MURANGA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
UNIT. LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

UNIT CODE: EES 400

LIC

INTRODUCTION

A linear integrated circuit or analog chip is a set of miniature electronic analog

circuits formed on a single piece of semiconductor material.

Analog chips may also contain digital logic elements to replace some analog

functions, or to allow the chip to communicate with a microprocessor. For this

reason, and since logic is commonly implemented using CMOS technology, these

chips typically use BiCMOS (BiCMOS technology combines Bipolar and CMOS

transistors in a single integrated circuit. By retaining the benefits of Bipolar and

CMOS, BiCMOS is able to achieve VLSI circuits with speed-power-density

performance previously unattainable with either technology individually)

processes, as implemented by companies such as Freescale, Texas

Instruments, STMicroelectronics, and others. This is known as "mixed signal

processing", and allows a designer to incorporate more functions into a single chip.

Some of the benefits of this mixed technology include load protection, reduced

parts count, and higher reliability.

Purely analog chips in information processing have been mostly replaced with

digital chips. Analog chips are still required for wide-band signals, high-power

applications, and transducer interfaces. Research and industry in this specialty

continues to grow and prosper. Some examples of long-lived and well-known

analog chips are the 741 operational amplifier, and the 555 timer IC.

Phase Locked Loop Working with Applications

The phase-locked loop is one of the basic blocks in modern electronic systems. It is
generally used in multimedia, communication and in many other applications.
There are two different types of PLL’s – linear and nonlinear. The nonlinear is
difficult and complicated to design in the real world, but the linear control theory is
well modeled in analog PLL’s. The PLL has proved that a linear model is
sufficient for most of the electronic applications.
What is a phase-locked loop (PLL)?
A phase-locked loop (PLL) is an electronic circuit with a voltage or voltage-driven
oscillator that constantly adjusts to match the frequency of an input signal. PLLs
are used to generate, stabilize, modulate, demodulate, filter or recover a signal
from a "noisy" communications channel where data has been interrupted
A phase-locked loop consists of a phase detector and a voltage controlled
oscillator. The output of the phase detector is the input of the voltage-controlled
oscillator (VCO) and the output of the VCO is connected to one of the inputs of a
phase detector which is shown below in the basic block diagram. When these two
devices are feed to each other the loop forms.

BASIC DIAGRAM OF PHASE LOCKED LOOP

A PLL consists of three key components:

 Phase detector (also known as a phase comparator or mixer). It compares the

phases of two signals, and generates a voltage according to the phase
difference. It multiplies the reference input and the voltage-controlled oscillator
output.

 Voltage-controlled oscillator. Generates a sinusoidal signal, whose frequency

closely matches the center frequency provided by the low-pass filter.

 Low-pass filter. A kind of loop filter that attenuates the high-frequency

alternating current (AC) component of the input signal to smoothen and flatten
the signal to make it more DC-like.
Block Diagram And Working Principle Of PLL

The phase-locked loop consists of a phase detector, a voltage controlled

oscillator and, in between them, a low pass filter is fixed. The input signal ‘Vi’
with an input frequency ‘Fi’ is conceded by a phase detector. Basically the phase
detector is a comparator that compares the input frequency fi through the feedback
frequency fo. The output of the phase detector is (fi+fo) which is a DC voltage.
The out of the phase detector, i.e., DC voltage is input to the low pass filter (LPF);
it removes the high-frequency noise and produces a steady DC level, i.e., Fi-Fo.
The Vf is also a dynamic characteristic of the PLL.

PL
L Block Diagram
The output of the low pass filter, i.e., DC level is passed on to the VCO. The input
signal is directly proportional to the output frequency of the VCO (fo). The input
and output frequencies are compared and adjusted through the feedback loop until
the output frequency is equal to the input frequency. Hence, the PLL works like
free running, capture, and phase lock.

When there is no input voltage applied, then it is said to be a free-running stage. As

soon as the input frequency applied to the VOC changes and produces an output
frequency for comparison, it is called a capture stage. The below figure shows the
block diagram of the PLL.

Phase-Locked Loop Detector

The phase-locked loop detector compares the input frequency and the output
frequency of the VCO to produces a DC voltage which is directly proportional to
the phase distinction of the two frequencies. The analog and digital signals are
used in the phase-locked loop. Most of the monolithic PLL integrated circuits use
an analog phase detector and the majority of phase detectors are from the digital
type. A double balanced mixture circuit is used commonly in analog phase
detectors. Some common phase detectors are given below:

Exclusive OR Phase Detector

An exclusive OR phase detector is CMOS IC 4070 type. The input and output
frequencies are applied to the EX OR phase detector. To obtain the output high at
least one input should be low and the other conditions of output are low which is
shown in the below truth table. Let us consider the waveform, the input and output
frequencies, i.e. fi and fo have a phase difference of 0 degrees. Then the DC output
voltage of the comparator will be a function of the phase difference between the
two inputs.

fi fo V dc

low low low

low high high
high low high
high high low
The functions of the phase difference between the fi and fo is as shown in the
graph of DC output voltage. If the phase detector is 180 degrees, then the output
voltage is maximum. If both the input and output frequencies are square wave
these type of the phase detectors are used.

Exclusive OR Phase Detector

Edge Trigger Phase Detector

An edge trigger phase detector is used when the input and output frequencies are in
pulse waveform, which is less than 50% duty cycle. The R-S flip flop is used for
the phase detectors, which is shown in the below figure. To from R-S flip flop, the
two NOR gates are cross-coupled. The output of the phase detector can change its
logic state by triggering the R-S flip flop. The positive edge of the input and output
frequencies can change the output of the phase detector.

Edge Trigger Phase Detector

Monolithic Phase Detector

A monolithic phase detector is a CMOS type, i.e., IC 4044. It is highly

compensated from the harmonic sensitivity and the duty cycle problems are
abandoned as the circuit can respond only to the transition of the input signal. In
critical applications, it is the most fevered phase detector. The independent
variations of the amplitude are free from the phase error, output error voltage and
duty cycle of the input waveform.

Applications of Phase-Locked Loop

 FM demodulation networks for FM operations

 It is used in motor speed controls and tracking filters.
 It is used in frequency shifting decodes for demodulation carrier frequencies.
 It is used in time to digital converters.
 It is used for Jitter reduction, skew suppression, clock recovery.

Timing distribution. To distribute precisely timed clock pulses in digital logic

circuits (e.g., in microprocessor systems).

Signal recovery. To provide a "clean" signal and remember the frequency in case
of interruptions (e.g., when using pulsed transmissions)
Application of phase-locked loop.
The main goal of a PLL is to synchronize the output oscillator signal with a
reference signal. Even if the two signals have the same frequency, their peaks and
troughs may not occur in the same place. Simply put, they do not reach the same
point on the waveform at the same time.

Known as the phase difference, this is measured as the angle between the signals.
For signals with varying frequencies, the phase difference between them will
always vary, which means that one signal will lag or lead the other by a varying
amount.

A PLL reduces phase errors between output and input frequencies. When the phase
difference between these signals is zero, the system is said to be "locked." And this
locking action depends on the PLL's ability to provide negative feedback -- i.e.,
route the output signal back to the phase detector.

In addition to synchronizing the output and input frequencies, a PLL also helps
establish the input-output phase relationship to generate the appropriate control
voltage. Therefore, it helps achieve both frequency and phase lock in a circuit.
Applications
 PLL IC is used in communication systems like satellites, radars, FMs, clock
generators, FM & FSK demodulation, etc.
 Synchronization of Data & Tape.
 Modems.
 Coherent De-modulators.
 Decoding of Tone.
 Regeneration of Signal.
 Frequency Division & Multiplication.
 Telemetry Receivers.
 Precision Waveform Generator/Voltage

 Controlled Oscillator

WAVEFORM GENERATOR PLL IC 565

The PLL IC 565 is usable over the frequency range 0.1 Hz to 500 kHz. It has
highly stable centre frequency and is able to achieve a very linear FM detection.
The output of VCO is capable of producing TTL compatible square wave. The
dual supply is in the range of ±6V to ±12V. The IC can also be operated from
single supply in the range 12V to 24V.
The following figure shows the pin-out and the internal block schematic of PLL IC
LM 565.

It is a 14 pin IC, operated from a dual power supply +V (at pin no. 10) and –V (at
pin no. 1).
Pin no 2 & 3 -> Signal input for phase detector.
Pin no 4 ->VCO output is available
Pin no 4 & 5 are shorted externally so that VCO output is applied for phase
detection. In some applications PLL loop is broken and some circuit is to be
connected between pin no 4 and 5.
Pin no 6-> reference dc voltage is available.
Pin no 7 -> demodulated output.If input signal between pin no 2 and 3 is FM signal
then at pin no 7 we get FM demodulation output.
Pin no 8 and 9 -> external R1 and C1 for VCO (determines free running frequency
of VCO)
Internal resistance R2 and external capacitor C2 forms a LPF. The value of internal
resistance R2 is 3.6kΩ.

Features of IC 565:
1) Extreme stability of center frequency typically 200ppm.
2) Wide range of operating voltage ±6V to ±12V.
3) Very high linearity of demodulated output typically 0.2%
4) Centre frequency of VCO is programmable by means of resistor, capacitor or
voltage.
5) TTL compatible square wave output.
6) Highly linear triangular wave output available at pin no.9
7) Loop can be broken between pin no.4 and 5 and external circuit can be added.
8) Frequency adjustable over the range 1:10 with single capacitor.
Design Equations:
This IC operates in three modes like free running, capture, and lock mode
1. Centre Frequency (Free running freq./ output freq./oscillator freq.)
= 0.3/(R1 C1 )
2. Lock range
f L = (8fo)/V f L =8 f o /V

where V=|+V|+|-V|……..(addition of two power supplies)

3. Capture range
fc = ±1/2π √((2πfL)/(R2 C2 ))

POWER AMPLIFIER IC 8038

The ICL8038 waveform generator is a monolithic integrated circuit capable of

producing high accuracy sine, square, triangular, saw-tooth and pulse wave forms
with a minimum of external components. The frequency (or repetition rate) can be
selected externally from 0.001Hz to more than 300kHz using either resistors or
capacitors, and frequency modulation and sweeping can be accomplished with an
external voltage. The ICL8038 is fabricated with advanced monolithic technology,
using Schottky barrier diodes and thin film resistors, and the output is stable over a
wide range of temperature and supply variations. These devices may be interfaced
with phase locked loop circuitry to reduce temperature drift to less than 250ppm/
oC.

Features

• Low Frequency Drift with Temperature . . . . . . .250ppm/oC

• Low Distortion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1% (Sine Wave Output)

 • High Linearity . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1% (Triangle Wave Output)

• Wide Frequency Range . . . . . . . . . . . 0.001Hz to 300kHz

• Variable Duty Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2% to 98%

• High Level Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TTL to 28V

• Simultaneous Sine, Square, and Triangle Wave outputs

• Easy to Use - Just a Handful of External Components required

Application Information (See Functional Diagram)

An external capacitor C is charged and discharged by two current sources. Current

source #2 is switched on and off by a flip-flop, while current source #1 is on
continuously. Assuming that the flip-flop is in a state such that current source #2 is
off, and the capacitor is charged with a current I, the voltage across the capacitor rises
linearly with time. When this voltage reaches the level of comparator #1 (set at 2/3 of
the supply-voltage), the flip-flop is triggered, changes states, and
releases current source #2. This current source normally carries a current 2I, thus the
capacitor is discharged with a net-current I and the voltage across it drops linearly
with time. When it has reached the level of comparator #2 (set at 1/3 of the supply
voltage), the flip-flop is triggered into its original state and the cycle starts again.

POWER AMPLIFIER IC 380

The LM380 is an audio power amplifier integrated circuit (IC). It is a popular

choice for low-power audio amplification applications. The LM380 is capable
of delivering a moderate amount of power to drive small speakers or headphones.
Features of this IC includes the range of supply is wide, less distortion; peak
current is high and the IC offers high i/p impedance, voltage gain is fixed and less
power drain. This IC is the most frequently used device because of its high
performance and cost-effectiveness.
pin-configuration-of-LM380-audio-amplifier
 Pin 1: This is bypass pin
 Pin 2: Non-inverting input
 Pin 3: This is a ground pin
 Pin 4: This is a ground pin
 Pin 5: This is ground pi
 Pin 6: inverting the input
 Pin 7: This is a ground pin
 Pin 8: This is a ground pin
 Pin 9: NC
 Pin 10: This is GND pin
 Pin 11: This is a ground pin
 Pin12: This is a ground pin
 Pin13: NC
 Pin14:+VCC

Applications

The applications of the LM380 IC include the following.

 TV sound systems,
 Intercoms
 Ultrasonic drivers
 Line drivers
 Alarms
 Phonograph amplifiers
 Some other applications of this mainly include AM radio, motor drivers, power
converters, FM radio, servo, etc.

MULTIVIBRATOR TIME IC 555

A multi-vibrator is a one type of electronic circuit, that is used to implement a two

state system like flip-flops, timers and oscillators. Multi-vibrators are categorized
by two amplifying devices like electron tubes, transistors and other devices like
capacitors and cross coupled by resistors.
Multi-vibrators are classified into three types based on the circuit operation, namely
As table multi-vibrators, Bi stable multi-vibrators and Mono stable multi-vibrators.
The as-table multi-vibrator is not stable and it repeatedly switches from one state to
the other. In mono stable multi-vibrator, one state is stable and remaining state is
unstable. A trigger pulse is applied to the circuit to enter the unstable state. When
the circuit enters into the unstable state, then it will return to the normal state after a
fixed time. This multi-vibrator circuit is also called as flip-flop which can be used
to store one bit of data.
When initially power is turned ON, Trigger Pin voltage is below Vcc/3, that makes
the lower comparator output HIGH and SETS the flip flop and output of the 555
chip is HIGH. This makes the transistor Q1 OFF, because Qbar, Q’=0 is directly
applied to base of transistor. As the transistor is OFF, capacitor C1 starts charging
and when it gets charged to a voltage above than Vcc/3, then Lower comparator
output becomes LOW (Upper comparator is also at LOW) and Flip flop output
remains the same as previous (555 output remains HIGH)

Now when capacitor charging gets to voltage above than 2/3Vcc, then the voltage
of non-inverting end (Threshold PIN 6) becomes higher than the inverting end of
the comparator. This makes Upper comparator output HIGH and RESETs the Flip
flop, output of 555 chip becomes LOW. As soon as the output of 555 get LOW
means Q’=1, then transistor Q1 becomes ON and short the capacitor C1 to the
Ground. So the capacitor C1 starts discharging to the ground through the Discharge
PIN 7 and resistor R2.

ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
Basic As table Multi vibrator Circuit

Assume a 6 volt supply and that transistor, TR1 has just switched “OFF” (cut-off)
and its collector voltage is rising towards Vcc, meanwhile transistor TR2 has just
turned “ON”. Plate “A” of capacitor C1 is also rising towards the +6 volts supply
rail of Vcc as it is connected to the collector of TR1 which is now cut-off.
Since TR1 is in cut-off, it conducts no current so there is no volt drop across load
resistor R1.

The other side of capacitor, C1, plate “B”, is connected to the base terminal of
transistor TR2 and at 0.6v because transistor TR2 is conducting (saturation).
Therefore, capacitor C1 has a potential difference of +5.4 volts across its plates,
(6.0 – 0.6v) from point A to point B.
Since TR2 is fully-on, capacitor C2 starts to charge up through
resistor R2 towards V CC . When the voltage across capacitor C2 rises to more than
0.6v, it biases transistor TR1 into conduction and into saturation.

The instant that transistor, TR1 switches “ON”, plate “A” of the capacitor which
was originally at V CC potential, immediately falls to 0.6 volts. This rapid fall of
voltage on plate “A” causes an equal and instantaneous fall in voltage on plate “B”
therefore plate “B” of C1 is pulled down to -5.4v (a reverse charge) and this
negative voltage swing is applied the base of TR2 turning it hard “OFF”. One
unstable state.

Transistor TR2 is driven into cut-off so capacitor C1 now begins to charge in the
opposite direction via resistor R3 which is also connected to the +6 volts supply
rail, V CC . Thus the base of transistor TR2 is now moving upwards in a positive
direction towards V CC with a time constant equal to the C1 x R3 combination.

However, it never reaches the value of V CC because as soon as it gets to 0.6 volts
positive, transistor TR2 turns fully “ON” into saturation. This action starts the
whole process over again but now with capacitor C2 taking the base of
transistor TR1 to -5.4v while charging up via resistor R2 and entering the second
unstable state.

Then we can see that the circuit alternates between one unstable state in which
transistor TR1 is “OFF” and transistor TR2 is “ON”, and a second unstable in
which TR1 is “ON” and TR2 is “OFF” at a rate determined by the RC values. This
process will repeat itself over and over again as long as the supply voltage is
present.

The amplitude of the output waveform is approximately the same as the supply
voltage, V CC with the time period of each switching state determined by the time
 constant of the RC networks connected across the base terminals of the transistors.
As the transistors are switching both “ON” and “OFF”, the output at either
collector will be a square wave with slightly rounded corners because of the
current which charges the capacitors. If the two time constants produced by C2 x
R2 and C1 x R3 in the base circuits are the same, the mark-to-space ratio ( t1/t2 )
will be equal to one-to-one making the output waveform symmetrical in shape. By
varying the capacitors, C1, C2 or the resistors, R2, R3 the mark-to-space ratio and
therefore the frequency can be altered.

The frequency of oscillation of the circuit:

1
f=
( t 1 +t 2 ) ln 2

where t 1=C1 R1

t 2=C 2 R2

If C 1=C2 ∧R 1=R2=R❑ so

1
f= HZ
2 R . C . ln 2

Advantages of astable multi-vibrator

1. Circuit design is simple.

2. Inexpensive.
3. Can function continuously.

Disadvantages of As table Multi vibrator

1. Energy absorption is more within the circuit.

2. Output signal is of low energy.
3. Duty cycle less than or equal to 50% can’t be achieved.

Applications of As table Multi vibrator

As table Multi vibrators are used in many applications such as amateur radio
equipment, Morse code generators, timer circuits, analog circuits, and TV systems.

Mono stable Multi vibrator

Mono stable multi-vibrators have only one stable state that is used to generate a
single output pulse of a specified width either high or low when an external trigger
pulse is applied. This trigger pulse starts a timing cycle, which causes the output to
change its state at the time of start of timing cycle and continues in the second state
which is decided by the time constant of the capacitor C and resistor R until it
returns to its original state. It will continue in this state until another input signal is
received. Mono stable multi-vibrators can produce a much longer rectangular
waveform. When a trigger pulse is applied externally then the leading edge of the
waveform rises with the externally applied trigger. Here, trailing edge depends
upon the RC time constant of the feedback components used. This RC time
constant may be varied with time to produce a series of pulses which have a fixed
time delay to the original triggered pulse.

Circuit Connections of Mono stable Multi vibrator with 555 Timer

 Fig.1 Mono-stable Muti-vibrator using 555 IC Timer

In the above circuit, the pin1 is connected to the ground and the trigger input is
given to the pin2. In inactive condition of output, this input is kept at +VCC. To
get transition of the output from a stable state to unstable state, a negative going
pulse of narrow width and amplitude of greater than +2/3 VCC is applied to pin2.
The output is taken from pin3 and pin4 is connected to +VCC to avoid accidental
reset. Pin5 is connected to the ground via a 0.01uF capacitor to avoid noise. Pin6
and pin7 are shorted and a resistor is connected between pins 6 and 8. A discharge
capacitor is connected to pin7 while pin8 is connected to VCC.

Working of Mono stable Multi vibrator with 555 Timer Circuit

Operation of Mono-stable Multi-vibrator

Firstly, when the circuit is switched ON, transistor Q1 will be in OFF state and
Q2 will be in ON state. This is the stable state. As Q1 is OFF, the collector voltage
will be VCC at point A and hence C1 gets charged. A positive trigger pulse applied
at the base of the transistor Q1 turns the transistor ON. This decreases the collector
voltage, which turns OFF the transistor Q2. The capacitor C1 starts discharging at
this point of time. As the positive voltage from the collector of transistor Q2 gets
applied to transistor Q1, it remains in ON state. This is the quasi-stable state or
Meta-stable state.

The transistor Q2 remains in OFF state, until the capacitor C1 discharges

completely. After this, the transistor Q2 turns ON with the voltage applied through
the capacitor discharge. This turn ON the transistor Q1, which is the previous stable
state.
Output Waveform

The output wave-forms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 along with the trigger input
given at the base of Q1 are shown bellow

The width of this output pulse depends upon the RC time constant. Hence it
depends on the values of R1C1. The duration of pulse is given by

T=0.69R1C1T=0.69R1C1

ln2 = 0.693

The trigger input given will be of very short duration, just to initiate the action.
This triggers the circuit to change its state from Stable state to Quasi-stable or
Meta-stable or Semi-stable state, in which the circuit remains for a short duration.
There will be one output pulse for one trigger pulse.
Finally we can conclude that, in the mono stable multi vibrator using 555 timer, the
output stays in a low state until it gets a trigger input. This type of operation is used
in push to operate systems. When the input is triggered, then the o/p will go to high
state & comes back to its original state.

Advantages of Mono stable Multi vibrator

1. It needs only one single pulse to start its operation there is no need of extra

pulse for its operation.

2. Its construction is very simple and can be constructed easily.

3. Due to simple construction its price is also less.

Disadvantages of Mono stable Multi vibrator

The major drawback of using a mono stable multi vibrator is that the time between
the applications of trigger pulse T has to be greater than the RC time constant of
the circuit.

Applications of Mono stable Multi vibrator

1. Due to time delay capability, it is mostly used in different timer circuits.

2. It also used in different storage circuits (registers)

3. It also used to provide input to other pulse generator circuits.

4. It also has ability to reproduce damage pulses again.

WAVEFORM GENERATOR.

An arbitrary waveform generator (AWG) is a piece of electronic test

equipment used to generate electrical waveforms. These waveform can be either
repetitive or single-shot (once only) in which case some kind of triggering source
is required (internal or external). The resulting waveform can be injected into a
device under test and analyzed as they progress through it, confirming the proper
operation of the device or pinpointing a fault in it.

Among the wave-forms that can be generated with an op amps, the most common
are the triangular, the ramp ( saw tooth) and square wave.

LOW-PASS FILTER

A low-pass filter (LPF) is a circuit that only passes signals below its cutoff
frequency while attenuating all signals above it. It is the complement of a high-
pass filter, which only passes signals above its cutoff frequency and attenuates all
signals below it.

Low-pass filters can also be used in conjunction with high-pass filters to form
band-pass, band-stop, and notch filters. A band-pass filter passes a range of
frequencies while attenuating all frequencies outside of the band. A band-stop filter
(also called a band reject filter) does the opposite, attenuating signals within its
stop-band while passing all frequencies outside of it. Notch filters are a type of
band-stop filter that attenuate a very narrow set of frequencies, which can be
created from a combination of low-pass and high-pass filters with cutoff
frequencies very close to each other.

A low-pas filter can be made with an op amp as the active element and resistors
and capacitors as passive components.
Note:Z1=R20, Z2=C6, Z3=R22, Z4=C10, Z5=R23

The low-pass filter has impedance of Z1 -Z5 where Z1, Z3 and Z5 are resistors and
Z2 and Z4 are capacitors. The characteristics of the filter are determined by the
type and value of the impedance used. The input output relationship is represented
by:

Vo Z 2. Z 4. Z 5
=
V ¿ Z 1. Z 3. Z 5+ Z 1. Z 2. Z 5+ Z 1. Z 2. Z 3+ Z 2. Z 3. Z 5 − Z 2. Z 1. Z 4

The relationship assumes that the input impedance of the operational amplifier is
infinite ( the inverting input can be considered to be a virtual ground. By applying
the superposition principle the equation given can be obtained.

By changing the general impedance Z n of the formula to be the component used,

the general formula for the low-pass filter can be obtained by :

1
Vo R 20 ∗ R 22 ∗C 6 ∗C 10
=
( )
V¿ jω 1 1 1
− ω2 + ∗ + + + R 20 ∗ R 23 ∗C 6 ∗C 10
C1 R20 R22 R23

Where ω is the angular frequency of the input signal.

The cut-off frequency F C of the filter is determined by the value of the passive
components:

1
F C= the gain of the filter at the frequency f Hz dc is given by:
2 π √ R 2 ∗ R 3 ∗ C1 ∗C 2

R3
Go=−
R1

Figure 1Amplitude and group delay vs. frequency for various filter types
normalized to a 1-rad bandwidth