CLIMATIC FACTORS

INTRODUCTION
Since human activities do not generally occur under natural conditions, the problem of
creating a comfortable interior environment with the purpose of meeting needs is as old
as the history of mankind. One of the main principles of architecture is to establish
artificial environments that provide comfortable spaces for human life. A building, which
is the produce of architecture, is a physical environment that is created in line with these
requirements. Therefore, one of the expected functions of a building is to provide an
interior environment that is controlled in terms of climatic comfort. Effects of climate
conditions on a building are certainly one of the most important natural factors that
shape architectural studies.
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN BASED ON CLIMATIC DATA
Climate that is significant among building design criteria, is based on the average of the
effects collectively caused by atmospheric events somewhere on earth over many
years. It should be remembered that formation, reproduction and continuation of living
activities of all living creatures depend on suitable climate conditions.
Climatic variables can be examined in three main groups as macro climate, mezzo
climate and micro climate. The climate that interacts according to geography is called
macroclimate; the climate that is based on regional flora and environment is named as
mezzo climate and microclimate is climate on a local scale. The changes in the artificial
environment that includes protection or utilization decisions for the existing macro and
mezzo climates form the microclimate. Macro and mezzo climates are the same on an
area where there is no settlement. Landscape design made after construction of a
building on land, surrounding buildings and decisions about building form made during
the design stage; make up the microclimate of the building and its surroundings.
Climate is one of the most important factors that affect both architectural design and
urban planning. The identification, understanding and control of the climatic effects at
the location of the building are crucial even before design decisions are made. Climate
of a location develops by its geographical position on earth, height above sea level,
topography and flora. As a result of all these conditions, different climate regions and
thus different climatic design criteria are established.
Climate conditions are effective in arrangement of building designs, determination of
requirements, selection of equipment and building method, and accordingly the
formation. Different climate systems generate regional architectural characteristics.
Planning and forming the building in accordance with the regional climatic data are
based on enabling the building to get minimum heat during the hottest season of the
year and lose minimum heat during the coldest season of the year. However, many
buildings in our country today have plans and forms that were designed without taking
the regional climatic data into consideration.
Climatic comfort conditions in a building should be achieved by means of economic
usage of building materials and mechanical systems. In order to attain this objective, the
existing climate conditions should be used as data and solution should be found in order
to utilize the positive effects of the climate in building form and building shell and
eliminate the negative effects of the climate.
During the building design stage, the climate components that should be maintained
should firstly be determined and then requirements should be specified accordingly.
External climate components that affect the formation of internal environmental climatic
conditions are sunrays, air temperature, relative humidity, precipitation and atmospheric
actions.
The required thermal comfort values should be determined, the daily and annual
durations of use of the building should be specified according to the quantity and activity
levels of users of the building. This data should be used in making decisions regarding
the position, direction, form, interior planning and building shell design of the building in
urban planning and applying these decisions.
Climatic variables and requirements that are effective in design should be determined in
full in order to prevent excessive heating, optimize cold airflow, use natural cooling
methods in hot weather and increase heat gains (through natural ways), ensure heat
storage and proper heat distribution in cold weather.
From a scientific point of view, the factors and climatic components that determine the
climate as an integration of the effects of all the meteorological factors on earth in a long
period of time in a certain region can be examined in three main groups:
Sun and Temperature
Sun and therefore heat is one of the most important climate components because the
generally used indicator of climatic comfort is air temperature and relative humidity. Sun
is the most important energy source in lighting and heating forms and surfaces in
architecture. The sun is not only a heat source but also a significant light source whose
quality varies during the day and according to the seasons. While applying architectural
solutions in order to utilize the sun at the maximum level in winter, refraction
components are needed in order to be protected from the torrid heat of the sun in
summer.
Pressure and Winds
Formation of a strong pressure zone is inevitable in the direction of the wind. It is
possible to increase or decrease the amount of this pressure by means of corridors
created between buildings. While airflow is needed in hot and humid regions, shadowing
measures should be taken in hot and dry regions. For this reason, direction of buildings
is determined according to the angle of sunrays in some regions while planning is made
according to the dominant wind directions in summer in some other regions.
Determination of wind requirement differs in each climate region. Wind requirement is
important during the entire year in low latitudes, however protection is required in high
latitudes. Wind factor that is

Figure 1. Desirable and Undesirable Wind Directions Figure 2.

Seasonal Variations
needed according to climate regions should be taken into account when making
decisions about planning (story height and distances between buildings).
Precipitation and Humidity:
Precipitation type and amount that varies according to geographical properties affect
architectural design. Since the amount of precipitation affects humidity rate, some
measures may have to be taken in order to prevent discomfort in the building and its
surroundings. When various climate regions are observed, it is seen that low rate of
humidity is preferred in dry climates whereas it causes discomfort in tropical climate
regions.

URBAN PLANNING AND DESIGN ACCORDING TO DIFFERENT CLIMATE

REGIONS Cold Climate Region
The principle of maximum heat gain and minimum heat loss, stands out in building
designs in these regions because of the rainy and cool weather.
Multi-layered and nested interior spaces that keep the heat inside and the cold air
outside should be designed in cold climate regions. Heat loss should be reduced by
using minimum floor area in residential buildings.
Segmented architecture should be avoided in urban scale. In urban architecture,
compact and intensive urban textures that are close to each other and do not allow wind
inside are observed. Fully and partially subterranean closed communication channels
that utilize the temperature of the earth and located underground or above ground,
covered or semi-covered bazaars, coved streets and avenues with arcades are the
components of the architectural texture.
The settlement texture should be designed with the purpose of preventing the effects of
wind, and spaces that can utilize the sun at the maximum level should be created while
grouping big building units. The hillsides facing south and southeast should be preferred
during the selection of residential areas in order to utilize the sun. Moreover, the middle
sections of these hillsides can be suitable to reduce the wind effect and to be protected
from the cold airflow.
Natural materials such as bricks and adobe bricks that have high heat storage
capacities are often seen in building constructions in such climate regions. The
materials used should have high heat absorption capacity. The exterior surface is
smooth and dark colored (absorbent) and the roofs are pitched. Optimum sun
orientation is 12 degrees east.
Mild Climate Region
This kind of climate is the most suitable climate that provides comfort with minimum
temperature difference between summer and winter. The characteristic of mild climates
is the presence of different climate conditions caused by the seasons. Protection
against cold weather and utilization of the sun should be provided during winter and the
cooling effects of the wind should be benefited in summer.
In this kind of climate regions, the orientation in 17.5 degrees east from the south
provides the balance in heat dispersion. Orientation of high buildings should be
determined according to the wind effect.
Building formation should prevent wind and allow sun in the coldest period and be wide
surfaced and prevent sun during the hottest period. Surface coating materials such as
grass, soil, asphalt, stone, etc. should be used in the spaces between buildings. The
materials to be used between buildings should be chosen to prevent wind during the
least hot period and accelerate wind, reflect sunrays and provide absorbent surface
balance during the hottest period.
During the winter, sun control should be applied in the holes in the walls and ceilings in
order to utilize the sun at the maximum level. The dimensions and properties of the
windows vary according to the regions. The same situation is also valid for wall and roof
materials and coatings. Sloping roofs are generally used in this kind of climate regions.
Hot-Humid Climate Region
In hot-humid regions, excessive humidity is observed in addition to the pestiferous
excessive heat. For this reason, insulated roofs are used for sun and rain protection and
the environment of the building is opened. Thus, humidity problem is reduced naturally
with the help of air circulation.
The spaces where the main functions are dominant in buildings are constructed at a
higher level from the ground in order to allow the wind flow from the bottom. Thus,
excessive sun and humidity are prevented in the space. Another widely used property is
the court formations that allow wind and are controlled with shadows.
In such regions, an unnested texture is dominant which is quite the contrary of hot-dry
regions. The reason of this is the placement of buildings in such a way that do not block
each other’s wind in order to reduce the effects of excessive sun and humidity. Buildings
are located properly to allow cool wind from both directions.
Airflows are generated by leaving spaces between the roof and the buildings in order to
reduce the effect of excessive sunrays and humidity in hot-humid regions.
The ground floors generally have thick walls and fewer windows whereas upper floors
have more windows. The windows are placed in the wind direction with the purpose of
controlling sun and humidity effect by means of ventilation. Balconies that are open to
wind are also comforting architectural components. Another characteristic of this kind of
regions is wide-sided roofs that look like hats in order to be protected from rain.
In hot-humid climate regions, high windy areas should be preferred. In solar orientation,
a 5-10 degrees deviation from south towards east can be suitable.
As a conclusion, it is necessary to find the right solutions for settlement and design in
terms of climate utilization and protection by taking neighboring buildings and close
surroundings into consideration in building formation, as one of the main principles of
architecture is to create artificial environments that provide comfortable spaces for the
users.
The designs that are in compliance with the climate not only can meet the comfort
requirements of the users but also are important in terms of sustainable energy
maintenance for living and environmental issues, as they create high quality interior
spaces by using minimum resources.
As a result of fast population increase and unplanned urbanization, unhealthy,
characterless and insensitive new environments are being created without taking
physiological and climatic requirements into account in opposition to traditional
architectural systems. This process affects the quality of urban life negatively and
stands out as a planning and design problem.

Climates and Climate Classification

Climate
• Climate is weather over time
• Climatology is the study of climate
• Climatic regions are areas with similar weather statistics

1. Earth’s Climate System and Its Classification

• Climate Components
• Classification of Climatic Regions
• A Climate Classification System

Climate Components
• Insolation
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Air Masses
• Precipitation
Earth’s Climate System

Climate Classification -- Two Approaches

• Empiric
– Classes are based on observations and the effects of the phenomena
– Examples include Koeppen and Thornthwaite

• Genetic
– Classes are based on causes of the phenomena
– Examples include Air-Mass, Synoptic Classifications, etc.

The Elements of Climate

• Based on
– Temperature
– Precipitation
– Pressure
– Wind Direction/Speed
– Cloud Cover
– “Climate proxies”
Climographs

The Koeppen System

• The Major Climates

– The Tree Climates
• A - Tropical Rainy Climates
• C - Midlatitude Rainy Climates (mild winter)
• D - Midlatitude Rainy Climates (cold winter)
– Trees Don’t Grow Here
• B - Dry Climates
• E - Polar Climates

Generalized Climate Regions

Koeppen System: Principal Climate Types

• Tropical
– Af - Tropical Wet (Rains all year)
– AW - Tropical Wet/Dry (Dry Winter Season)
– Am - Tropical Monsoon (Shorter Dry Season)
• Dry
– BW - Desert (BWh - hot desert, BWk, cold desert)
– BS - Steppe (semi-arid) BSh - hot steppe, BSk, cold steppe)

• Mesothermal
– Cfa, Cwa - Humid Subtropical
– Csa, Csb - Mediterranean
– Cfb, Cfc - Marine West Coast

• Microthermal
– Dfa, Dfb Dwa, Dwb - Humid Continental
– Dfc, Dwc, Dfd, Dwd – Subarctic

• Polar
– ET – Tundra
– EF - Ice Cap (Remember, Eternally Frozen!)
• Highland Climates

Koeppen System: The Particulars

• First Letter –
– Designates Major Type (A, B, C, D, E)

• Second Letter
– If with A, C, or D climates, denotes seasonality of precipitation (f - all year, w=dry
winter, s=dry summer)
– If with B, denotes whether hot (h) or cold (k)

• Third Letter
– Designates different temperature regimes and sometimes other parameters like fog
frequency, etc.

The Factors Forming the Koeppen System

 Tropical Climates

Tropical Climates
• ~ 12 hours a day throughout the year
• There is a greater daily energy change than there is annual energy change
• Influenced by the migration of the ITCZ
• No temperature constraints on growth leading to large species diversities

Movement of the ITCZ

Tropical Rain Forest

Tropical Rain Forest (Tropical Wet) (Af)

 Tropical Monsoon (Am)

Tropical Savanna(Tropical Wet-Dry) (AW)

Dry, Arid, and Semiarid Climates

• Desert Characteristics
• Low-Latitude Hot Desert Climates
• Midlatitude Cold Desert Climates
• Low-Latitude Hot Steppe Climates
• Midlatitude Cold Steppe Climates

Dry, Arid, and Semiarid Climates

Low-Latitude Hot Desert (BWh)

Low-Latitude Hot Steppe (BSh)

Midlatitude Cold Desert (BWk)

 Midlatitude Cold Steppe Figure 6.24

Mesothermal Climates
• Humid Subtropical
– Hot, Humid Summer

• Marine West Coast

– Mild All Year, No Dry Season

• Mediterranean
– Dry Summer

Mesothermal Climates
Humid Subtropical Hot-Summer (Cfa)

Marine West Coast (Cfb, Cfc)

 Marine West Coast (Cfc)Figure 6.12

Mediterranean Climates (Csa, Csb)

Microthermal Climates
• Humid Continental Hot-Summer Climates
• Humid Continental Mild-Summer Climates
• Subarctic Climates
 Microthermal Climates

Humid Continental Hot-Summer (Dfa, Dwa)

Humid Continental Mild-Summer (Dfb, Dwb)

Subarctic (Dfc, Dwc)

 Subarctic (Dfd, Dwd)

Polar Climates (ET, EF)

• Tundra Climate

• Ice Cap and Ice Sheet Climates

– Polar Marine Climate

Polar and Highland Climates

 Hypothetical Climate Model

Climate Classification – The Genetic Approach

• Based on what causes climates, not based on categories determined by
observations. For examples:

General Atmospheric Circulation and Climate Regimes Polar Transitional Arid

Tropical
 Genetic Classification Scheme:An Air-Mass Dominance Example

Climates and Water Resource Issues

“When the well is dry, we know the worthof water…” - Benjamin Franklin Robert W.
Christopherson Charlie Thomsen

Water Resources
– Soil - Water budget concept
– Water availability
– Soil moisture availability

Ocean and Freshwater Distribution

 Hydrologic Cycle Model – Revisited

The Hydrologic Cycle

• A Hydrologic Cycle Model
– More Evaporation over Oceans than over Land
– More Precipitation over land than over oceans
– Amount of water advected to the land equals the amount runoff back to the oceans

• Surface Water
– Only .333% of all surface fresh water is available for human use.
– 11.20% of all fresh water is available for human use in groundwater and soil
moisture

The Soil-Water Balance Equation

 Surface-Moisture Environment

Remember:
• If the air rises, it’s more likely to rain (or snow…)

• Where it sinks, it’s less likely to rain (or snow…)

• The less rainfall you have…

– The less reliable it is

• So, a climate with a dry season, isn’t necessarily guaranteed a wet season either!
– Monsoon climates
– Steppe and Savannah Climates
– Deserts
Precipitation in North America

Potential Evapotranspiration

Lysimeter

Types of Soil Moisture

Sample Water Budget
 Sample Water Budgets

Annual Global River Runoff

Groundwater Resources
• Groundwater Profile and Movement
• Groundwater Utilization
• Pollution of Groundwater Resources
 Groundwater Potential

Groundwater Characteristics

Groundwater Characteristics
 High Plains Aquifer Overdraft

Our Water Supply

• Water Supply in the United States
• Instream, Nonconsumptive, and Consumptive Uses
• Future Considerations

U.S.Water Budget
1. Three-fourths of what falls is evaporated
2. We withdraw and consume one-third of what is left on a one-time basis
3. Some of the water is exchanged into groundwater which might not be recoverable

Water Withdrawal by Sector

Global Water Scarcity

Future Considerations
• There’s plenty of water (if you like salt with your water!) and we don’t loose any of it…

• On a local basis, water resource scarcity is a very real issue• Too much water and the
water becomes polluted

• Too little water and the water becomes polluted

• Water scarcity globally are major issues where:
1. The water is used mostly for agriculture and thus for growing the food supply and…
2. Where competing regions are sharing the same water supply

Global Climate Change

• Global Warming
• Climate Models and Future Temperatures
• Consequences of Global Warming
• Political Action to Slow Global Warming

Global Temperatures

1998 Temperature Anomalies

CO2 Sources
 GCM Model

2070-2100 Temperature Forecast Versus 1961-1990 Global Average

SOURCE: https://www.irbnet.de/daten/iconda/06059010253.pdf
https://www.slideshare.net/rmsimpson/climate-classification