

51.86

50.28

49.40

94.10

52.57

46.75

51.46

93.98

45.10

49.15

55.63

86.59

48.55

46.87

48.96

1/3 0.15

0.3

96.14

89.42

87.30

90.83

90.01

87.91

86.91

90.06

88.44

89.16

86.75

90.96

79.43

89.98

85.66

90.87

1/3 0.15

0.6

96.14

69.75

65.45

69.95

90.01

66.94

62.55

69.20

88.44

65.80

63.94

73.41

79.43

68.77

61.41

69.68

1/3 0.15

96.14

50.71

47.22

48.49

90.01

50.03

44.04

49.82

88.44

43.93

46.08

54.57

79.43

48.63

43.94

48.73

2/3

0.3

92.89

82.46

78.60

84.19

84.19

79.97

77.85

83.02

79.99

81.59

77.47

84.85

67.90

83.23

76.16

84.33

2/3

0.6

92.89

53.58

45.74

53.40

84.19

49.42

41.92

52.08

79.99

48.34

43.85

58.62

67.90

52.33

40.91

53.23

2/3

92.89

31.56

26.75

29.37

84.19

29.45

23.21

29.15

79.99

25.41

25.59

35.68

67.90

29.53

23.50

29.06

2/3 0.15

0.3

90.93

81.24

76.08

82.82

81.61

78.43

75.20

81.30

75.33

80.62

74.96

83.76

63.51

82.55

73.56

83.30

2/3 0.15

0.6

90.93

54.37

45.79

54.68

81.61

49.23

42.27

52.38

75.33

50.31

43.86

58.90

63.51

54.50

41.21

54.94

2/3 0.15

90.93

31.85

25.78

29.91

81.61

28.65

22.77

29.17

75.33

25.95

24.68

35.87

63.51

31.20

22.86

30.38

full

0.3

89.94

75.03

68.07

76.86

79.95

71.58

66.83

75.10

71.54

74.08

66.35

78.19

59.45

76.63

64.91

77.51

full

0.6

89.94

40.69

29.38

40.51

79.95

35.25

25.62

38.27

71.54

36.10

27.29

46.16

59.45

40.92

24.78

41.18

Continued ...............

Table III.2(A) Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (0.6m wide by 1.2m height)

Continued from previous page

Percentage radiation incident (%)

Parameters
ext

fin

gap

Ahmadabad
CL

North

East

South

Mumbai
West

North

East

South

Nagpur
West

North

East

South

Pune
West

North

East

South

West

full

89.94

16.68

10.05

14.78

79.95

13.28

6.82

13.45

71.54

12.14

8.87

20.50

59.45

16.54

7.28

15.21

full 0.15

0.3

89.94

75.42

67.73

77.02

80.06

72.04

66.66

75.08

71.54

75.01

66.11

78.32

60.04

77.49

64.94

77.92

full 0.15

0.6

89.94

45.22

34.39

45.55

80.06

39.57

31.28

42.80

71.54

42.23

32.26

49.69

60.04

46.71

30.37

46.57

full 0.15

89.94

21.80

14.36

20.10

80.06

18.14

11.78

18.90

71.54

17.54

13.08

25.30

60.04

22.80

12.02

21.34

0.15

0.3 100.00

95.07

96.05

96.60

98.91

94.72

96.06

96.68

99.98

95.09

95.64

95.86

95.61

94.79

95.10

96.16

0.15

0.6 100.00

77.92

76.54

77.37

98.91

77.68

73.50

78.67

99.98

72.56

75.21

81.48

95.61

74.71

72.39

76.29

0.15

1 100.00

60.73

59.63

57.83

98.91

62.91

55.54

60.92

99.98

52.34

58.48

64.36

95.61

55.76

55.62

56.66

0.15

0 0.15

0.3 100.00

97.36

98.24

98.67

99.44

97.33

98.35

98.74 100.00

97.89

98.15

97.82

97.29

97.34

97.55

98.37

0.15

0 0.15

0.6 100.00

86.15

86.13

85.93

99.44

86.09

83.80

87.06 100.00

82.07

84.98

88.62

97.29

83.93

82.48

85.14

0.15

0 0.15

1 100.00

70.01

68.27

67.25

99.44

72.33

64.80

70.97 100.00

61.33

67.20

73.45

97.29

65.81

64.44

66.84

0.15

1/3

0.3

96.37

92.77

92.65

94.58

89.48

91.87

92.59

94.52

89.04

92.39

91.92

94.17

77.99

92.84

91.25

94.45

0.15

1/3

0.6

96.37

68.23

62.80

67.67

89.48

65.64

58.64

67.93

89.04

61.99

60.79

73.33

77.99

65.89

57.31

67.44

0.15

1/3

96.37

44.79

39.77

41.56

89.48

43.41

34.92

42.23

89.04

35.85

38.07

49.53

77.99

40.85

35.09

40.75

0.15

1/3 0.15

0.3

94.35

94.13

93.22

95.81

86.61

93.36

93.24

95.72

83.73

94.07

92.63

95.47

73.02

94.63

91.90

95.97

0.15

1/3 0.15

0.6

94.35

72.66

66.80

72.44

86.61

69.45

63.04

72.21

83.73

67.50

64.70

77.22

73.02

71.76

61.43

72.91

0.15

1/3 0.15

94.35

48.13

40.92

44.99

86.61

45.69

36.66

45.50

83.73

38.95

39.11

53.00

73.02

45.52

36.44

45.19

0.15

2/3

0.3

91.19

90.48

88.61

92.44

81.70

89.17

88.42

92.36

76.09

89.63

87.42

92.57

63.39

91.00

86.69

92.77

0.15

2/3

0.6

91.19

58.85

48.87

58.23

81.70

54.50

43.95

57.86

76.09

52.18

46.21

65.30

63.39

57.81

42.50

59.19

0.15

2/3

91.19

30.30

21.87

26.89

81.70

26.27

17.15

25.86

76.09

21.74

19.91

35.76

63.39

28.03

17.43

26.95

0.15

2/3 0.15

0.3

90.01

92.05

89.45

93.86

80.62

91.00

89.25

93.79

72.42

91.65

88.37

94.07

61.60

93.03

87.56

94.49

0.15

2/3 0.15

0.6

90.01

64.21

53.97

63.86

80.62

59.76

49.61

63.25

72.42

58.88

51.26

69.95

61.60

64.74

47.94

65.59

Continued ...............

Table III.2(A) Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (0.6m wide by 1.2m height)

Continued from previous page

Percentage radiation incident (%)

Parameters
ext

fin

gap

Ahmadabad
CL

0.15

2/3 0.15

0.15

full

0.15

North

East

South

Mumbai
West

North

East

Nagpur

South

West

North

East

Pune

South

West

North

East

South

West

90.01

35.34

25.50

32.00

80.62

31.05

21.58

31.37

72.42

26.95

23.57

40.73

61.60

34.67

21.43

33.33

0.3

89.94

89.08

85.51

91.16

79.95

87.74

85.07

91.16

71.54

88.19

83.79

91.67

59.45

90.03

83.08

91.86

full

0.6

89.94

53.08

39.49

52.29

79.95

48.44

34.77

51.94

71.54

46.89

36.44

60.09

59.45

53.40

33.27

54.34

0.15

full

89.94

22.11

11.92

18.65

79.95

17.77

7.77

17.59

71.54

15.09

9.74

27.45

59.45

21.82

8.02

19.99

0.15

full 0.15

0.3

89.94

91.31

87.35

93.18

80.47

90.31

87.05

93.19

71.54

90.95

85.83

93.60

61.13

92.56

85.22

94.04

0.15

full 0.15

0.6

89.94

60.96

48.57

60.52

80.47

56.59

44.67

60.09

71.54

56.24

45.53

66.79

61.13

62.44

42.97

62.98

0.15

full 0.15

89.94

31.03

20.04

27.75

80.47

26.92

16.64

27.40

71.54

23.92

17.80

36.06

61.13

31.68

16.46

29.96

Radiation on unshaded window (0.6 m wide by 1.2 m height)

2

Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune

North (Wh/m -year)

4575
4549
5808
11562

East (Wh/m -year)

369392
184624
287657
372541

South (Wh/m -year)

599872
381757
547393
529888

West (Wh/m -year)

456362
290797
534582
467038

Table III.2(B) Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (0.6m wide by 1.8m height)
Percentage radiation incident (%)
Parameters
ext

fin

gap

Ahmadabad
CL

North

East

South

Mumbai
West

North

East

South

Nagpur
West

North

East

South

Pune
West

North

East

South

West

0.3

99.65

85.77

86.02

86.42

95.87

85.59

85.44

86.76

98.48

84.72

85.77

87.38

88.97

84.78

84.82

85.88

0.6

99.65

73.45

74.12

72.55

95.87

74.25

72.96

74.21

98.48

69.43

73.66

75.68

88.97

71.20

72.53

71.96

99.65

63.84

66.03

62.40

95.87

66.43

64.34

65.71

98.48

58.88

65.31

66.15

88.97

60.81

64.35

62.04

0 0.15

0.3 100.00

93.56

94.00

94.41

98.03

93.36

93.55

94.70 100.00

93.01

93.74

94.94

93.00

92.80

92.90

93.89

0 0.15

0.6 100.00

81.49

82.01

80.69

98.03

82.29

80.93

82.38 100.00

77.43

81.44

83.64

93.00

79.40

80.43

80.22

0 0.15

1 100.00

71.29

73.59

70.17

98.03

73.95

71.94

73.50 100.00

66.68

72.84

73.60

93.00

68.33

71.85

69.76

1/3

0.3

94.48

77.27

74.59

78.31

83.72

75.65

73.61

77.82

84.58

76.04

73.79

79.87

67.86

77.00

72.42

78.08

1/3

0.6

94.48

56.77

52.90

56.08

83.72

54.85

50.98

56.00

84.58

52.50

52.03

60.08

67.86

55.38

50.32

55.88

1/3

94.48

42.08

40.20

40.86

83.72

41.78

37.88

41.84

84.58

37.39

39.41

44.99

67.86

40.11

37.90

40.55

1/3 0.15

0.3

93.48

82.94

79.70

84.25

83.24

80.96

78.75

83.51

82.59

82.12

78.74

85.55

67.46

83.09

77.41

84.14

1/3 0.15

0.6

93.48

60.66

55.51

60.13

83.24

58.08

53.50

59.65

82.59

56.31

54.41

64.14

67.46

59.68

52.73

60.18

1/3 0.15

93.48

44.19

41.50

43.37

83.24

43.26

39.09

43.80

82.59

39.98

40.65

47.23

67.46

42.61

39.05

43.04

2/3

0.3

89.20

69.04

63.36

70.28

74.68

66.09

61.93

69.01

71.12

67.44

62.00

72.56

52.31

69.52

60.33

70.47

2/3

0.6

89.20

40.97

32.78

40.45

74.68

36.59

30.16

38.73

71.12

36.56

31.44

45.15

52.31

40.65

29.54

40.75

2/3

89.20

22.28

17.35

21.33

74.68

19.34

14.97

20.13

71.12

18.30

16.53

25.41

52.31

21.65

15.20

21.21

2/3 0.15

0.3

88.55

74.99

68.79

76.47

75.53

71.80

67.38

75.02

70.13

73.88

67.27

78.50

54.07

75.92

65.69

76.82

2/3 0.15

0.6

88.55

45.76

36.55

45.34

75.53

41.07

34.04

43.42

70.13

41.45

35.05

49.99

54.07

45.98

33.40

46.00

2/3 0.15

88.55

25.94

20.74

25.40

75.53

22.75

18.47

23.92

70.13

22.71

19.89

29.02

54.07

25.88

18.66

25.41

full

0.3

88.14

64.53

57.05

65.83

73.21

61.17

55.49

64.24

67.83

63.14

55.30

68.32

49.51

65.62

53.85

66.35

full

0.6

88.14

33.83

23.94

33.35

73.21

29.03

21.60

31.25

67.83

30.21

22.44

37.94

49.51

34.56

21.12

34.23

Continued ...............

Table III.2(B) Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (0.6m wide by 1.8m height)

Continued from previous page

Percentage radiation incident (%)

Parameters
ext

fin

gap

Ahmadabad
CL

North

East

South

Mumbai
West

North

East

South

Nagpur
West

North

East

South

Pune
West

North

East

South

West

Full

88.14

14.35

8.46

13.61

73.21

11.01

6.41

11.98

67.83

11.63

7.52

17.05

49.51

14.99

6.79

14.06

Full 0.15

0.3

88.44

72.32

65.03

73.81

75.36

68.94

63.61

72.18

69.35

71.43

63.27

75.88

53.54

73.63

61.94

74.36

Full 0.15

0.6

88.44

41.87

31.83

41.49

75.36

37.07

29.58

39.41

69.35

38.22

30.21

45.90

53.54

42.75

29.02

42.49

full 0.15

88.44

21.80

16.03

21.38

75.36

18.54

14.01

19.78

69.35

19.43

15.05

24.51

53.54

22.52

14.29

21.78

0.15

0.3

98.49

83.79

83.61

84.66

91.23

83.10

82.87

84.75

95.17

82.70

83.24

85.75

80.56

82.79

82.01

84.07

0.15

0.6

98.49

68.07

67.15

67.10

91.23

67.77

65.50

68.06

95.17

63.18

66.67

70.81

80.56

65.52

64.84

66.27

0.15

98.49

55.14

55.30

53.66

91.23

56.60

52.82

55.98

95.17

49.10

54.70

57.84

80.56

51.46

52.76

52.62

0.15

0 0.15

0.3

99.78

92.18

92.41

93.23

94.21

91.54

91.86

93.34

98.66

91.58

92.09

93.88

85.85

91.31

90.96

92.62

0.15

0 0.15

0.6

99.78

76.76

75.82

75.90

94.21

76.54

74.29

76.95

98.66

71.73

75.26

79.43

85.85

74.28

73.53

75.15

0.15

0 0.15

99.78

63.05

63.50

61.96

94.21

64.65

61.06

64.36

98.66

57.34

62.94

65.76

85.85

59.34

60.86

60.79

0.15

1/3

0.3

93.29

81.20

79.41

82.42

80.82

80.01

78.54

82.42

81.36

79.81

78.48

83.89

62.83

80.68

77.21

82.22

0.15

1/3

0.6

93.29

57.83

52.37

56.81

80.82

55.37

49.81

56.88

81.36

52.27

50.99

62.01

62.83

56.44

48.85

57.07

0.15

1/3

93.29

38.71

34.30

37.01

80.82

36.82

31.18

37.01

81.36

32.35

32.97

42.31

62.83

36.35

31.16

36.48

0.15

1/3 0.15

0.3

93.26

88.97

87.16

90.44

81.45

87.72

86.46

90.43

81.49

87.98

86.16

91.57

64.02

88.71

84.99

90.32

0.15

1/3 0.15

0.6

93.26

64.04

57.40

63.13

81.45

61.13

54.76

63.07

81.49

58.22

55.74

68.47

64.02

63.01

53.66

63.73

0.15

1/3 0.15

93.26

42.68

37.53

41.32

81.45

40.18

34.37

40.89

81.49

36.67

36.06

46.51

64.02

40.66

34.25

40.85

0.15

2/3

0.3

88.35

78.97

75.49

80.36

73.53

77.41

74.45

80.33

69.09

77.18

74.08

82.33

50.21

78.92

72.77

80.60

0.15

2/3

0.6

88.35

48.74

38.86

47.66

73.53

44.66

35.60

47.14

69.09

42.86

36.82

54.16

50.21

48.68

34.56

49.10

0.15

2/3

88.35

24.66

17.03

22.77

73.53

20.37

13.99

21.21

69.09

18.78

15.36

28.89

50.21

24.04

14.11

23.19

0.15

2/3 0.15

0.3

89.42

86.98

83.50

88.59

76.22

85.46

82.60

88.60

71.31

85.70

82.02

90.22

54.80

87.18

80.81

88.91

0.15

2/3 0.15

0.6

89.42

55.94

45.07

54.92

76.22

51.85

41.95

54.50

71.31

50.04

42.86

61.43

54.80

56.29

40.81

56.73

Continued ...............

Table III.2(B) Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (0.6m wide by 1.8m height)

Continued from previous page

Percentage radiation incident (%)

Parameters
ext

fin

gap

Ahmadabad
CL

0.15

2/3 0.15

0.15

full

0.15

North

East

South

Mumbai
West

North

East

Nagpur

South

West

North

East

Pune

South

West

North

East

South

West

89.42

30.43

22.66

28.88

76.22

26.19

19.78

27.39

71.31

25.27

20.99

34.65

54.80

30.28

19.77

29.51

0.3

88.14

78.36

73.87

79.80

73.21

76.82

72.76

79.83

67.83

76.59

72.14

81.94

49.51

78.52

70.96

80.23

Full

0.6

88.14

46.11

34.53

44.95

73.21

42.05

31.54

44.55

67.83

40.66

32.23

51.63

49.51

46.78

30.50

46.97

0.15

full

88.14

21.10

12.59

19.23

73.21

16.87

9.92

17.81

67.83

16.15

10.70

25.08

49.51

21.51

10.03

20.32

0.15

full 0.15

0.3

89.42

86.74

82.68

88.37

76.22

85.27

81.75

88.41

71.31

85.48

80.99

90.06

54.80

87.05

79.92

88.77

0.15

full 0.15

0.6

89.42

54.81

43.20

53.76

76.22

50.82

40.33

53.43

71.31

49.21

40.81

60.25

54.80

55.53

39.18

55.84

0.15

full 0.15

89.42

29.01

20.78

27.53

76.22

24.93

18.16

26.19

71.31

24.39

18.94

33.01

54.80

29.38

18.14

28.49

Radiation on unshaded window (0.6 m wide by 1.8 m height)

2

Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune

North (Wh/m -year)

4668
4968
6125
13883

East (Wh/m -year)

386015
193468
301676
390659

South (Wh/m -year)

628425
399947
573212
556658

West (Wh/m -year)

476830
303775
555261
489083

Table III.2(C) Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (1.2m wide by 1.8m height)
Percentage radiation incident (%)
Parameters
ext

fin

gap

Ahmadabad
CL

North

East

South

Mumbai
West

North

East

South

Nagpur
West

North

East

South

Pune
West

North

East

South

West

0.3

87.74

83.91

84.00

84.80

80.09

83.18

83.37

84.93

81.70

82.97

83.69

85.91

70.26

82.96

82.45

84.30

0.6

87.74

68.12

67.30

67.19

80.09

67.40

65.67

68.03

81.70

63.37

66.75

71.05

70.22

65.78

64.96

66.66

87.74

54.35

54.11

52.82

80.09

54.67

51.36

54.51

81.70

48.54

53.26

57.38

70.22

51.02

51.36

52.15

0 0.15

0.3

93.26

92.05

92.46

93.11

84.84

91.36

92.03

93.23

88.31

91.57

92.20

93.79

76.52

91.27

91.07

92.59

0 0.15

0.6

93.26

76.49

75.60

75.71

84.84

75.81

74.09

76.59

88.31

71.64

74.96

79.31

76.48

74.26

73.26

75.23

0 0.15

93.26

61.89

61.85

60.76

84.84

62.33

59.13

62.48

88.31

56.43

61.08

64.96

76.48

58.60

58.97

59.94

1/3

0.3

64.24

79.31

78.07

80.62

62.84

77.74

77.38

80.51

54.75

78.45

77.44

82.00

47.49

78.74

76.12

80.37

1/3

0.6

64.24

58.25

54.27

57.79

62.67

56.01

52.31

57.81

54.75

53.19

53.17

62.42

46.85

56.76

50.97

57.67

1/3

64.24

39.63

35.12

38.50

62.67

37.87

31.84

38.85

54.75

33.58

33.80

43.90

46.85

37.47

31.58

38.40

1/3 0.15

0.3

64.48

86.33

85.05

87.91

64.15

84.63

84.56

87.73

55.71

85.94

84.39

88.92

49.15

86.04

83.19

87.72

1/3 0.15

0.6

64.48

64.25

59.39

64.06

63.94

61.74

57.48

63.95

55.71

59.07

58.05

68.59

48.39

63.13

55.90

64.12

1/3 0.15

64.48

43.73

38.39

43.11

63.94

41.74

35.07

43.22

55.71

38.07

37.04

48.31

48.39

42.00

34.61

43.04

2/3

0.3

50.20

75.18

72.44

76.67

53.64

73.00

71.63

76.37

38.37

74.19

71.50

78.39

34.54

75.00

70.18

76.72

2/3

0.6

50.20

49.79

42.52

49.62

53.42

46.56

40.27

49.04

38.37

44.65

40.87

54.76

33.73

49.25

38.56

49.97

2/3

50.20

27.85

19.51

26.94

53.42

25.08

16.33

26.47

38.37

22.21

17.91

32.74

33.73

27.10

16.00

27.54

2/3 0.15

0.3

55.30

82.46

79.68

84.14

57.84

80.22

79.03

83.77

43.91

81.91

78.71

85.50

39.96

82.53

77.51

84.23

2/3 0.15

0.6

55.30

56.63

48.62

56.63

57.62

53.30

46.51

56.00

43.91

51.43

46.77

61.55

39.15

56.38

44.67

57.10

2/3 0.15

55.30

33.53

24.85

33.03

57.62

30.78

21.82

32.51

43.91

28.43

23.24

38.41

39.15

33.08

21.33

33.61

full

0.3

49.77

73.07

69.50

74.58

53.02

70.69

68.67

74.19

37.05

72.13

68.35

76.36

33.54

73.14

67.18

74.76

full

0.6

49.77

46.44

38.04

46.35

52.81

43.03

36.00

45.59

37.05

41.61

36.14

51.34

32.73

46.38

34.26

46.86

Continued ...............

Table III.2(C) Percentage beam radiation incident on window (1.2m wide by 1.8m height) Continued from previous page
Percentage radiation incident (%)
Parameters
ext

fin

Ahmadabad

Gap CL

North

East

South

Mumbai
West

North

East

South

Nagpur
West

North

East

South

Pune
West

North

East

South

West

full

49.77

24.03

14.81

23.24

52.81

21.15

11.96

22.64

37.05

18.96

12.97

28.67

32.73

23.91

11.61

24.09

full 0.15

0.3

55.27

81.21

77.97

82.89

57.75

78.88

77.33

82.49

43.67

80.73

76.86

84.24

39.80

81.44

75.79

83.05

full 0.15

0.6

55.27

54.81

46.33

54.87

57.53

51.43

44.42

54.16

43.67

49.87

44.35

59.60

38.99

54.86

42.56

55.43

full 0.15

55.27

31.57

22.55

31.18

57.53

28.81

19.73

30.61

43.67

26.85

20.79

36.24

38.99

31.48

19.22

31.88

0.15

0.3

81.55

82.79

82.75

83.89

74.24

81.81

82.10

83.92

74.34

81.84

82.39

85.04

62.68

81.87

80.97

83.35

0.15

0.6

81.55

65.04

63.46

64.18

74.11

63.70

61.67

64.71

74.29

59.76

62.88

68.41

62.25

62.62

60.67

63.58

0.15

81.55

49.03

47.63

47.59

74.11

48.50

44.42

48.78

74.29

42.53

46.78

52.60

62.25

45.47

44.21

46.68

0.15

0 0.15

0.3

87.78

91.21

91.59

92.45

78.91

90.29

91.15

92.50

81.42

90.74

91.31

93.19

68.97

90.41

90.00

91.90

0.15

0 0.15

0.6

87.78

73.69

72.10

72.98

78.78

72.41

70.42

73.58

81.37

68.28

71.42

76.97

68.47

71.34

69.32

72.43

0.15

0 0.15

87.78

56.73

55.59

55.70

78.78

56.34

52.39

56.93

81.37

50.60

54.84

60.36

68.47

53.15

52.01

54.62

0.15

1/3

0.3

59.40

81.18

80.38

82.62

60.16

79.79

79.80

82.70

50.39

80.37

79.78

83.94

45.02

80.50

78.32

82.34

0.15

1/3

0.6

59.40

58.88

54.52

58.37

59.15

56.40

52.49

58.45

49.54

53.20

53.20

63.42

42.09

57.35

50.95

58.39

0.15

1/3

59.40

38.12

32.36

37.01

59.15

35.78

28.59

37.23

49.54

31.31

30.72

42.93

42.09

35.87

28.02

36.99

0.15

1/3 0.15

0.3

61.23

89.25

88.64

90.89

62.26

87.85

88.30

91.00

52.88

88.94

88.08

91.86

47.81

88.76

86.73

90.67

0.15

1/3 0.15

0.6

61.23

66.13

61.02

65.85

61.18

63.49

59.05

65.92

51.83

60.29

59.45

70.82

44.51

64.90

57.30

66.07

0.15

1/3 0.15

61.23

43.43

36.81

42.76

61.18

40.93

32.99

42.86

51.83

36.99

35.10

48.54

44.51

41.53

32.19

42.82

0.15

2/3

0.3

49.81

80.04

78.34

81.60

54.03

78.43

77.77

81.76

38.51

79.16

77.54

83.15

36.23

79.59

76.05

81.59

0.15

2/3

0.6

49.81

54.16

46.90

53.84

52.90

51.02

44.65

53.65

37.44

48.37

45.00

59.43

32.94

53.47

42.81

54.41

0.15

2/3

49.81

30.35

20.64

29.28

52.90

27.23

16.98

29.02

37.44

23.85

18.53

35.73

32.94

29.42

16.29

30.13

0.15

2/3 0.15

0.3

56.01

88.30

86.80

89.99

58.60

86.73

86.43

90.20

45.22

87.90

86.02

91.19

42.31

88.01

84.65

90.04

0.15

2/3 0.15

0.6

56.01

62.12

54.30

61.95

57.48

58.98

52.19

61.81

44.14

56.23

52.18

67.35

38.94

61.65

50.21

62.65

Continued ...............

Table III.2(C) Percentage beam radiation incident on window (1.2m wide by 1.8m height) Continued from previous page
Percentage radiation incident (%)
Parameters
ext

fin

gap

Ahmadabad
CL

0.15

2/3 0.15

0.15

full

0.15

North

East

South

Mumbai
West

North

East

Nagpur

South

West

North

East

Pune

South

West

North

East

South

West

56.01

37.05

27.13

36.36

57.48

34.03

23.64

36.14

44.14

31.08

25.02

42.45

38.94

36.32

22.76

37.19

0.3

49.77

79.79

77.58

81.32

53.94

78.14

77.00

81.56

38.12

78.90

76.64

82.96

36.01

79.41

75.21

81.42

full

0.6

49.77

52.94

44.78

52.63

52.81

49.78

42.68

52.44

37.05

47.31

42.62

58.23

32.73

52.57

40.80

53.38

0.15

full

49.77

28.68

18.27

27.63

52.81

25.60

14.91

27.43

37.05

22.59

15.91

33.90

32.73

28.21

14.19

28.75

0.15

full 0.15

0.3

56.01

88.21

86.42

89.87

58.60

86.63

86.05

90.13

45.22

87.80

85.55

91.11

42.31

87.95

84.24

89.98

0.15

full 0.15

0.6

56.01

61.60

53.41

61.43

57.47

58.49

51.44

61.31

44.14

55.83

51.17

66.78

38.94

61.29

49.44

62.22

0.15

full 0.15

56.01

36.39

26.23

35.74

57.47

33.44

22.88

35.58

44.14

30.66

23.97

41.66

38.94

35.90

21.99

36.69

Radiation on unshaded window (1.2 m wide by 1.8 m height)

2

Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune

North (Wh/m -year)

8267
6886
11214
21002

East (Wh/m -year)

412960
209569
323366
415438

South (Wh/m -year)

687407
435137
627902
612513

West (Wh/m -year)

505548
323395
587495
518350

Table III.2(D) Percentage of beam radiation on window (1.8m wide by 1.2m height)
Percentage radiation incident (%)
Parameters
ext

fin

gap

Ahmadabad
CL

North

East

South

Mumbai
West

North

East

South

Nagpur
West

North

East

South

Pune
West

North

East

South

West

0.3

79.18

94.01

95.20

95.88

79.97

93.24

95.34

95.84

76.05

94.26

94.75

95.09

71.26

93.78

94.16

95.42

0.6

78.53

74.23

72.64

74.11

77.27

72.39

69.31

74.72

73.21

68.41

71.21

78.76

66.39

71.32

67.70

73.31

78.53

52.72

49.41

50.14

77.27

51.53

44.21

51.30

73.21

43.39

47.92

57.84

66.39

48.38

43.95

49.34

0 0.15

0.3

85.51

96.52

97.65

98.16

84.72

96.18

97.85

98.11

83.03

97.39

97.50

97.18

77.96

96.56

96.86

97.78

0 0.15

0.6

84.84

82.82

82.88

82.82

81.60

81.19

80.55

83.15

79.94

77.99

81.68

86.02

72.66

80.66

78.80

82.12

0 0.15

84.84

62.28

58.68

60.18

81.60

60.94

54.15

61.63

79.94

52.65

57.25

67.13

72.66

58.24

53.49

59.61

1/3

0.3

62.58

91.99

92.56

94.16

69.72

90.87

92.83

94.03

59.21

92.22

92.09

93.50

57.50

91.95

91.36

93.79

1/3

0.6

61.20

68.91

65.22

69.02

65.55

66.21

61.58

69.31

52.92

62.82

63.43

74.24

49.42

66.46

59.63

68.63

1/3

61.20

44.08

37.14

41.60

65.55

41.89

31.53

42.26

52.92

34.53

35.23

50.18

49.42

40.63

31.00

41.44

1/3 0.15

0.3

64.06

93.36

93.50

95.39

71.21

92.53

93.84

95.24

60.43

94.18

93.28

94.63

59.41

93.74

92.47

95.19

1/3 0.15

0.6

62.66

75.14

72.21

75.46

66.60

72.37

69.49

75.37

53.82

70.06

70.45

79.41

50.80

73.71

67.31

75.38

1/3 0.15

62.66

50.29

41.68

48.31

66.60

47.66

36.67

49.11

53.82

40.51

39.63

56.39

50.80

47.55

35.69

48.67

2/3

0.3

53.06

89.13

88.77

91.50

63.18

87.70

89.01

91.30

47.44

89.27

88.15

91.06

47.55

89.46

87.31

91.36

2/3

0.6

51.67

63.15

57.24

63.46

58.97

59.87

53.35

63.47

41.09

57.10

54.94

69.04

39.36

61.38

51.23

63.57

2/3

51.67

36.08

25.99

33.67

58.97

33.31

20.38

33.99

41.09

26.86

23.59

42.72

39.36

33.70

19.79

34.21

2/3 0.15

0.3

58.28

90.67

89.89

92.84

66.91

89.56

90.14

92.61

52.53

91.40

89.50

92.31

52.62

91.40

88.58

92.87

2/3 0.15

0.6

56.89

69.93

64.92

70.38

62.31

66.71

61.95

70.03

45.92

64.90

62.68

74.61

44.00

69.13

59.69

70.74

2/3 0.15

56.89

43.35

32.21

41.41

62.31

40.31

27.39

41.92

45.92

34.01

29.71

49.78

44.00

41.60

26.40

42.39

full

0.3

51.71

86.75

85.51

89.19

61.83

85.11

85.62

88.97

44.62

86.90

84.69

88.95

45.10

87.42

83.81

89.27

full

0.6

50.34

59.06

51.64

59.39

57.63

55.53

47.73

59.25

38.27

53.24

48.97

65.08

36.90

57.84

45.64

59.88

Continued ...............

Table III.2(D) Percentage of beam radiation on window (1.8m wide by 1.2m height) Continued from previous page
Percentage radiation incident (%)
Parameters
ext

fin

gap

Ahmadabad
CL

North

East

South

Mumbai
West

North

East

South

Nagpur
West

North

East

South

Pune
West

North

East

South

West

full

50.34

31.15

19.79

28.79

57.63

28.24

14.43

29.00

38.27

22.56

17.00

37.77

36.90

29.57

13.86

29.82

full 0.15

0.3

58.05

88.80

87.36

91.01

66.56

87.59

87.54

90.78

51.61

89.64

86.80

90.57

51.81

89.83

85.94

91.24

Full 0.15

0.6

56.65

67.04

61.23

67.55

61.93

63.76

58.36

67.13

45.00

62.38

58.73

71.68

43.18

66.72

56.14

68.20

full 0.15

56.65

40.11

28.41

38.28

61.93

37.08

23.76

38.78

45.00

31.38

25.61

46.40

43.18

38.97

22.81

39.60

0.15

0.3

73.70

93.55

94.77

95.58

76.45

92.65

94.94

95.49

71.08

93.86

94.29

94.74

66.48

93.34

93.65

95.09

0.15

0.6

72.47

72.27

70.14

72.18

72.56

69.95

66.50

72.62

66.36

65.99

68.65

77.13

59.60

69.22

64.70

71.33

0.15

72.47

48.63

44.22

46.03

72.56

46.88

38.45

46.87

66.36

38.60

42.73

54.24

59.60

44.13

38.12

45.12

0.15

0 0.15

0.3

80.64

96.22

97.41

97.99

81.78

95.80

97.64

97.92

78.91

97.19

97.24

96.95

73.99

96.28

96.54

97.60

0.15

0 0.15

0.6

79.06

81.39

81.17

81.40

77.00

79.38

78.64

81.60

73.73

76.14

79.94

84.84

66.02

79.13

76.68

80.68

0.15

0 0.15

79.06

58.80

54.18

56.69

77.00

56.88

49.13

57.90

73.73

48.40

52.75

64.13

66.02

54.54

48.36

56.04

0.15

1/3

0.3

58.66

92.53

93.41

94.86

67.76

91.48

93.67

94.73

56.42

92.97

92.82

94.08

54.47

92.56

92.22

94.48

0.15

1/3

0.6

56.76

68.40

64.41

68.52

62.27

65.48

60.47

68.91

47.69

62.04

62.48

74.18

44.57

65.90

58.33

68.20

0.15

1/3

56.76

41.63

33.80

39.19

62.27

38.93

27.57

39.64

47.69

31.58

31.65

48.31

44.57

38.20

27.02

39.08

0.15

1/3 0.15

0.3

62.14

94.84

95.50

97.01

70.86

94.25

95.83

96.89

60.06

95.95

95.15

96.06

58.55

95.25

94.52

96.78

0.15

1/3 0.15

0.6

59.88

76.13

73.31

76.43

64.47

73.38

70.40

76.61

50.77

70.87

71.43

80.79

47.46

74.68

68.00

76.45

0.15

1/3 0.15

59.88

49.49

40.20

47.57

64.47

46.37

34.64

48.30

50.77

39.17

37.85

56.16

47.46

46.70

33.59

48.02

0.15

2/3

0.3

52.57

91.70

92.09

94.21

63.56

90.61

92.32

94.06

48.29

92.13

91.29

93.52

47.85

91.97

90.73

93.97

0.15

2/3

0.6

50.68

65.13

59.29

65.38

58.06

61.94

55.12

65.85

39.47

58.91

56.85

71.55

37.85

63.28

52.77

65.59

0.15

2/3

50.68

36.31

25.61

33.91

58.06

33.13

19.41

34.18

39.47

26.61

22.84

43.53

37.85

33.87

18.77

34.55

0.15

2/3 0.15

0.3

59.20

94.13

94.32

96.43

68.50

93.52

94.56

96.30

55.12

95.23

93.75

95.59

54.53

94.75

93.11

96.33

0.15

2/3 0.15

0.6

56.95

73.34

68.81

73.70

62.11

70.43

65.68

73.95

45.83

68.23

66.44

78.49

43.44

72.48

63.12

74.18

Continued ...............

Table III.2(D) Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (1.8m wide by 1.2m height)

Continued from previous page

Percentage radiation incident (%)

Parameters
ext

fin

gap

Ahmadabad
CL

0.15

2/3 0.15

0.15

full

0.15

North

East

South

Mumbai
West

North

East

South

Nagpur
West

North

East

South

Pune
West

North

East

South

West

56.95

45.12

33.58

43.21

62.11

41.71

28.22

43.82

45.83

35.23

30.68

52.11

43.44

43.22

27.10

44.31

0.3

52.23

91.24

91.20

93.84

63.15

90.19

91.32

93.70

47.10

91.71

90.15

93.22

46.90

91.67

89.60

93.71

full

0.6

50.34

63.31

56.27

63.54

57.63

60.16

52.10

64.11

38.27

57.34

53.42

69.94

36.90

61.91

49.67

64.10

0.15

full

50.34

33.73

21.97

31.34

57.63

30.55

16.06

31.68

38.27

24.57

18.79

40.92

36.90

31.95

15.36

32.45

0.15

full 0.15

0.3

59.18

93.89

93.75

96.25

68.47

93.32

93.92

96.13

54.92

95.03

92.97

95.42

54.41

94.61

92.40

96.21

0.15

full 0.15

0.6

56.93

72.32

67.15

72.67

62.07

69.50

64.13

73.03

45.63

67.45

64.50

77.51

43.32

71.77

61.53

73.40

0.15

full 0.15

56.93

43.78

31.79

41.90

62.07

40.47

26.62

42.64

45.63

34.32

28.60

50.65

43.32

42.30

25.47

43.31

Radiation on unshaded window (1.8 m wide by 1.2 m height)

Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune

North (Wh/m2-year)
8174
6311
10857
18625

East (Wh/m2-year)
403527
203988
313416
402145

South (Wh/m2-year)
672479
427617
616668
599192

West (Wh/m2-year)
493711
315284
575200
501918

Table III.2(E) Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (1.8m wide by 1.8m height)
Percentage radiation incident (%)
Parameters
ext

fin

gap

Ahmadabad
CL

North

East

South

Mumbai
West

North

East

South

Nagpur
West

North

East

South

Pune
West

North

East

South

West

0.3

72.95

83.09

83.16

84.20

70.48

82.05

82.63

84.22

67.99

82.18

82.85

85.32

60.22

82.11

81.47

83.62

0.6

72.48

65.71

64.21

64.99

68.65

64.24

62.71

65.45

66.20

60.44

63.70

69.07

57.29

63.36

61.62

64.41

72.48

49.52

47.82

48.30

68.65

48.45

44.82

49.21

66.20

43.05

46.94

53.22

57.29

46.12

44.45

47.41

0 0.15

0.3

79.27

91.30

91.77

92.57

75.00

90.32

91.42

92.61

74.71

90.89

91.52

93.31

66.37

90.50

90.24

92.03

0 0.15

0.6

78.79

74.09

72.58

73.57

73.11

72.64

71.18

74.10

72.90

68.73

71.95

77.38

63.12

71.85

69.99

73.05

0 0.15

78.79

56.93

55.46

56.14

73.11

55.92

52.45

57.04

72.90

50.82

54.66

60.70

63.12

53.56

51.92

55.12

1/3

0.3

52.96

79.92

79.15

81.42

58.33

78.47

78.68

81.35

48.41

79.12

78.68

82.72

44.59

79.34

77.17

81.06

1/3

0.6

51.09

59.00

55.35

58.64

53.88

56.66

53.56

58.78

42.54

53.64

54.33

63.22

37.33

57.40

52.09

58.63

1/3

51.09

39.28

34.01

38.38

53.88

37.10

30.60

38.77

42.54

32.81

32.54

44.06

37.33

37.06

29.94

38.30

1/3 0.15

0.3

55.90

87.38

86.78

89.11

60.69

85.90

86.50

89.05

51.46

87.08

86.32

90.06

47.89

87.07

84.91

88.85

1/3 0.15

0.6

54.03

65.83

61.58

65.73

56.11

63.32

59.84

65.85

45.31

60.38

60.33

70.14

40.11

64.51

58.21

65.92

1/3 0.15

54.03

44.42

38.47

43.99

56.11

42.10

34.98

44.27

45.31

38.35

36.95

49.47

40.11

42.51

34.12

43.96

2/3

0.3

44.59

77.13

75.45

78.83

52.69

75.38

74.95

78.69

38.43

76.28

74.82

80.32

36.70

76.92

73.24

78.70

2/3

0.6

42.70

53.40

47.60

53.23

48.16

50.51

45.57

53.09

32.29

48.10

46.09

58.12

29.21

52.48

43.96

53.71

2/3

42.70

31.50

23.23

30.68

48.16

28.78

19.81

30.73

32.29

25.37

21.28

36.76

29.21

30.33

19.12

31.28

2/3 0.15

0.3

50.65

84.76

83.26

86.63

56.89

83.02

82.91

86.51

44.51

84.40

82.65

87.78

42.32

84.81

81.16

86.60

2/3 0.15

0.6

48.77

60.77

54.55

60.80

52.30

57.83

52.61

60.68

38.36

55.42

52.84

65.44

34.52

60.08

50.92

61.43

2/3 0.15

48.77

37.67

29.32

37.28

52.30

34.98

25.96

37.29

38.36

32.06

27.34

43.00

34.52

36.74

25.11

37.86

full

0.3

44.32

75.68

73.53

77.43

52.36

73.88

72.99

77.29

37.65

74.93

72.78

78.96

36.06

75.72

71.25

77.46

full

0.6

42.44

51.15

44.71

51.02

47.83

48.21

42.74

50.84

31.52

46.12

43.00

55.83

28.57

50.60

41.17

51.74

Continued ...............

Table III.2(E) Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (1.8m wide by 1.8m height)

Continued from previous page

Percentage radiation incident (%)

Parameters
ext

fin

gap

Ahmadabad
CL

North

East

South

Mumbai
West

North

East

South

Nagpur
West

North

East

South

Pune
West

North

East

South

West

full

50.34

31.15

19.79

28.79

57.63

28.24

14.43

29.00

38.27

22.56

17.00

37.77

36.90

29.57

13.86

29.82

full 0.15

0.3

58.05

88.80

87.36

91.01

66.56

87.59

87.54

90.78

51.61

89.64

86.80

90.57

51.81

89.83

85.94

91.24

full 0.15

0.6

56.65

67.04

61.23

67.55

61.93

63.76

58.36

67.13

45.00

62.38

58.73

71.68

43.18

66.72

56.14

68.20

full 0.15

56.65

40.11

28.41

38.28

61.93

37.08

23.76

38.78

45.00

31.38

25.61

46.40

43.18

38.97

22.81

39.60

0.15

0.3

73.70

93.55

94.77

95.58

76.45

92.65

94.94

95.49

71.08

93.86

94.29

94.74

66.48

93.34

93.65

95.09

0.15

0.6

72.47

72.27

70.14

72.18

72.56

69.95

66.50

72.62

66.36

65.99

68.65

77.13

59.60

69.22

64.70

71.33

0.15

72.47

48.63

44.22

46.03

72.56

46.88

38.45

46.87

66.36

38.60

42.73

54.24

59.60

44.13

38.12

45.12

0.15

0 0.15

0.3

80.64

96.22

97.41

97.99

81.78

95.80

97.64

97.92

78.91

97.19

97.24

96.95

73.99

96.28

96.54

97.60

0.15

0 0.15

0.6

79.06

81.39

81.17

81.40

77.00

79.38

78.64

81.60

73.73

76.14

79.94

84.84

66.02

79.13

76.68

80.68

0.15

0 0.15

79.06

58.80

54.18

56.69

77.00

56.88

49.13

57.90

73.73

48.40

52.75

64.13

66.02

54.54

48.36

56.04

0.15

1/3

0.3

58.66

92.53

93.41

94.86

67.76

91.48

93.67

94.73

56.42

92.97

92.82

94.08

54.47

92.56

92.22

94.48

0.15

1/3

0.6

56.76

68.40

64.41

68.52

62.27

65.48

60.47

68.91

47.69

62.04

62.48

74.18

44.57

65.90

58.33

68.20

0.15

1/3

56.76

41.63

33.80

39.19

62.27

38.93

27.57

39.64

47.69

31.58

31.65

48.31

44.57

38.20

27.02

39.08

0.15

1/3 0.15

0.3

62.14

94.84

95.50

97.01

70.86

94.25

95.83

96.89

60.06

95.95

95.15

96.06

58.55

95.25

94.52

96.78

0.15

1/3 0.15

0.6

59.88

76.13

73.31

76.43

64.47

73.38

70.40

76.61

50.77

70.87

71.43

80.79

47.46

74.68

68.00

76.45

0.15

1/3 0.15

59.88

49.49

40.20

47.57

64.47

46.37

34.64

48.30

50.77

39.17

37.85

56.16

47.46

46.70

33.59

48.02

0.15

2/3

0.3

52.57

91.70

92.09

94.21

63.56

90.61

92.32

94.06

48.29

92.13

91.29

93.52

47.85

91.97

90.73

93.97

0.15

2/3

0.6

50.68

65.13

59.29

65.38

58.06

61.94

55.12

65.85

39.47

58.91

56.85

71.55

37.85

63.28

52.77

65.59

0.15

2/3

50.68

36.31

25.61

33.91

58.06

33.13

19.41

34.18

39.47

26.61

22.84

43.53

37.85

33.87

18.77

34.55

0.15

2/3 0.15

0.3

59.20

94.13

94.32

96.43

68.50

93.52

94.56

96.30

55.12

95.23

93.75

95.59

54.53

94.75

93.11

96.33

0.15

2/3 0.15

0.6

56.95

73.34

68.81

73.70

62.11

70.43

65.68

73.95

45.83

68.23

66.44

78.49

43.44

72.48

63.12

74.18

Continued ...............

Table III.2(E) Percentage of beam radiation incident on window (1.8m wide by 1.8m height)

Continued from previous page

Percentage radiation incident (%)

Parameters
ext

fin

gap

Ahmadabad
CL

0.15

2/3 0.15

0.15

Full

0.15

North

East

South

Mumbai
West

North

East

Nagpur

South

West

North

East

Pune

South

West

North

East

South

West

48.83

39.89

31.36

39.54

52.11

36.87

27.65

39.60

38.21

33.88

29.08

45.69

34.33

38.76

26.65

40.16

0.3

45.32

80.11

78.99

81.96

53.79

78.77

78.37

81.89

40.07

79.48

78.03

83.31

37.73

79.81

76.69

81.73

Full

0.6

42.44

55.41

49.25

55.13

47.83

52.79

47.20

55.55

31.52

50.09

47.45

60.61

28.57

54.61

45.37

55.88

0.15

full

42.44

31.95

23.05

31.18

47.83

28.99

19.41

31.35

31.52

25.80

20.51

37.59

28.57

31.02

18.61

32.12

0.15

full 0.15

0.3

51.82

88.52

87.84

90.51

58.18

87.23

87.43

90.45

46.98

88.37

86.97

91.47

43.91

88.34

85.72

90.29

0.15

full 0.15

0.6

48.83

63.98

57.83

63.91

52.11

61.35

55.90

64.38

38.21

58.52

55.93

69.11

34.33

63.23

53.96

64.68

0.15

full 0.15

48.83

39.45

30.79

39.13

52.11

36.50

27.16

39.25

38.21

33.62

28.39

45.17

34.33

38.49

26.15

39.86

Radiation on unshaded window (1.8 m wide by 1.8 m height)

2

Ahmadabad
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune

North (Wh/m -year)

9694
7603
13182
24055

East (Wh/m -year)

423229
214886
329996
423475

South (Wh/m -year)

706689
448880
647446
631509

West (Wh/m -year)

517515
330390
598446
527060

Table III.3 Best combinations of windows and shading devices and corresponding beam
radiation incident on window
Orientation

North

East

South

West

Combination

Radiation on window (kWh/year)

Size
(w X h)

Ext
(m)

Gap
(m)

CL
fin-ht Ahmadabad
(m)

0.6X1.2

0.0

0.0

0.3

full

0.6X1.8

0.0

0.0

0.3

1.2X1.2

0.0

0.0

1.2X1.8

0.0

1.8X1.2

Mumbai

Nagpur

Pune

3(3)

3(3)

3(4)

5(8)

full

4 (5)

4(5)

4(7)

7(15)

full

6(10)

5(8)

6(14)

10(24)

0.0

full

9(18)

8(15)

9(24)

15(45)

0.0

0.0

0.6

full

9(18)

8(14)

9(23)

15(40)

1.8X1.8

0.0

0.0

0.6

full

13(31)

12(25)

13(43)

22(78)

0.6X1.2

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

44(266)

18(133)

25(207)

44(268)

0.6X1.8

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

60(417)

23(209)

38(326)

63(422)

1.2X1.2

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

149(567)

67(287)

83(443)

144(569)

1.2X1.8

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

214(892)

96(453)

132(698)

215(897)

1.8X1.2

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

272(872)

124(441)

153(677)

257(869)

1.8X1.8

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

397(1371)

183(696)

249(1069)

388(1372)

0.6X1.2

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

43(432)

19(275)

35(394)

28(382)

0.6X1.8

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

57(679)

28(432)

47(619)

41(601)

1.2X1.2

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

139(943)

61(597)

107(862)

84(838)

1.2X1.8

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

220(1485)

112(940)

176(1356)

154(1323)

1.8X1.2

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

287(1453)

133(924)

226(1332)

179(1294)

1.8X1.8

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

463(2290)

246(1454)

378(2098)

333(2046)

0.6X1.2

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

49(329)

28(209)

79(385)

51(336)

0.6X1.8

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

70(515)

39(328)

102(600)

74(528)

1.2X1.2

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

166(695)

105(445)

263(813)

178(711)

1.2X1.8

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

254(1092)

158(699)

364(1269)

270(1120)

1.8X1.2

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

307(1066)

197(681)

469(1242)

323(1084)

1.8X1.8

0.0

0.0

1.0

full

473 (1677)

661 (1939)

496 (1708)

302 (1070)

*
0.3 for Mumbai and Pune; 0.6 for Ahmadabad and Nagpur
w
: Width in meters
h
:Height in meters
The numbers in parentheses show the corresponding radiation values on an unshaded window.

APPENDIX III.2
TYPES OF INSULATION
The building envelope is a device through which heat exchange between the internal and external
environments is controlled. The various modes of operation of an envelope are: (1) admit heat gain, (2)
exclude heat gain, (3) containing heat gain, or (4) dissipating excess internal heat. The opaque portions of
the envelope, once designed, are generally considered fixed controls. The dynamic elements of the
envelope include openable windows, shading devices and insulating shutters.
The effect of insulation is to reduce heat gain and heat loss. The more insulation in a buildings
exterior envelope, the less heat transferred into or out of the building due to temperature difference
between the interior and exterior. Insulation also controls the interior mean radiant temperature (MRT) by
isolating the interior surfaces from the influence of the exterior conditions, and also reduces drafts
produced by temperature differences between walls and air.
Insulation along with infiltration control is important for reducing heating and cooling loads in
skin-load-dominated buildings such as residences (internal load dominated buildings are typically offices).
Increased insulation levels in internally load-dominated buildings, may cause an increase in energy usage
for cooling when the outside is cooler than the inside, unless natural ventilation or an economiser cycle on
the HVAC system is available.
Types:
Insulation is made from a variety of materials and in several forms. The forms generally fall into
the following categories: (1) rigid or semirigid blocks or boards, (2) boards with impact- or weatherresistant surfaces, which are employed on building exteriors or below grade, (3) blankets, felts, or sheets,
which are either mechanically attached to vertical surfaces or laid flat on horizontal ones, (4) loose-fill,
which is poured or blown into cavities or onto flat surfaces such as above ceilings, (5) foams and dry sprayon types; which can be pneumatically applied in a variety of ways. When specifying insulation, both
performance and any complications arising from the thickness required must be considered.
Rigid
In the first category are polystyrene, polyurethane (PUF), and polyisocyanurate. Polystyrene comes
in the form of beadboard so called because it is manufactured from small Styrofoam beads which are
puffed up and fused together into slabs (also called as thermocole) and extruded polystyrene. The latter
has the advantage of some compressive strength, which makes it suitable for insulating beneath heavy
objects. High-density beadboard also has a high compressive strength (generally found as packing material
in the cartons for electrical appliances such as televisions and refrigerators).
Both burn readily and give off a dense black smoke. Polyurethane (PUF) and polyisocyanurate are
harder to ignite but give off cyanide fumes in a fire. In case of fire, these are hazardous, hence they are
generally not exposed on interior surfaces but covered with a fireproof wall or plaster or sheetrock.
The most common way of insulating masonry walls is to affix rigid sheets of insulation to the wall
surfaces, and covering them with a protective material. For a given thickness, the most effective insulation
material is polyurethane foam. 25 mm of urethane is equivalent to about 50 mm of fibreglass. The rigid
sheets are available in 12mm to 50 mm thickness.

Blanket
This type of insulation is most commonly used in standard cavity walls, where the depth of the stud
determines the amount of insulation that can be placed in the wall. The material usually consists of glass
fibre or mineral wool. It is manufactured in standard widths of 400mm 600m and is generally 75 to 175
mm thick. It comes in long rolls or batts of specific length. It is available with reflective foil or a vapour
barrier on one side. One advantage of fibreglass is that it is highly fire resistant. Its drawbacks are that it
loses its effectiveness when wet, and that it is not self-supporting in its normal form.
Loose fill
Loose fill insulations that are commercially available include cellulose, vermiculite, and blown in
fibreglass. Sawdust, wood shavings, and shredded bark can also be used. These materials are principally
used in existing walls that were not insulated during construction. They are also commonly added between
ceiling joists in unheated attics. Vermiculite and perlite are mixed with concrete aggregates to reduce heat
loss.
Foam-in-situ
Foams such as polyurethane are also available in liquid form with a catalyst for on-the-job
foaming. The liquid may be poured into forms or sprayed on with special equipment. In the hands of a
skilled applicator, this material can be rendered into almost any sculptural form and will provide
considerable structural support. It is applicable to odd-shaped structures, but needs a weather-protective
membrane.
Superinsulation
Superinsulation is the application of abnormal amounts of insulation in order to eliminate all need
for mechanical space heating. Due to reduction in heat gains and losses due to conduction and air tightness
of buildings, the internal and solar heat gains become the primary source of heat. The savings on heating
equipment and distribution systems may equal or outweigh the additional costs of extra insulation, extra
thermal mass, and insulative window treatments. Since insulation is required at all external surfaces, it can
add significantly to the construction cost. Therefore, the desirable amount of insulation must be carefully
considered. It is also important to consider overheating in mild winters and summer. The building must be
ventilated during such periods. Fresh air due to ventilation also reduces risk of diseases and foul odours.

APPENDIX III.3
TYPES OF GLAZINGS
Material

Glass

Acrylic

Polycarbonate

Fibreglass
reinforced
polyester

Polyester
film
Polyethylene film
Polyvinyl
fluoride
film

Single Glazed Float

Glass
Double Glazed Float
Glass
Flexiglas (Rhom&
Haas)
Lucite (Du Pont)
Exolite (CY/RO)
Lexan (G.E.)
Tuffack Twinwall
(Rhom & Haas)
Cyrolon SDP
(CY/RO)
Lascolite (Lasco
Industries)
Filon w/Tedlar
(Vistron Corp.)
Sunlite Premium II
(Kalwall)
Mylar Type W (Du
Pont)
Flexiguard (3M)
Monsanto 602
(Monsanto)
Teflon (Du Pont)
Tedlar (Du Pont)

Thermal
Expansion

Ease of
Handling

Weatherability

Estimated
Lifetime
(years)
25+

Solar
Transmissivity
(-)
0.91

Infrared
Transmissivity
(-)
0.01

0.47

0.47

25+

0.77-0.85

4.10

10-20

0.90

0.02

3.90
4.00
3.75
3.30

E
E
E
E

E
E
F
F

10-20
10-20
15-17
5-7

0.92
0.83
0.81-0.89
0.77

0.02
0.02
0.02

4.00

1.60

VG

10-20

0.86

2.30

VG

10-20

0.86

1.36

20

0.87

0.02

1.50

0.85

0.16-0.32

F
F

G
P

10
1

0.89
0.85

0.095
0.70

P
F

E
E

25
10-20

0.96
0.95

0.57
0.30

30.00
2.80

0.74

P=Poor, F=Fair, G=Good, VG=Very good, E=Excellent