Waves

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SUMMARY
� When an object or a particle moves back and forth repeatedly about a reference
point for some duration of time it is said to have Oscillatory (or vibratory) motion.
� For a SHM, the acceleration or force on the particle is directly proportional to its
displacement from a fixed point and always directed towards that fixed point. The force is
Fx = − k x
where k is a constant whose dimension is force per unit length, called as force
constant.
� In Simple harmonic motion, the displacement, y = A sin ωt.
� In Simple harmonic motion, the velocity, v = A ω cos ωt = ω A2 - y 2 .
d2 y
� In Simple harmonic motion, the acceleration, a = =− ω 2 y .
dt 2
� The time period is defined as the time taken by a particle to complete one oscillation.
2π
It is usually denoted by T. Time period T = .
ω
� The number of oscillations produced by the particle per second is called frequency. It
is denoted by f. SI unit for frequency is S−1 or hertz (In symbol, Hz). Mathematically,
1
frequency is related to time period by f = .
T
1 κ
� The frequency of the angular harmonic motion is f = Hz
2π I
� For n springs connected in series, the effective spring constant in series is
1 1 1 1 1 n
1
= + + + ... + = ∑
ks k1 k2 k3 kn i=0 ki
� For n springs connected in parallel, the effective spring constant is

n
k p = ∑ ki
i =1
l
� The time period for U-tube oscillation is T =2π second.
2g
� For a conservative system in one dimension, the force field can be derived from a
dU
scalar potential energy: F =− .
dx
1
� In a simple harmonic motion, potential energy is U (x )= mω 2 x 2 .
2
1 1
� In a simple harmonic motion, kinetic energy is KE = mv x2 = mω 2 (A2 − x 2 ) .
2 2
1
� Total energy for a simple harmonic motion is E = mω 2 A2 = constant.
2
� Types of oscillations – Free oscillations, Damped oscillations, Maintained oscillations
and Forced oscillations.
� Resonance is a special case of forced oscillations.
216 Unit 10 O scill ations
UNIT-10(XI-Physics_Vol-2).indd 216 25-03-2022 20:30:36

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CONCEPT MAP
Oscillation
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
a= −ω2 A sinω t F=−kx x=+A sinωt

a= −ω2 y d 2x + ω2 x = 0 V=Aω cosωt
dt 2
F = − dU
dx U= 12 kx 2
v = ω A2 − y 2
TE = 12 k A2 KE = 12 mv 2 T = 2π
ω Angular
SHM
ω = κ
Linear I
SHM
ω= k
m
Simple Pendulum U - Tube k Spring mass

m
Ø L c
s m
-mg sinØ Ø
Combination of Springs
(1) Series:
Differential Differential
k1 k2 m
equation: equation:
d i =− gi
2
d y
2
2g k s = kk+1 k2
k2
2 =− y 1
dt 2 l dt l (2) Parallel:
Time Period: Time Period: k1
l l m k p = k1 + k2
T = 2π g T = 2π 2g k2
Unit 10 O scill ations 217

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EVALUATION
I. Multiple Choice Questions

1. In a simple harmonic oscillation, the their maximum velocities are in the
acceleration against displacement for ratio 1:2, the ratio of the amplitude A
one complete oscillation will be to that of B is
(model NSEP 2000-01) kB kB
a) b)
a) an ellipse b) a circle 2k A 8k A
c) a parabola d) a straight line 2kB 8kB
c) d)
2. A particle executing SHM crosses kA kA
points A and B with the same velocity. 6. A spring is connected to a mass m
Having taken 3 s in passing from A to suspended from it and its time period
B, it returns to B after another 3 s. The for vertical oscillation is T. The spring
time period is is now cut into two equal halves and
a) 15 s b) 6 s the same mass is suspended from one
c) 12 s d) 9 s of the halves. The period of vertical
3. The length of a second’s pendulum oscillation is
on the surface of the Earth is 0.9 m. T
a) T ′ = 2 T b) T ′ =
The length of the same pendulum 2
on surface of planet X such that the
T
acceleration of the planet X is n times c) T ′ = 2T d) T ′ =
2
greater than the Earth is
0.9 7. The displacement of a simple harmonic
a) 0.9n b) m
n motion is given by y(t) = A sin (ωt + ϕ)
c) 0.9n2m
0.9
d) 2 where A is amplitude of the oscillation,
n ω is the angular frequency and ϕ
4. A simple pendulum is suspended from is the phase. Let the amplitude of
the roof of a school bus which moves the oscillation be 8 cm and the time
in a horizontal direction with an period of the oscillation is 24 s. If the
acceleration a, then the time period is displacement at initial time (t = 0 s) is
1 1 4 cm, then the displacement at t = 6 s is
a) T∝ b) T∝ g 2 + a2
g + a2
2
(a) 8 cm
c) T∝ g + a 2 2
d) T∝ (g + a )
2 2
(b) 4 cm
5. Two bodies A and B whose masses are
(c) 4 3 cm
in the ratio 1:2 are suspended from
two separate massless springs of force (d) 8 3 cm
constants kA and kB respectively. If the
two bodies oscillate vertically such that

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8. A simple pendulum has a time period 12. The damping force on an oscillator is
T1. When its point of suspension is directly proportional to the velocity. The
moved vertically upwards according units of the constant of proportionality
as y = k t2, where y is vertical distance are (AIPMT 2012)
covered and k = 1 ms2−2, its time period
a) kg m s−1 b) kg m s−2
becomes T2. Then, T12 is (g = 10 m s−2)
T2
(IIT 2005) c) kg s−1 (d) kg s
5 11
a) b) 13. Let the total energy of a particle
6 10
executing simple harmonic motion with
6 5
c) d) angular frequency is 1 rad s–1 is 0.256 J. If
5 4
9. An ideal spring of spring constant k, is the displacement of the particle at time
π
suspended from the ceiling of a room t = s is 8 2 cm then the amplitude of
2
and a block of mass M is fastened to motion is
its lower end. If the block is released
when the spring is un-stretched, then a) 8 cm b) 16 cm
the maximum extension in the spring c) 32 cm d) 64 cm
is (IIT 2002)
Mg Mg 14. A particle executes simple harmonic
a) 4 b)
k k motion and displacement y at time t0,
Mg Mg 2t0 and 3t0 are A, B and C, respectively.
c) 2 d)
k 2k
10. A pendulum is hung in a very high Then the value of ∙ A + C ∙ is
2B
building oscillates to and fro motion (a) cos ωt0 (b) cos 2ωt0
freely like a simple harmonic oscillator.
If the acceleration of the bob is 16 ms−2 (c) cos 3ωt0 (d) 1
at a distance of 4 m from the mean 15. A mass of 3 kg is attached at the end of
position, then the time period is a spring moves with simple harmonic
(NEET 2018 model) motion on a horizontal frictionless table
a) 2 s b) 1 s with time period 2π and with amplitude
of 2m, then the maximum fore exerted
c) 2πs (d) πs
on the spring is
11. A hollow sphere is filled with water. It
(a) 1.5 N (b) 3 N
is hung by a long thread. As the water
flows out of a hole at the bottom, the (c) 6 N (d) 12 N
period of oscillation will
Answers:
a) first increase and then decrease
1) d 2) c 3) a 4) b
b) first decrease and then increase
5) b 6) b 7) d 8) c
c) increase continuously 9) c 10) d 11) a 12) c
d) decrease continuously 13) b 14) a 15) c

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II. Short Answers Questions 3. What is meant by angular harmonic

1. What is meant by periodic and non- oscillation?. Compute the time period
periodic motion?. Give any two of angular harmonic oscillation.
examples, for each motion. 4. Write down the difference between
simple harmonic motion and angular
2. What is meant by force constant of a
simple harmonic motion.
spring?.
5. Discuss the simple pendulum in detail.
3. Define time period of simple harmonic
motion. 6. Explain the horizontal oscillations of a
spring.
4. Define frequency of simple harmonic
7. Describe the vertical oscillations of a
motion.
spring.
5. What is an epoch?.
8. Write short notes on the oscillations of
6. Write short notes on two springs liquid column in U-tube.
connected in series.
9. Discuss in detail the energy in simple
7. Write short notes on two springs harmonic motion.
connected in parallel.
10. Explain in detail the four different
8. Write down the time period of simple types of oscillations.
pendulum.
9. State the laws of simple pendulum?. IV. Exercises
10. Write down the equation of time period 1. Given an one dimensional system with
p2x
for linear harmonic oscillator. total energy E = + V(x) = constant,
2m
11. What is meant by free oscillation?. where px is the x component of the linear
12. Explain damped oscillation. Give an momentum and V(x) is the potential
example. energy of the system. Show that total
13. Define forced oscillation. Give an time derivative of energy gives us force
d
example. Fx = – V(x). Verify Hooke’s law by
dx 1
14. What is meant by maintained choosing potential energy V(x) = kx2.
oscillation?. Give an example. 2
15. Explain resonance. Give an example. 2. Consider a simple pendulum of length
l = 0.9 m which is properly placed on a
trolley rolling down on a inclined plane
III. Long Answers Questions
which is at θ = 45° with the horizontal.
1. What is meant by simple harmonic Assuming that the inclined plane is
oscillation?. Give examples and explain frictionless, calculate the time period
why every simple harmonic motion is a of oscillation of the simple pendulum.
periodic motion whereas the converse
need not be true. Answer: 0.86 s
2. Describe Simple Harmonic Motion as a 3. A piece of wood of mass m is floating
projection of uniform circular motion. erect in a liquid whose density is ρ. If it
is slightly pressed down and released,

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then executes simple harmonic motion. 5. Show that for a particle executing
Show that its time period of oscillation simple harmonic motion
m
is T =2π a. the average value of kinetic energy is
Ag ρ
equal to the average value of potential
4. Consider two simple harmonic motion
energy.
along x and y-axis having same
frequencies but different amplitudes as b. average potential energy = average
1
x = A sin (ωt + φ) (along x axis) and y = kinetic energy = (total energy)
2
B sin ωt (along y axis). Then show that
Hint : average kinetic energy = <kinetic
x 2 y 2 2 xy 1 T
+ − cos ϕ = sin2 ϕ energy> = (Kinetic energy )dt
A2 B 2 AB T ∫0
and also discuss the special cases when
and
π
a. φ = 0 b. φ = π c. ϕ =
2 average Potential energy = <Potential
π π
d. ϕ = and A = B (e) ϕ = 1 T
energy> = (Potential energy )dt
T ∫0
2 4
Note: when a particle is subjected to two
simple harmonic motion at right angle to each 6. Compute the time period for the
other the particle may move along different following system if the block of mass
paths. Such paths are called Lissajous figures. m is slightly displaced vertically down
Answer : from its equilibrium position and then
B released. Assume that the pulley is
a. y = x , equation is a straight line light and smooth, strings and springs
A
passing through origin with positive are light.
slope.
k2 k
B
b. y =− x equation is a straight line
A
passing through origin with negative
slope. m m m
x2 y2 k
c. + =1 , equation is an ellipse whose

k1
A2 B 2
center is origin.
k2 k
d. x2+y2 = A2, equation is a circle whose

center is origin . m m m
x 2 y 2 2 xy 1 1 k1
k
e. 2
+ 2− = , equation is an
A B AB 2 2
ellipse (oblique ellipse which means
tilted ellipse)

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Hint and answer:
Case(a) Case(b)
Pulley is fixed rigidly here. When the Mass displace by y, pulley also displaces
mass displace by y and the spring will by y. T = 4ky.
also stretch by y. Therefore, F = T = ky m
T = 2π
4k
m
T = 2π
k
BOOKS FOR REFERENCE

1. Vibrations and Waves – A. P. French, CBS publisher and Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
2. Concepts of Physics – H. C. Verma, Volume 1 and Volume 2, Bharati Bhawan Publisher.
3. Fundamentals of Physics – Halliday, Resnick and Walker, Wiley Publishers, 10th edition.
4. Physics for Scientist and Engineers with Modern Physics – Serway and Jewett, Brook/
Coole Publishers, Eighth Edition.

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ICT CORNER
Oscillations
Through this activity you will be able to

learn about the resonance.
STEPS:
• Use the URL or scan the QR code to open ‘PhET’ simulation on ‘Resonance’. Click the play
button.
• In the activity window a diagram of resonator is given. Click the play icon and move the
slider on ‘sim speed’ given below to see the resonance.
• Move the slider to change ‘Number of Resonators’, ‘Mass’ and ‘Spring constant’ on the right
side window and see the ‘frequency’.
• S elect the ‘On’, ‘Off ’ button on ‘Gravity’ to see the different resonance.
Step1 Step2
Step3 Step4
URL:
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/resonance
* Pictures are indicative only.
*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.

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UNIT
11 WAVES
We are slowed down sound and light waves, a walking bundle of frequencies tuned into the cosmos.
We are souls dressed up in sacred biochemical garments and our bodies are the instruments through
which our souls play their music – Albert Einstein
Learning Objectives
In this unit, the student is exposed to

• waves and their types (transverse and longitudinal)
• basic terms like wavelength, frequency, time period and amplitude of a wave
• velocity of transverse waves and longitudinal waves
• velocity of sound waves
• reflection of sound waves from plane and curved surfaces and its applications
• progressive waves and their graphical representation
• superposition principle, interference of waves, beats and standing waves
• characteristics of stationary waves, sonometer
• fundamental frequency, harmonics and overtones
• intensity and loudness
• vibration of air column – closed organ pipe, open organ pipe and resonance air column
• Doppler effect and its applications
propagates and reaches the other end. That

11.1 is, the disturbance produced at the first mass
INTRODUCTION point is transmitted to the next neighbouring
mass point, and so on. Notice that here, only
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the the disturbance is transmitted, not the mass
oscillation of a particle. Consider a medium points. Similarly, the speech we deliver is due
which consists of a collection of particles. to the vibration of our vocal chord inside
If the disturbance is created at one end, it the throat. This leads to the vibration of the
surrounding air molecules and hence, the
effect of speech (information) is transmitted
from one point in space to another point
in space without the medium carrying the
particles. Thus, the disturbance which carries
energy and momentum from one point in space
to another point in space without the transfer of
Figure 11.1 Standing waves in a violin
the medium is known as a wave.
224

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(a) (b) (c)

Figure 11.2 Waves formed in (a) ocean, (b) standing waves in plucking rubber band and
(c) ripples formed on water surface
Standing near a beach, one can observe waves surface as shown in Figure 11.3. We find
in the ocean reaching the seashore with a that this disturbance spreads out (diverges
similar wave pattern; hence they are called out) in the form of concentric circles of
ocean waves. A rubber band when plucked ever increasing radii (ripples) and strike
vibrates like a wave which is an example of the boundary of the trough. This is because
a standing wave. These are shown in Figure some of the kinetic energy of the stone is
11.2. Other examples of waves are light transmitted to the water molecules on the
waves (electromagnetic waves), through surface. Actually the particles of the water
which we see and enjoy the beauty of nature (medium) themselves do not move outward
and sound waves using which we hear and with the disturbance. This can be observed
enjoy pleasant melodious songs. Day to day by keeping a paper strip on the water
applications of waves are numerous, such surface. The strip moves up and down when
as mobile phone communication, laser the disturbance (wave) passes on the water
surgery, etc. surface. This shows that the water molecules
only undergo vibratory motion about their
11.1.1 Ripples and wave mean positions.
formation on the water
surface
11.1.2 Formation of waves
on stretched string
Let us take a long string and tie one end of

the string to the wall as shown in Figure
11.4 (a). If we give a quick jerk, a bump (like
pulse) is produced in the string as shown
in Figure 11.4 (b). Such a disturbance is
sudden and it lasts for a short duration,
Figure 11.3 Ripples formed on the hence it is known as a wave pulse. If jerks
surface of water
are given continuously then the waves
produced are standing waves. Similar
Suppose we drop a stone in a trough of still
waves are produced by a plucked string in
water, we can see a disturbance produced at
the place where the stone strikes the water a guitar.
Unit 11 Waves 225

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Compression
(a)
Rarefaction
Mean position
(b)
Mean position Compression
(c) Expansion
Mean position Compression
Expansion
Figure 11.5 Waves due to strike of a

Figure 11.4: Wave pulse created during tuning fork on a rubber pad
jerk produced on one end of the string
11.1.4 Characteristics of
11.1.3 Formation of waves wave motion
in a tuning fork • For the propagation of the waves, the
When we strike a tuning fork on a rubber medium must possess both inertia and
elasticity, which decide the velocity of
pad, the prongs of the tuning fork vibrate
the wave in that medium.
about their mean positions. The prong
• In a given medium, the velocity of a wave
vibrating about a mean position means
is a constant whereas the constituent
moving outward and inward, as indicated particles in that medium move with
in the Figure 11.5. When a prong moves different velocities at different positions.
outward, it pushes the layer of air in its Velocity is maximum at their mean
neighbourhood which means there is more position and zero at extreme positions.
accumulation of air molecules in this region. • Waves undergo reflections, refraction,
Hence, the density and also the pressure interference, diffraction and polarization.
increase. These regions are known as
compressed regions or compressions. This
compressed air layer moves forward and Point to ponder
compresses the next neighbouring layer in a
similar manner. Thus a wave of compression The medium possesses both inertia and
advances or passes through air. When the elasticity for propagation of waves.
prong moves inwards, the particles of the Light is an electromagnetic wave. what is
medium are moved to the right. In this the medium for its transmission?
region both density and pressure are low. It
is known as a rarefaction or elongation.
226 Unit 11 Waves

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11.1.5 Mechanical wave In transverse wave motion, the constituents

motion and its types of the medium oscillate or vibrate about their
mean positions in a direction perpendicular
Wave motion can be classified into two to the direction of propagation (direction
types of energy transfer) of waves as shown in
a. Mechanical wave – Waves which require Figure 11.6.
a medium for propagation are known as Example: light (electromagnetic waves)
mechanical waves.
Examples: sound waves, ripples formed 11.1.7 Longitudinal wave
on the surface of water, etc. motion
b. Non mechanical wave – Waves which do In longitudinal wave motion, the constituents
not require any medium for propagation of the medium oscillate or vibrate about their
are known as non-mechanical waves. mean positions in a direction parallel to the
Example: light waves, Infra red rays etc. direction of propagation (direction of energy
Further, waves can also be classified into transfer) of waves as shown in Figure 11.7.
two types Example: Sound waves travelling in air.
a. Transverse waves
Discuss with your Teacher
b. Longitudinal waves
• Tsunami (pronounced soo-nah-mee
in Japanese) means Harbour waves.
• Tsunami is a series of huge and giant
11.1.6 Transverse wave waves which come with great speed
motion and huge force. What happened on
26th December2004 in southern part
of India? - Discuss
P
• Gravitational waves and LIGO (Laser
lnterferometer Gravitational wave
Observatory) experiment.
• Nobel Prize winners in Physics 2017 are
Prof. Rainer Weiss, Prof. Barry
C. Barish and Prof. Kip S. Thorne
for decisive contributions to the
LIGO detector and observation of
Figure 11.6 Transverse wave gravitational forces.
Compressed Stretched Compressed Stretched
Longitudinal waves Motion

Figure 11.7 Longitudinal waves
Unit 11 Waves 227

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Table 11.1: Comparison of transverse and longitudinal waves

S.No. Transverse waves Longitudinal waves
1. The direction of vibration of particles The direction of vibration of particles of
of the medium is perpendicular to the the medium is parallel to the direction of
direction of propagation of waves. propagation of waves.
2. The disturbances are in the form of crests The disturbances are in the form of
and troughs. compressions and rarefactions.
3. Transverse waves are possible in elastic Longitudinal waves are possible in all
medium. types of media (solid, liquid and gas).
NOTE:
1. Absence of medium is also known as vacuum. Only electromagnetic waves can travel through vacuum.
2. Rayleigh waves are considered to be mixture of transverse and longitudinal.
11.2 If we are interested in counting the number

of waves created, let us put a reference level
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS (mean position) as shown in Figure 11.9. Here
USED IN WAVE MOTION the mean position is the horizontal line shown.
The highest point in the shaded portion is
Y
called crest. With respect to the reference level,
X the lowest point on the un-shaded portion is
O called trough. This wave contains repetition of
a section O to B and hence we define the length
of the smallest section without repetition
Figure 11.8 Two different sinusoidal as one wavelength as shown in Figure 11.10.
waves
In Figure 11.10 the length OB or length BD
is one wavelengh. A Greek letter lambda λ is
Suppose we have two waves as shown in used to denote one wavelength.
Figure 11.8. Are these two waves identical? No.
Though, the two waves are both sinusoidal, there
are many difference between them. Therefore, A B O A B C D
O
we have to define some basic terminologies to
λ λ λ
distinguish one wave from another. One wavelength = λ Two wavelength = 2λ
Consider a wave produced in a stretched Figure 11.10 Defining wavelength

string as shown in Figure 11.9.
For transverse waves (as shown in Figure
Crest 11.11), the distance between two neighbouring
crests or troughs is known as the wavelength.
O A B C For longitudinal waves, (as shown in
D
Figure 11.12) the distance between two
Trough neighbouring compressions or rarefactions
Figure 11.9 Crest and Trough of a wave is known as the wavelength. The SI unit of
wavelength is meter.
228 Unit 11 Waves

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A
t = 0s
Y λ A
(a)
X A
λ t = 1s
λ t = 0s (b)
A
Figure 11.13 A wave consisting of three
wavelengths passing a point A at time
Wavelength (a) t = 0 s and (b) after time t = 1 s
t = 1s
Figure 11.11 Wavelength for transverse waves
If two waves take one second (time) to cross
the point A then the time taken by one wave
Compression Expansion
to cross the point A is half a second. This
defines the time period T as
Compressed Compressed 1
λ T= = 0.5 s(11.2)
2
Stretched Stretched
λ
From equation (11.1) and equation (11.2),
frequency and time period are inversely
Figure 11.12 Wavelength for related i.e.,
longitudinal waves
1
T=
f (11.3)
E X A M P L E 11. 1
Which of the following has longer Time period is defined as the time taken by
wavelength? one wave to cross a point.
y y y
E X A M P L E 11 . 2
0 x 0 34 x 0
x
1 2 1 2 12 3 4 Three waves are shown in the figure below.
(a) (b) (c) (a)
Answer is (c)
(b)
In order to understand frequency and time
period, let us consider waves (made of three (c)
wavelengths) as shown in Figure 11.13 (a).
At time t = 0 s, the wave reaches the point A
from left. After time t = 1 s (shown in figure Write down
11.13(b)), the number of waves which have (a) the frequency in ascending order
crossed the point A is two. Therefore, the (b) the wavelength in ascending order
frequency is defined as the number of waves
crossing a point per second. It is measured in Solution
hertz whose symbol is Hz. In this example, (a) fc < fa < fb
f = 2 Hz (11.1) (b) λb < λa < λc
Unit 11 Waves 229

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From the example 11.2, we observe that E X A M P L E 11 . 3

the frequency is inversely related to the
1 The average range of frequencies at which
wavelength, f  .
 human beings can hear sound waves
Then, f λ is equal to what? varies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Calculate
1 the wavelength of the sound wave in these
f[(i.e)
 f  ? ]
 limits. (Assume the speed of sound to be
A simple dimensional argument will help 340 m s–1.
us to determine this unknown physical
Solution
quantity.
v 340
Dimension of wavelength is, [λ] = L 1 =   17 m
f1 20
1 v
requency f =
F , which implies 2 = 
340
 0.017 m
Time period f 2 20 103
that the dimension of frequency is,
Therefore, the audible wavelength region is
1
[f]= = T −1 from 0.017 m to 17 m when the velocity of
[T ]
sound in that region is 340 m s–1.
⇒ [λf] = [λ][f ]= LT–1 = [velocity]
Therefore, E X A M P L E 11 . 4
Velocity, λf = v(11.4) A man saw a toy duck on a wave in an
ocean. He noticed that the duck moved
where v is known as the wave velocity or up and down 15 times per minute. He
phase velocity. This is the velocity with roughly measured the wavelength of the
which the wave propagates. Wave velocity
ocean wave as 1.2 m. Calculate the time
is the distance travelled by a wave in one
taken by the toy duck for going one time
second.
up and down and also the velocity of the
Note: ocean wave.
1. The number of cycles (or revolutions)
per unit time is called angular frequency.
2π
Angular frequency, ω = = 2πf (unit is
T
radians/second)
2. The number of cycles per unit distance
or number of waves per unit distance is
called wave number.
wave number, k =
2π
(unit is radians/ Solution
λ Given that the number of times the toy duck
meter)
The velocity v, angular frequency ω and moves up and down is 15 times per minute.
wave number k are related as: This information gives us frequency (the
λ (2πf ) ω number of times the toy duck moves up
velocity, v = λf = (2πf ) = =
2π 2π / λ k and down)
230 Unit 11 Waves

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15 times toy duck moves up and down axis (for example in this case x-axis). Here,
f=
one minute it is denoted by A.
But one minute is 60 second, therefore, E X A M P L E 11 . 5

expressing time in terms of second
Consider a string whose one end is
15 1 attached to a wall. Then compute the
f = = = 0.25 Hz
60 4 following in both situations given in figure
The time taken by the toy duck for going (assume waves crosses the distance in one
one time up and down is time period which second)
is inverse of frequency
1 1
T= = =4s 12 m
f 0.25
The velocity of ocean wave is

12 m
v = λf = 1.2 ×0.25 = 0.3 m s . –1
(a) Wavelength, (b) Frequency and

Amplitude of a wave: (c) Velocity
y
Solution
First case Second case
A1 x
(a) Wavelength λ=6m λ=2m
λ
-y (b) Frequency f = 2 Hz f = 6 Hz
y
(c) Velocity v=6×2 v=2×6
A2 = 12 m s–1 = 12 m s–1
x
This means that the speed of the wave along
λ a string is a constant. Higher the frequency,
-y
shorter the wavelength and vice versa, and
Figure 11.14 Waves of different their product is velocity which remains the
amplitude same.
The waves shown in the Figure 11.14 have

same wavelength, same frequency and 11.3
same time period and also move with VELOCITY OF WAVES IN
same velocity. The only difference between DIFFERENT MEDIA
two waves is the height of either crest or
trough. This means, the height of the crest Suppose a hammer is struck on long rails at
or trough also signifies a wave character. a distance and when a person keeps his ear
So we define a quantity called an amplitude near the rails at the other end he/she will hear
of the wave, as the maximum displacement two sounds, at different instants. The sound
of the medium with respect to a reference that is heard through the rails (solid medium)
Unit 11 Waves 231

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is faster than the sound we hear through

dm
the air (gaseous medium). This implies the µ=
dl (11.5)
velocity of sound is different in different
media. dm = μ dl(11.6)
The elemental string AB has a curvature
In this section, we shall derive the velocity
which looks like an arc of a circle with centre
of waves in two different cases: at O, radius R and the arc subtending an angle
1. The velocity of a transverse waves along θ at the origin O as shown in Figure 11.15(b).
a stretched string. The angle θ can be written in terms of arc
2. The velocity of a longitudinal waves in dl
length and radius as θ = . The centripetal
an elastic medium. R
acceleration supplied by the tension in the
string is
11.3.1 Velocity of transverse
waves in a stretched string acp =
v2
(11.7)
R
Let us compute the velocity of transverse
travelling waves on a string. When a jerk is Then, centripetal force is
given at one end (left end) of the rope, the wave (dm)v 2
Fcp = (11.8)
pulses move towards right end with a velocity v R
with respect to an observer who is at rest frame. From eqn 11.6,
Consider an elemental segment in the string
(dm)v 2 µv 2 dl (11.9)
as shown in the Figure 11.15. Let A and B be =
R R
two points on the string at an instant of time.
Let dl and dm be the length and mass of the The tension T acts along the tangent of the
elemental string, respectively. By definition, elemental segment of the string at A and B.
linear mass density, μ is Since the arc length is very small, variation
V
∆x B
T cos (
θ A
T cos (
θ

θ θ

v (pulse) θ θ
∆x T F
R θ θ
T
Note
T sin (
θ
T sin (
θ

R O θ

θ

v (pulse)
O
Figure 11.15 Elemental segment in a stretched string is zoomed and the pulse seen from an
observer frame who moves with velocity v.
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in the tension force can be ignored. We E X A M P L E 11 . 6

can resolve T into horizontal component
θ θ Calculate the velocity of the travelling
T cos   and vertical component T sin  . pulse as shown in the figure below. The
 2   2 
The horizontal components at A and B linear mass density of pulse is 0.25 kg m–1.
are equal in magnitude but opposite in Further, compute the time taken by the
direction; therefore, they cancel each other. travelling pulse to cover a distance of
Since the elemental arc length AB is taken 30 cm on the string.
to be very small, the vertical components at
A and B appears to acts vertical towards the
centre of the arc and hence, they add up. The
net radial force Fr is
θ 1.2 kg
Fr = 2T sin  (11.10)
2
Since the amplitude of the wave is very small Solution
when it is compared with the length of the The tension in the string is T = m g =
θ θ 1.2 × 9.8 = 11.76 N
string, sin  ≈ . Hence,
2 2 The mass per unit length is μ = 0.25 kg m–1
Therefore, velocity of the wave pulse is
Fr = 2T × θ = Tθ(11.11)
2 T 11.76
v= = = 6.858 m s−1 = 6.8 m s−1
dl µ 0.25
But θ = , we get
R
The time taken by the pulse to cover the
dl
Fr = T (11.12) distance of 30 cm is
R
d 30 102
Applying Newton’s second law to the t   0.044 s  44 m s where,
v 6.8
elemental string in the radial direction,
ms = milli second.
under equilibrium, the radial component
of the force is equal to the centripetal
force. Hence equating equation (11.9) and
equation (11.12), we have 11.3.2 Velocity of
dl dl longitudinal waves in an
T = µv 2 elastic medium
R R
T Consider an elastic medium (here we assume

v= (11.13) air) having a fixed mass contained in a long
µ
tube (cylinder) whose cross sectional area is
Observations:
A and maintained under a pressure P. One
• The velocity of the string is
can generate longitudinal waves in the fluid
a. directly proportional to the square either by displacing the fluid using a piston or
root of the tension force by keeping a vibrating tuning fork at one end
b. inversely proportional to the square of the tube. Let us assume that the direction
root of linear mass density of propagation of waves coincides with the
c. independent of shape of the waves. axis of the cylinder. Let ρ be the density of
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V ∆V
∆P = K
V
Air
where, V is original volume and K is known
as bulk modulus of the elastic medium.
But V = A ∆x = A v ∆t and
F = PA ρP Air
∆V = A ∆d =A u ∆t
Therefore,
u∆t v∆t
Au ∆t u
∆P = K = K (11.15)
F = (P+∆P) A PA Av ∆t v
Comparing equation (11.14) and equation

Figure 11.16 Longitudinal waves in the
(11.15), we get
fluid by displacing the fluid using a piston
u K
the fluid which is initially at rest. At t = 0, the ρv u = K or v 2 =
v ρ
piston at left end of the tube is set in motion
toward the right with a speed u. K
⇒ v= (11.16)
ρ
Let u be the velocity of the piston and v
be the velocity of the elastic wave. In time
In general, the velocity of a longitudinal
interval Δt, the distance moved by the piston
Δd = u Δt. Now, the distance moved by the E
wave in elastic medium is v = , where E
elastic disturbance is Δx = vΔt. Let Δm be the ρ
mass of the air that has attained a velocity v is the modulus of elasticity of the medium.
in a time Δt . Therefore, Cases: For a solid :
Δm = ρ A Δx = ρ A (v Δt) (i) one dimensional rod (1D)
Then, the momentum imparted due to Y
motion of piston with velocity u is v= (11.17)
ρ
Δp = [ρ A (v Δt)]u
where Y is the Young’s modulus of the
But the change in momentum is impulse. material of the rod and ρ is the density of
The net impulse is the rod. The 1D rod will have only Young’s
modulus.
I = (ΔP A)Δt (ii) Three dimensional rod (3D) The speed
Or (ΔP A)Δt = [ρ A (v Δt)]u of longitudinal wave in a solid is
ΔP = ρ v u(11.14) 4
K+ η
When the sound wave passes through v= 3 (11.18)
ρ
air, the small volume element (ΔV) of the
air undergoes regular compressions and where η is the modulus of rigidity, K is the
rarefactions. So, the change in pressure can bulk modulus and ρ is the density of the rod.
also be written as
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Cases: For liquids:

(b) Speed of sound in water is
K
v= (11.19) K 2000×106
ρ v= = = 1414 ms−1
ρ 1000
where, K (or) B is the bulk modulus and ρ is
the density of the rod.
The velocities of both
E X A M P L E 11. 7 Note transverse waves and
Calculate the speed of sound in a steel rod longitudinal waves depend
whose Young’s modulus Y = 2 × 1011 N m–2 on elastic property (like string tension
and ρ = 7800 kg m–3. T or bulk modulus K) and inertial
property (like density or mass per
Solution unit length) i.e.,
Y 2×1011
= v= = 0.2564 ×108 = 0.506×104 ms−1 = 5×103 ms−1
ρ 7800
Table 11.2: Speed of sound in
11
×10 various media
= 0.2564 ×108 = 0.506×104 ms−1 = 5×103 ms−1
7800
S.No. Medium Speed in m s–1
Therefore, longitudinal waves travel faster
in a solid than in a liquid or a gas. Now you Solids
may understand why a shepherd checks 1. Rubber 1600
before crossing railway track by keeping 2. Gold 3240
his ears on the rails to safegaurd his cattle.
3. Brass 4700
E X A M P L E 11. 8 4. Copper 5010
5. Iron 5950
An increase in pressure of 100 kPa causes
a certain volume of water to decrease by 6. Aluminum 6420
0.005% of its original volume. Liquids at 25°C
(a)
Calculate the bulk modulus of 1. Kerosene 1324
water? 2. Mercury 1450
(b)
Compute the speed of sound 3. Water 1493
(compressional waves) in water? 4. Sea Water 1533
Solution Gas (at 0°C)

1. Oxygen 317
(a) Bulk modulus 2. Air 331
∆P 100 × 10 3
100 × 103
B =V = −2
= = 2000 MPa 3. Helium 972
∆V 0.005 × 10 5 × 10 −5
4. Hydrogen 1286
∆P 100 × 103
−2 = 100 × 10
3
B =V = = 2000 MPa , where Gas (at 20°C)
∆V 0.005 × 10 5 × 10 −5
MPa is mega pascal 1. Air 343
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11.4 Since P is the pressure of air whose value at

NTP (Normal Temperature and Pressure) is
PROPAGATION OF SOUND 76 cm of mercury, we have P = hρg
WAVES
P = (0.76 × 13.6 ×103 × 9.8) N m–2
We know that sound waves are longitudinal ρ = 1.293 kg m–3. Here ρ is density of air
waves, and when they propagate
compressions and rarefactions are formed. Then the speed of sound in air at Normal
In the following section, we compute the Temperature and Pressure (NTP) is
speed of sound in air by Newton’s method
and also discuss the Laplace correction and vT = (0.76 × 13.6 × 10 3
× 9.8 )
the factors affecting sound in air. 1.293
= 279.80 m s–1 ≈ 280 ms–1 (theoretical
value)
11.4.1 Newton’s formula for
speed of sound waves in air But the speed of sound in air at 0°C is
experimentally observed as 332 m s–1
Sir Isaac Newton assumed that when which is close upto 16% more than
sound propagates in air, the formation of theoretical value (Percentage error is
compression and rarefaction takes place
in a very slow manner so that the process 332  280 100%  15.6% ). This error is
332
is isothermal in nature. That is, the heat
not small
produced during compression (pressure
increases, volume decreases), and heat lost
during rarefaction (pressure decreases, 11.4.2 Laplace’s correction
volume increases) occur over a period
of time such that the temperature of the In 1816, Laplace satisfactorily corrected
medium remains constant. Therefore, by this discrepancy by assuming that when
treating the air molecules to form an ideal the sound propagates through a medium,
gas, the changes in pressure and volume the particles oscillate very rapidly such that
obey Boyle’s law, Mathematically the compression and rarefaction occur very
fast. Hence the exchange of heat produced
PV = Constant (11.20) due to compression and cooling effect due
Differentiating equation (11.20), we get to rarefaction do not take place, because,
air (medium) is a bad conductor of heat.
PdV + VdP = 0
Since, temperature is no longer considered
dP
or, P=−V = KI(11.21) as a constant here, sound propagation
dV
is an adiabatic process. By adiabatic
where, KI is an isothermal bulk modulus of
considerations, the gas obeys Poisson’s
air. Substituting equation (11.21) in equation
law (not Boyle’s law as Newton assumed),
(11.16), the speed of sound in air is
which is
KI P
vT = = (11.22)
ρ ρ PV γ = constant (11.23)
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CP P
where, γ = , which is the ratio between = cT (11.29)
Cv ρ
specific heat at constant pressure and where c is constant.
specific heat at constant volume.
The speed of sound in air given in equation
Differentiating equation (11.23) on both the (11.25) can be written as
sides, we get
Vγ dP + P (γVγ–1 dV) = 0 γP
v= = γcT (11.30)
ρ
dp
or, γ P = −V = K A (11.24)
dV From the above relation we observe the
where, KA is the adiabatic bulk modulus of following
air. Now, substituting equation (11.24) in (a) Effect of pressure :
equation (11.16), the speed of sound in air is
For a fixed temperature, when the pressure
KA ‡P varies, correspondingly density also varies
vA = = = ‡ vT (11.25)
ρ ρ P 
such that the ratio   becomes constant.
Since air contains mainly, nitrogen, oxygen,  ρ 
hydrogen etc, (diatomic gas), we take This means that the speed of sound
γ = 1.4. Hence, speed of sound in air is is independent of pressure for a fixed
vA = ( 1.4 )(280 m s–1)= 331.30 m s–1, which temperature. If the temperature remains
is very much closer to experimental data. same at the top and the bottom of a mountain
then the speed of sound will remain same
at these two points. But, in practice, the
11.4.3 Factors affecting
temperatures are not same at top and bottom
speed of sound in gases
of a mountain; hence, the speed of sound is
Let us consider an ideal gas whose equation different at different points.
of state is
(b) Effect of temperature :
PV = μ R T(11.26)
Since v ∝ T ,
where, P is pressure, V is volume, T is
temperature, μ is number of mole and R is the speed of sound varies directly to the
universal gas constant. For a given mass of a square root of temperature in kelvin.
molecule, equation (11.26) can be written as Let v0 be the speed of sound at temperature
PV at 0° C or 273 K and v be the speed of sound
= Constant (11.27) at any arbitrary temperature T (in kelvin),
T
then
For a fixed mass m, density of the gas
inversely varies with volume. i.e., v T 273 + t
= =
v0 273 273
1 m
ρ∝ , V= (11.28)
V ρ t  t 
v = v0 1 + ≅ v0 1 +
273  546 
Substituting equation (11.28) in equation
(11.27), we get (using binomial expansion)
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Since v0 = 331m s–1 at 0°C, v at any γp

temperature in t°C is v=
ρ
v = (331 + 0.61t) m s–1
Thus the speed of sound in air increases Let ρ1, v1 and ρ2, v2 be the density and
by 0.61 m s–1 per degree celcius rise in speeds of sound in dry air and moist air,
temperature. Note that when the temperature respectively. Then
is increased, the molecules will vibrate faster
γ 1P
due to gain in thermal energy and hence,
v1 ρ1 ρ2
speed of sound increases. = = if γ1 = γ2
v2 γ 2P ρ1
(c) Effect of density :
ρ2
Let us consider two gases with different
Since P is the total atmospheric pressure,
densities having same temperature and
According to Dalton’s law of partial pressure,
pressure. Then the speed of sound in the two
it can be shown that
gases are
ρ2 P
=
γP
v1 = 1 (11.31) ρ1 p1 + 0.625 p2
ρ1
where p1 and p2 are the partial pressures of
and
dry air and water vapour respectively. Then
γ 2P
v2 = (11.32)
ρ2 P
v1 = v2
p1 + 0.625 p2 (11.34)
Taking ratio of equation (11.31) and
equation (11.32), we get (e) Effect of wind:
γ 1P The speed of sound is also affected by
v1 ρ1 γρ blowing of wind. In the direction along the
= = 1 2
v2 γ 2P γ 2ρ1 wind blowing, the speed of sound increases
ρ2 whereas in the direction opposite to wind
For gases having same value of γ, blowing, the speed of sound decreases.
v1 ρ E X A M P L E 11 . 9
= 2 (11.33)
v2 ρ1 The ratio of the densities of oxygen and
nitrogen is 16:14. Calculate the temperature
Thus the velocity of sound in a gas is
when the speed of sound in nitrogen gas
inversely proportional to the square root of
at 17°C is equal to the speed of sound in
the density of the gas.
oxygen gas.
(d) Effect of moisture (humidity):
Solution
We know that density of moist air is 0.625 of that
of dry air, which means the presence of From equation (11.25), we have
moisture in air (increase in humidity) decreases
γP
its density. Therefore, speed of sound increases v=
ρ
with rise in humidity. From equation (11.30)
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M MO
But ρ = ρ0 M M 16
V = V = 0 ⇒ 0 = (5)
ρN MN MN M N 14
Therefore,
V
γPV
v=
M Substituting equation (5) in equation (3),
Using equation (11.26) we get
γRT 273 + t 16
v= = ⇒ 3822 + 14t = 4640
M 290 14
Where, R is the universal gas constant and
M is the molecular mass of the gas. The ⇒ t = 58.4 °C
speed of sound in nitrogen gas at 17°C is
vN =
γR(273K + 17 K ) 11.5
MN REFLECTION OF SOUND
γR(290K ) WAVES
= (1)
MN
When sound wave passes from one medium
Similarly, the speed of sound in oxygen gas to another medium, the following things
at temperature t can happen
γR(273 K + t ) (a) Reflection of sound: If the medium is
v0 = (2) highly dense (highly rigid), the sound
M0
can be reflected completely (bounced
Given that the value of γ is same for back) to the original medium.
both the gases, the two speeds must be
equal. Hence, equating equation (1) and (b) Refraction of sound: When the sound
(2), we get waves propagate from one medium to
another medium such that there can be
vO = vN some energy loss due to absorption by
γR(273 + t ) γR(290) the second medium.
=
M0 MN In this section, we will consider only the
reflection of sound waves in a medium
Squaring on both sides and cancelling γ R when it experiences a harder surface. Sound
term and rearranging, we get can also obey the laws of reflection, which
state that
M 0 273 + t
= (3)
MN 290
Since the densities of oxygen and nitrogen A smooth A convex A concave A corner
is 16:14, plane
surface
surface surface surface
ρ0 16 Figure 11.17 Reflection of sound in

= (4)
ρN 14 different surfaces
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(i)
The angle of incidence of sound is equal that of light. Suppose a loudspeaker is kept
to the angle of reflection. at an angle with respect to a wall (plane
surface), then the waves coming from the
When the sound wave is reflected by a
(ii) source (assumed to be a point source) can
surface then the incident wave, reflected be treated as spherical wave fronts (say,
wave and the normal at the point of compressions moving like a spherical wave
incidence all lie in the same plane. front). Therefore, the reflected wave front
Similar to reflection of light from a mirror, from the plane surface is also spherical, such
sound also reflects from a harder flat surface, that its centre of curvature (which lies on the
This is called as specular reflection. other side of plane surface) can be treated
as the image of the sound source (virtual or
Specular reflection is observed only when imaginary loud speaker). These are shown
the wavelength of the source is smaller than in Figures 11.18, 11.19.
dimensions of the reflecting surface, as well
as smaller than surface irregularities.
Reflected sound
11.5.1 eflection of sound
R
through the plane Direct sound
surface
Reflected Reflected
spherical wave sound
Sound source
Listener
Figure 11.19 Common examples for
reflection of sound in real situation
Wall
Virtual
Incident source
spherical wave 11.5.2 Reflection of sound
through the curved surface
WALL
Wave front Flat reflector
The behaviour of sound is different when
Paper tube Paper tube
it is reflected from different surfaces like
Sound convex or concave or plane. The sound
source Insulation
board
reflected from a convex surface is spread
out and so it is easily attenuated and
Ear
Clock
weakened. Whereas, if it is reflected from
the concave surface it will converge at a
point and this can be easily amplified.
Figure 11.18 Reflection of sound The parabolic reflector (curved reflector)
through the plane surface which is used to focus the sound precisely
to a point is used in designing the parabolic
When the sound waves hit the plane wall, mics which are known as high directional
they bounce off in a manner similar to microphones.
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We know that any surface (smooth or

rough) can absorb sound. For example, the
sound produced in a big hall or auditorium
or theatre is absorbed by the walls, ceilings,
floor, seats etc. To avoid such losses, a curved
sound board (concave board) is kept in front
of the speaker, so that the board reflects the
sound waves of the speaker towards the
audience. This method will minimize the
spreading of sound waves in all possible
Concave Surface
directions in that hall and also enhances the Dais
uniform distribution of sound throughout
the hall. That is why a person sitting at any
position in that hall can hear the sound
without any disturbance.
Figure 11.21 Sound in a big auditorium
Concave Reflector
11.5.3 Applications of
Wave Front reflection of sound waves
Convex
Reflector
(a) Stethoscope: It works on the principle
Sound
Source of multiple reflections.
Multiple reflections of sound

in the tube of stethescope
Concave Reflector
Wave Front
Sound Source Stethescope
Figure 11.22 Stethoscope and multiple

Figure 11.20 Reflection of sound reflection of signal in a rubber tube
through the curved surface
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It consists of three main parts: at 344 m away, then the sound will take 1
(i) Chest piece second to reach the wall. After reflection,
(ii) Ear piece the sound will take one more second to
reach us. Therefore, we hear the echo after
(iii) Rubber tube
two seconds.
(i) Chest piece: It consists of a small
disc-shaped resonator (diaphragm) which (c) SONAR: SOund NAvigation and
is very sensitive to sound and amplifies the Ranging. Sonar systems make use of
sound it detects. reflections of sound waves in water
(ii) Ear piece: It is made up of metal to locate the position or motion of an
tubes which are used to hear sounds detected object. Similarly, dolphins and bats use
by the chest piece. the sonar principle to find their way in
the darkness.
(iii) Rubber tube: This tube connects
both chest piece and ear piece. It is used to
(d) Reverberation: In a closed room the
transmit the sound signal detected by the
sound is repeatedly reflected from the walls
diaphragm, to the ear piece. The sound of
and it is even heard long after the sound
heart beats (or lungs) or any sound produced
source ceases to function. The residual
by internal organs can be detected, and it
sound remaining in an enclosure and the
reaches the ear piece through this tube by
phenomenon of multiple reflections of
multiple reflections.
sound is called reverberation. The duration
Scientists have estimated for which the sound persists is called
Note
that we can hear two reverberation time. It should be noted that
sounds properly if the the reverberation time greatly affects the
time gap or time interval between quality of sound heard in a hall. Therefore,
th
 1  halls are constructed with some optimum
each sound is 10  of a second
reverberation time.
(persistence of hearing) i.e., 0.1 s. Then,
Distance travelled 2d
velocity = = E X A M P L E 11 . 10
time taken t
Suppose a man stands at a distance from
2d = 344 × 0.1 = 34.4 m
a cliff and claps his hands. He receives
d = 17.2 m an echo from the cliff after 4 second.
The minimum distance from a sound Calculate the distance between the man
reflecting wall to hear an echo at 20°C and the cliff. Assume the speed of sound
is 17.2 meter. to be 343 m s–1.
Solution
(b) Echo: An echo is a repetition of sound
The time taken by the sound to come back as
produced by the reflection of sound waves
echo is 2t = 4 ⇒ t = 2 s
from a wall, mountain or other obstructing
∴The distance is d = vt =(343 m s–1)(2 s)
surfaces. The speed of sound in air at 20°C
= 686 m.
is 344 m s–1. If we shout at a wall which is
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Note: Classification of sound waves: 11.6.1 haracteristics of

C
Sound waves can be classified in three progressive waves
groups according to their range of 1. Particles in the medium vibrate about
frequencies: their mean positions with the same
(1) Infrasonic waves: amplitude.
Sound waves having frequencies below 2. The phase of every particle ranges from
20 Hz are called infrasonic waves. 0 to 2π.
These waves are produced during 3. No particle remains at rest permanently.
earthquakes. Human beings cannot During wave propagation, particles
hear these frequencies. Snakes can come to the rest position only twice at
hear these frequencies. the extreme points.
(2) Audible waves: 4. Transverse progressive waves are
Sound waves having frequencies characterized by crests and troughs
between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz (20kHz) whereas longitudinal progressive waves
are called audible waves. Human are characterized by compressions and
beings can hear these frequencies. rarefactions.
(3) Ultrasonic waves:
5. When the particles pass through the
Sound waves having frequencies
mean position they always move with
greater than 20 kHz are known as
the same maximum velocity.
ultrasonic waves. Human beings
6. The displacement, velocity and
cannot hear these frequencies. Bats can
produce and hear these frequencies. acceleration of particles separated from
each other by nλ are the same, where n is
an integer, and λ is the wavelength.
(1.) Supersonic speed:

An object moving 11.6.2 quation of a plane
E
with a speed greater progressive wave
than the speed of sound Y
Y
is said to move with a V vt V
supersonic speed. A P
(2.) Mach number: P
X X
It is the ratio of the velocity of O O
(b) Pulse at time t
(a) Pulse at t = 0
source to the velocity of sound.
Figure 11.23 Wave pulse moving with velocity
v at two instants at t = 0 and at time t
Suppose we give a jerk on a stretched string

11.6 at time t = 0 s. Let us assume that the wave
pulse created during this disturbance moves
PROGRESSIVE WAVES
along positive x direction with constant
(OR) TRAVELLING WAVES
speed v as shown in Figure 11.23 (a).
If a wave that propagates in a medium is We can represent the shape of the wave
continuous then it is known as progressive pulse mathematically as y = y(x, 0) = f(x) at time
wave or travelling wave. t = 0 s. Assume that the shape of the wave pulse
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remains the same during the propagation. a = vt, y = x − vt satisfies the differential
After some time t, the pulse moving equation. Though this function satisfies
towards the right and any point on it can the differential equation, it is not finite
be represented by x' (read it as x prime) as for all values of x and t. Hence, it does not
shown in Figure 11.23 (b). Then, represent a wave.
a
y(x, t) = f(x´) = f(x − vt)(11.35) (Increases)
y
Similarly, if the wave pulse moves towards left
a=0
with constant speed v, then y = f(x + vt). Both a=1 a=2
waves y = f(x + vt) and y = f(x − vt) will satisfy o a=3
1 2 3 x
the following one dimensional differential
equation known as the wave equation y=x-a
where, a = vt
∂2 y 1 ∂2 y lines moves towards right
=
∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2 (11.36)
where the symbol ∂ represents partial

E X A M P L E 11 . 12
¶y
derivative (read as partial y by partial
¶x How does the wave y = sin(x − a) for a = 0,
x). Not all the solutions satisfying this π π 3π
a= ,a= ,a= and a = π look like?.
differential equation can represent waves, 4 2 2
because any physical acceptable wave must Sketch this wave.
take finite values for all values of x and t. But
Solution
if the function represents a wave then it must
y sin x
satisfy the differential equation. Since, in one 0 2π x
dimension (one independent variable), the π π 3π π
4 2 4
partial derivative with respect to x is the same sin(x- 4π )
0 2π
as total derivative in coordinate x, we write π x
π π 3π
4 2 4
d2 y 1 d2 y sin(x- 2π )
= (11.37) 0 2π
dx 2 v 2 dt 2 x
π π 3π π
4 2 4
This can be extended to more than one sin(x- 3π
4
)
0 2π x
dimension (two, three, etc.). Here, for π π 3π π
simplicity, we focus only on the one 4 2 4
sin(x-π )
dimensional wave equation. x
0 π π 3π π 2π
4 2 4
E X A M P L E 11. 11
From the above picture we observe that
π π
Sketch y = x −a for different values of a. y = sin (x−a) for a = 0, a = ,a= ,
3π 4 2
Solution a= and a = π, the function y = sin (x−a)
2
This implies, when increasing the value shifts towards right. Further, we can take
π
of a, the line shifts towards right side. For a = vt and v = , and sketching for different
4
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times t = 0s, t = 1s, t = 2s etc., we once again 11.6.3 Graphical

observe that y = sin(x−vt) moves towards representation of the wave
the right. Hence, y = sin(x−vt) is a travelling
(or progressive) wave moving towards the Let us graphically represent the two forms
right. If y = sin(x+vt) then the travelling of the wave variation
(or progressive) wave moves towards the (a) Space (or Spatial) variation graph
left. Thus, any arbitrary function of type (b) Time (or Temporal) variation graph
y = f(x−vt) characterising the wave must (a) Space variation graph
move towards right and similarly, any
arbitrary function of type y = f(x+vt) y
characterizing the wave must move towards
π 2π
left.
o x
λ
x x+λ
E X A M P L E 11. 13
Figure 11.24 Graph of sinusoidal function
Check the dimensional of the wave y = A sin(kx)
y = sin(x−vt). If it is dimensionally wrong,
write the above equation in the correct By keeping the time fixed, the change in
form. displacement with respect to x is plotted. Let
us consider a sinusoidal graph, y = A sin(kx)
Solution as shown in the Figure 11.24, where k is a
Dimensionally it is not correct. we know constant. Since the wavelength λ denotes
that y = sin(x−vt) must be a dimensionless the distance between any two points in the
quantity but x−vt has dimension. The same state of motion, the displacement y is
correct equation is y = sin (k x−ωt), where the same at both the ends
k and ω have the dimensions of inverse y = x and y = x + λ, i.e.,
of length and inverse of time respectively.
y = A sin(kx) = A sin(k(x + λ))
The sine functions and cosine functions
= A sin(kx + k λ)(11.38)
are periodic functions with period 2π.
Therefore, the correct expression is The sine function is a periodic function with
 2π 2π  period 2π. Hence,
y = sin  x − t  where λ and T are
 λ T 
y = A sin(kx + 2π) = A sin(kx)(11.39)
wavelength and time period, respectively.
In general, y(x,t)=A sin(k x−ωt). Comparing equation (11.38) and equation
(11.39), we get
Oscillating
Amplitude term kx + k λ = kx + 2π
Displacement
Phase This implies
2π
y(x,t) = A sin(kx -ωt) k= rad m–1(11.40)
Time λ
Angular
wave number Position where k is called wave number. This measures
Angular
frequency how many wavelengths are present in 2π
radians.
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The spatial periodicity of the wave is per second. Since inverse of frequency is
2π time period, we have,
λ= in m
k
Then, T=
1
in seconds
At t = 0 s y(x, 0) = y(x + λ, 0) f
and
At any time t, y(x, t) = y(x + λ, t) This is the time taken by a medium particle
E X A M P L E 11. 14 to complete one oscillation. Hence, we can
define the speed of a wave (wave speed, v) as
The wavelength of two sine waves are the distance traversed by the wave per second
λ1 = 1m and λ2 = 6m. Calculate the
corresponding wave numbers. λ
v= = λf in m s-1
T
Solution
2π which is the same relation as we obtained in
k1 = = 6.28 rad m-1 equation (11.4).
1
2π
k2 = = 1.05 rad m-1
6 11.6.4 Particle velocity and
(b) Time variation graph wave velocity
y In a plane progressive harmonic wave,

sin 2π
) ―t
T ) the constituent particles in the medium
oscillate simple harmonically about their
2π equilibrium positions. When a particle is in
o π t
2π motion, the rate of change of displacement
at any instant of time is defined as velocity
Figure 11.25 Graph of sinusoidal of the particle at that instant of time. This is
function y =A sin(ωt) known as particle velocity.
By keeping the position fixed, the change dy

vP = m s-1(11.41)
in displacement with respect to time is dt
plotted. Let us consider a sinusoidal graph,
y =A sin(ωt) as shown in the Figure 11.25, But y(x, t)= A sin(k x - ω t)(11.42)
dy
where ω is angular frequency of the wave Therefore, = − ω A cos(k x− ω t)(11.43)
dt
which measures how quickly wave oscillates
in time or number of cycles per second. Similarly, we can define velocity (here speed)
The temporal periodicity or time period is for the travelling wave (or progressive
wave). In order to determine the velocity
2π 2π
T= ⇒ω= of a progressive wave, let us consider
ω T
a progressive wave (shown in Figure
The angular frequency is related to frequency 11.23) moving towards right. This can be
f by the expression ω = 2 πf, where the mathematically represented as a sinusoidal
frequency f is defined as the number of wave. Let P be any point on the phase of the
oscillations made by the medium particle wave and yP be its displacement with respect
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to the mean position. The displacement of E X A M P L E 11 . 15

the wave at an instant t is
A mobile phone tower transmits a wave
y = y(x,t) = A sin(k x− ω t) signal of frequency 900MHz. Calculate the
length of the waves transmitted from the
At the next instant of time tʹ = t + ∆t the mobile phone tower.
position of the point P is xʹ = x + ∆x. Hence,
the displacement of the wave at this instant Solution
is Frequency, f = 900 MHz = 900 × 106 Hz
y = y(xʹ, tʹ) = y(x + ∆x, t + ∆t ) The speed of wave is c = 3 × 108m s−1
= A sin[k (x + ∆x)- ω (t + ∆t)] (11.44)
v 3×108
λ= = = 0.33m
Since the shape of the wave remains the f 900×106
same, this means that the phase of the wave
remains constant (i.e., the y- displacement of
the point is a constant). Therefore, equating 11.7
equation (11.42) and equation (11.44), we get SUPERPOSITION
PRINCIPLE
y(x',t') = y(x,t), which implies
A sin[k (x + ∆x)− ω (t + ∆t)]= A sin(k x− ω t) When a jerk is given to a stretched string
Or which is tied at one end, a wave pulse is
produced and the pulse travels along the
k(x + ∆x) − ω(t + ∆t) = kx − ωt = constant string. Suppose two persons holding the
(11.45) stretched string on either side give a jerk
simultaneously, then these two wave pulses
On simplification of equation (11.45), we
move towards each other, meet at some
get
point and move away from each other with
∆x ω their original identity. Their behaviour is
v= = = v p (11.46)
∆t k very different only at the crossing/meeting
points; this behaviour depends on whether
where vp is called wave velocity or phase
the two pulses have the same or different
velocity.
shape as shown in Figure 11.26.
By expressing the angular frequency and
wave number in terms of frequency and
wave length, we obtain
2π
ω =2 π f =
T
2π
k=
λ
ω
v= = λf Figure 11.26 Superposition of two waves
k
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When the pulses have the same shape, multiply y1 and y2 with some constant then
at the crossing, the total displacement their amplitude is scaled by that constant
is the algebraic sum of their individual Further, if C1 and C2 are used to multiply the
displacements and hence its net amplitude is displacements y1 and y2, respectively, then,
higher than the amplitudes of the individual their net displacement y is
pulses. Whereas, if the two pulses have same y = C1 y1 + C2 y2
amplitude but shapes are 180° out of phase
This can be generalized to any number of
at the crossing point, the net amplitude
waves. In the case of n such waves in more
vanishes at that point and the pulses will
than one dimension the displacements are
recover their identities after crossing. Only
written using vector notation.
waves can possess such a peculiar property
and it is called superposition of waves. This Here, the net displacement y is
n
means that the principle of superposition y   Ci yi
explains the net behaviour of the waves i 1
when they overlap. The principle of superposition can explain

Generalizing to any number of waves i.e, the following :
if two or more waves in a medium move (a) Space (or spatial) Interference (also
simultaneously, when they overlap, their known as Interference)
total displacement is the vector sum of the
(b)
Time (or Temporal) Interference
individual displacements. We know that
(also known as Beats)
the waves satisfy the wave equation which
is a linear second order homogeneous (c) Concept of stationary waves
partial differential equation in both Waves that obey principle of superposition
space coordinates and time. Hence, their are called linear waves (amplitude is much
linear combination (often called as linear smaller than their wavelengths). In general,
superposition of waves) will also satisfy the if the amplitude of the wave is not small
then they are called non-linear waves. These
same differential equation.
violate the linear superposition principle,
To understand mathematically, let us e.g. laser. In this chapter, we will focus our
consider two functions which characterize attention only on linear waves.
the displacement of the waves, for example,
We will discuss the following in different
y1 = A1 sin(kx − ωt) subsections:
and 11.7.1 Interference of waves
y2 = A2 cos(kx − ωt)
Since, both y1 and y2 satisfy the wave
equation (solutions of wave equation) then
their algebraic sum
y = y1 + y2
also satisfies the wave equation. This means,
Figure 11.27 Interference of waves
the displacements are additive. Suppose we
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Interference is a phenomenon in which two y = A (sin(kx−ωt) cosθ + sinθ cos(kx−ωt))

waves superimpose to form a resultant wave y = A sin(kx−ωt + θ)(11.53)
of greater, lower or the same amplitude.
By squaring and adding equation (11.51)
y y y1 y2
and equation (11.52), we get
A2 = A12 + A22 + 2A1 A2 cosφ(11.54)
X Since, intensity is square of the amplitude
ϕ = 60º (I = A2), we have
I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos φ(11.55)
Figure 11.28 Interference of two
sinusoidal waves
This means the resultant intensity at any
point depends on the phase difference at
Consider two harmonic waves having identical that point.
frequencies, constant phase difference φ and (a) For constructive interference:
same wave form (can be treated as coherent
hen crests of one wave overlap with
W
source), but having amplitudes A1 and A2, then
crests of another wave, their amplitudes
y1 = A1 sin(kx − ωt)(11.47) will add up and we get constructive
interference. The resultant wave has a
y2 = A2 sin(kx − ωt+φ)(11.48) larger amplitude than the individual
waves as shown in Figure 11.29 (a).
Suppose they move simultaneously in a
particular direction, then interference occurs e constructive interference at a point
Th
(i.e., overlap of these two waves). Mathematically occurs if there is maximum intensity at
that point, which means that
y = y1 + y2(11.49)
cosφ = + 1 ⇒ φ = 0, 2π,4π,… = 2nπ,
Therefore, substituting equation (11.47) and
equation (11.48) in equation (11.49), we get where n = 0,1,2,...
y = A1 sin(kx − ωt) + A2 sin(kx − ωt + φ) This is the phase difference in which

two waves overlap to give constructive
Using trigonometric identity sin (α+β) = interference.
(sin α cosβ + cosα sinβ ), we get
Therefore, for this resultant wave,
y = A1 sin(kx − ωt)+A2 [sin(kx − ωt) cosφ +
   A  A 
2
cos(kx − ωt) sinφ] I maximum  I1  I 2 1 2
2
y = sin(kx − ωt)(A1 +A2 cosφ) + Hence, the resultant amplitude

A2 sinφ cos(kx − ωt)(11.50) A = A1 + A2
Let us re-define Wave 1
wave 1
+ =
A cosθ =(A1 + A2 cosφ)(11.51) Wave 2
+ = wave 2
Destructive interference
and A sinθ = A2 sinφ(11.52)
Constructive interference
(a) (b)
then equation (11.50) can be rewritten as Figure 11.29 (a) Constructive
interference (b) Destructive interference
y = A sin(kx−ωt) cosθ + A cos(kx−ωt) sinθ
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(b) For destructive interference: path length is fixed but the upper path
When the trough of one wave overlaps length can be varied by sliding the upper
with the crest of another wave, their tube i.e., is varied. The difference in path
amplitudes “cancel” each other and we length is known as path difference,
get destructive interference as shown ∆r = |r2 − r1|
in Figure 11.29 (b). The resultant
Suppose the path difference is allowed to
amplitude is nearly zero. The destructive
be either zero or some integer (or integral)
interference occurs if there is minimum
multiple of wavelength λ. Mathematically,
intensity at that point, which means
we have
cosφ = − 1 ⇒ φ = π,3π,5π,… = (2 n-1) π,
where n = 0,1,2,…. i.e. This is the phase ∆r = nλ where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3,....
difference in which two waves overlap to Then the two waves arriving from the paths
give destructive interference. Therefore, r1 and r2 reach the receiver at any instant are
in phase (the phase difference is 0° or 2π) and
( ) = (A − A )
2
I minimum = I1 − I 2 1 2
2
interfere constructively as shown in Figure 11.31.

Hence, the resultant amplitude y y y and y are identical
1 2
A=|A1−A2|
x
Let us consider a simple instrument to ϕ = 0º
demonstrate the interference of sound
waves as shown in Figure 11.30. Figure 11.31 Maximum intensity when
Sliding tube the phase difference is 0°
S
Therefore, in this case, maximum sound
intensity is detected by the receiver. If the
P R path difference is some half-odd-integer
(or half-integral) multiple of wavelength λ,
R
S
λ
mathematically, Δ r = n
2
Figure 11.30 Simple instrument to where, n = 1,3,... (n is odd)
demonstrate interference of sound waves
then the two waves arriving from the paths r1
A sound wave from a loudspeaker S is and r2 and reaching the receiver at any instant
sent through the tube P. This looks like a are out of phase (phase difference of π or
T-shaped junction. In this case, half of the 180°). They interfere destructively as shown
sound energy is sent in one direction and in Figure 11.32. They will cancel each other.
the remaining half is sent in the opposite y y1 y2 y
direction. Therefore, the sound waves that
reach the receiver R can travel along either x
of two paths. The distance covered by the
sound wave along any path from the speaker
Figure 11.32 Minimum intensity when the
to receiver is called the path length . From
phase difference is 180°
the Figure 11.30, we notice that the lower
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Therefore, the amplitude is minimum or zero Therefore, at the point Y, the two waves
amplitude which means no sound. No sound from A and B are in phase, hence, the
intensity is detected by the receiver in this case. intensity will be maximum.
The relation between path difference and phase Consider a point X, and let the path
difference is λ
difference the between two waves be .
2π Then the phase difference at X is 2
phase difference = (path difference)
λ
(11.56) 2π λ
∆ϕ = =π
2π λ λ 2
i.e., ∆ϕ = ∆r or ∆r = ∆ϕ Therefore, at the point X, the waves meet
λ 2π
and are in out of phase, Hence, due to
destructive interference, the intensity will
E X A M P L E 11. 16
be minimum.
Consider two sources A and B as shown in the
figure below. Let the two sources emit simple
E X A M P L E 11 . 17
harmonic waves of same frequency but of
different amplitudes, and both are in phase Two speakers C and E are placed 5 m apart
(same phase). Let O be any point equidistant and are driven by the same source. Let a
from A and B as shown in the figure. Calculate man stand at A which is 10 m away from
the intensity at points O, Y and X. (X and Y the mid point O of C and E. The man walks
are not equidistant from A & B) towards the point O which is at 1 m (parallel
to OC) as shown in the figure. He receives
Y
A X
the first minimum in sound intensity at B.
O Then calculate the frequency of the source.
B
(Assume speed of sound = 343 m s–1)
Solution
X1
The distance between OA and OB are the 5m 1m
same and hence, the waves starting from A X2
and B reach O after covering equal distances

(equal path lengths). Thus, the path difference
Solution
between two waves at O is zero.
C
X
OA − OB = 0 B
D 1m
5m O
Since the waves are in the same phase, at the A
point O, the phase difference between two E X F
10 m
waves is also zero. Thus, the resultant intensity
The first minimum occurs when the two
at the point O is maximum.
waves reaching the point B are 180° (out of
Consider a point Y, such that the path
difference between two waves is λ. Then the phase). The path difference ∆x = λ .
2
phase difference at Y is
In order to calculate the path difference, we
2π 2π have to find the path lengths x1 and x2.
∆ϕ = × ∆r = × λ = 2π
λ λ In a right triangle BDC,
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1
DB = 10m and OC = (5) = 2.5 m A
2
A D
CD = OC −1 = (2.5 m)−1 m = 1.5 m
C
x1 = (10) + (1.5)
2 2
= 100 + 2.25 = 102.25 = 10.1 m
B
B
(1.5)2 = 100 + 2.25 = 102.25 = 10.1 m
In a right triangle EFB,

1
DB = 10m and OE = (5) = 2.5m = FA
2
FB = FA + AB = (2.5 m) + 1 m = 3.5 m r=0 r = 0.05 r =0.10 r = 0.15
x2 = (10)2 + (3.5)2 = 100 + 12.25 = 112.25 = 10.6 m
3.5) = 100 + 12.25 = 112.25 = 10.6 m

2
The path difference ∆x = x2 − x1 = 10.6

m−10.1 m = 0.5 m. Required that this
path difference Figure 11.33: Two waves superimpose
with different frequencies such that there
λ is a time alternation in constructive and
∆x = =0.5 ⇒ λ=1.0 m
2 destructive interference i.e., they are
periodically in and out of phase
To obtain the frequency of source, we use
11.7.2 Formation of beats
v 343
v = λf ⇒ f = = =343 Hz When two or more waves superimpose each
λ 1
other with slightly different frequencies, then
=0.3 kHz a sound of periodically varying amplitude
at a point is observed. This phenomenon is
known as beats. The number of amplitude
maxima per second is called beat frequency.
If the speakers were If we have two sources, then their difference
Note connected such that already in frequency gives the beat frequency.
the path difference is . Number of beats per second
Now, the path difference combines n = | f1 - f2| per second
with a path difference of . This gives a
total path difference of λ which means,
the waves are in phase and there is a
maximum intensity at point B.
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Additional information (Not for examination): Mathematical treatment of beats

For mathematical treatment, let us consider two Case (A):
sound waves having same amplitude and slightly The resultant amplitude is maximum when yp
different frequencies f1 and f2, superimposed on   f − f 2  
each other. is maximum. Since y p ∝ cos 2π  1 t  ,
  2  
Since the sound wave (pressure wave) is a
this means maximum amplitude occurs only
longitudinal wave, let us consider y1 = A sin(ω1t)
when cosine takes ±1,
and y2 = A sin(ω2t) to be displacements of the
two waves at a point x = 0 with same amplitude   f − f 2  
cos 2π  1 t  = ±1
(region having high pressures) and different   2  
angular frequencies ω1 and ω2, respectively.  f − f 2 
Then when they are allowed to superimpose we ⇒ 2π  1 t = nπ ,
 2 
get the net displacement or, (f1− f2 )t = n
y = y1 + y2 n
or, t = n = 0,1,2,3, ....
y = A sin(ω1 t) + A sin(ω2 t)
( f1 − f 2 )
Hence, the time interval between two successive
But maxima is
ω1 = 2πf1 and ω2 = 2πf2 1 1
t2−t1 = t3−t2=...= ; n=| f − f |=
Then
( f1 − f 2 ) 1 2
t1 - t 2
Therefore, the number of beats produced per
y = A sin(2πf1t) + A sin(2πf2t) second is equal to the reciprocal of the time
Using trigonometry formula interval between two consecutive maxima i.e.,
 C − D   C + D  |f1 - f2|.
sin C + sin D = 2 cos  sin 
 2   2  Case (B):
  f − f 2     f1 + f 2   The resultant amplitude is minimum i.e., it
y = 2 A cos 2π  1 t sin 2π  t 
  2     2   is equal to zero when yp is minimum. Since
  f − f 2  
y p ∝ cos 2π  1 t 
  f − f 2     2   , this means, minimum
y p = 2 A cos 2π  1 t 
Let   2   (11.57)
occurs only when cosine takes 0,
and if f1 is slightly higher value than f2 then,   f − f 2  
cos 2π  1 t  = 0
 f1 − f 2   f1 + f 2    2   ,
    means yp in equation  f1 − f 2 
2   2  π
 2π  t = (2n + 1) ,
(11.57) varies very slowly when compared to  2  2
 f1 + f 2  1
 ( f1 − f 2 )t = (2n + 1)
  . Therefore 2
2 
y = yP sin(2πfavgt)(11.58) 1 2n + 1 

or, t =   , where f1 ≠ f2 n = 0,1,2,3,.....
2  f1 − f 2 
This represents a simple harmonic wave of Hence, the time interval between two successive
frequency which is an arithmetic average minima is
of frequencies of the individual waves, 1 1
t2−t1 = t3−t2=...= ; n=| f − f |=
 f1 + f 2  ( f1 − f 2 ) 1 2
t1 - t 2
favg=  and amplitude yp varies with
 2  Therefore, the number of beats produced per
time t. second is equal to the reciprocal of the time
interval between two consecutive minima i.e.,
|f1 – f2|.
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E X A M P L E 11. 18 11.8
Consider two sound waves with wavelengths
STANDING WAVES
5 m and 6 m. If these two waves propagate
in a gas with velocity 330 ms-1. Calculate
the number of beats per second.
11.8.1 Explanation of
Solution stationary waves
Given λ1 = 5m and λ2 = 6m
When the wave hits the rigid boundary
Velocity of sound waves in a gas is
it bounces back to the original medium
v = 330 ms-1
and can interfere with the original waves.
The relation between wavelength and
v A pattern is formed, which are known
velocity is v = λf ⇒ f = as standing waves or stationary waves.
λ
The frequency corresponding to wavelength Consider two harmonic progressive waves
(formed by strings) that have the same
v 330 amplitude and same velocity but move in
λ1 is f1 = = = 66 Hz
λ1 5 opposite directions. Then the displacement
of the first wave (incident wave) is
The frequency corresponding to wavelength
y1 = A sin(kx − ωt)(11.59)
v 330 (waves move toward right)
λ2 is f 2 = = = 55 Hz
λ2 6
The number of beats per second is and the displacement of the second wave
(reflected wave) is
| f1 − f2| = |66 − 55| = 11 beats per sec
y2 = A sin(kx + ωt)(11.60)
(waves move toward left)
E X A M P L E 11. 19
both will interfere with each other by
Two vibrating tuning forks produce waves
the principle of superposition, the net
whose equation is given by y1 = 5 sin(240π t)
displacement is
and y2 = 4 sin(244πt). Compute the number
of beats per second. y = y1 + y2(11.61)
Solution
Substituting equation (11.59) and equation
(11.60) in equation (11.61), we get
Given y1 = 5 sin(240π t) and y2 = 4 sin(244πt)
Comparing with y = A sin(2π f1t), we get y = A sin(kx − ωt)+A sin(kx + ωt)(11.62)
2πf1 = 240π ⇒ f1 = 120Hz
Using trigonometric identity, we rewrite
2πf2 = 244π ⇒ f2 = 122Hz equation (11.62) as
The number of beats produced is | f1 − f2|
= |120 − 122| = |− 2|=2 beats per sec y (x, t) = 2A cos(ωt) sin(kx) (11.63)
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This represents a stationary wave or standing where n takes integer or integral values.
wave, which means that this wave does Note that the elements at these points do not
not move either forward or backward, vibrate (not move), and the points are called
whereas progressive or travelling waves will nodes. The nthnodal positions is given by,
move forward or backward. Further, the λ
displacement of the particle in equation xn = n where, n = 0,1,2,... (11.65)
2
(11.63) can be written in more compact form,
For n = 0 we have minimum at
y(x,t) = Aʹ cos(ωt)
x0 = 0
where, Aʹ = 2Asin(kx), implying that the
For n = 1 we have minimum at
particular element of the string executes
simple harmonic motion with amplitude λ
x1 =
equals to Aʹ. The maximum of this amplitude 2
occurs at positions for which For n = 2 we have maximum at
π 3π 5π x2 = λ
sin(kx) =1 ⇒ kx = , , , ... = mπ
2 2 2 and so on.
where m takes half integer or half integral The distance between any two successive
values. The position of maximum amplitude nodes can be calculated as
is known as antinode. Expressing wave
number in terms of wavelength, we can λ λ λ
xn − xn−1 = n − (n −1) = .
represent the anti-nodal positions as 2 2 2
 2m + 1 λ E X A M P L E 11 . 20
xm =  , where, m = 0,1,2...(11.64)
 2  2
Compute the distance between anti-node
For m = 0 we have maximum at and neighbouring node.
λ
x0 = Solution
4
For m = 1 we have maximum at For nth mode, the distance between anti-
3λ node and neighbouring node is
x1 =
4  2n + 1 λ λ λ
For m = 2 we have maximum at Δxn =   − n =
 2 2 2 4
5λ
x2 =
4
11.8.2 Characteristics of
and so on. stationary waves
The distance between two successive anti- (1) S tationary waves are characterised by
nodes can be computed by
the confinement of a wave disturbance
 2m + 1 λ (2m + 1) + 1 λ λ between two rigid boundaries. This
xm − xm−1 =   −  =
 2  2  2  2 2 means, the wave does not move forward
or backward in a medium (does not
Similarly, the minimum of the amplitude A'
also occurs at some points in the space, and advance), it remains steady at its place.
these points can be determined by setting Therefore, they are called “stationary
waves or standing waves”.
sin(kx)= 0 ⇒ k x = 0,π,2π,3π,… = n π
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Table 11.3: Comparison between progressive and stationary waves

S.No. Progressive waves Stationary waves
1. Crests and troughs are formed in Crests and troughs are formed in
transverse progressive waves, and transverse stationary waves, and
compression and rarefaction are formed compression and rarefaction are formed
in longitudinal progressive waves. in longitudinal stationary waves.
These waves move forward or backward These waves neither move forward nor
in a medium i.e., they will advance in a backward in a medium i.e., they will
medium with a definite velocity. not advance in a medium.
2. All the particles in the medium vibrate Except at nodes, all other particles of
such that the amplitude of the vibration the medium vibrate such that amplitude
for all particles is same. of vibration is different for different
particles. The amplitude is minimum
or zero at nodes and maximum at anti-
nodes.
3. These wave carry energy while These waves do not transport energy.
propagating.
(2) C
ertain points in the region in which the 11.8.3 Stationary waves in
wave exists have maximum amplitude, sonometer
called as anti-nodes and at certain points
the amplitude is minimum or zero, called Sono means sound related, and sonometer
as nodes. implies sound-related measurements. It is
a device for demonstrating the relationship
(3) Th
e distance between two consecutive
λ between the frequency of the sound
nodes (or) anti-nodes is . produced in the transverse standing wave in
2
(4)
The distance between a node and its a string, and the tension, length and mass
λ per unit length of the string. Therefore, using
neighbouring anti-node is .
4 this device, we can determine the following
(5) Th
e transfer of energy along the standing quantities:
wave is zero.
P Q
Load
Figure 11.34 Sonometer
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(a) the frequency of the tuning fork or v 1 T

frequency of alternating current frequency f = =
λ 2l πd 2ρ
(b) the tension in the string 4
(c) the unknown hanging mass 1 T

∴ f= (11.67)
Construction: ld πρ
The sonometer is made up of a hollow box E X A M P L E 11 . 21

which is one meter long with a uniform
Let f be the fundamental frequency of
metallic thin string attached to it. One end
the string. If the string is divided into
of the string is connected to a hook and the
three segments l1, l2 and l3 such that the
other end is connected to a weight hanger
fundamental frequencies of each segments
through a pulley as shown in Figure 11.34.
be f1, f2 and f3, respectively. Show that
Since only one string is used, it is also known
as monochord. The weights are added to the 1 1 1
= + +
1
free end of the wire to increase the tension f f1 f 2 f3
of the wire. Two adjustable wooden knives
are put over the board, and their positions Solution
are adjusted to change the vibrating length For a fixed tension T and mass density µ,
of the stretched wire. frequency is inversely proportional to the
Working : string length i.e.
A transverse stationary or standing wave 1 v v
f ∝ ⇒ f = ⇒l =
is produced and hence, at the knife edges l 2l 2f
P and Q, nodes are formed. In between the
knife edges, anti-nodes are formed. For the first length segment
If the length of the vibrating element is l then v v

f1 = ⇒ l1 =
2l1 2 f1
λ
l= ⇒ λ = 2l For the second length segment
2
Let f be the frequency of the vibrating v v

f2 = ⇒ l2 =
element, T the tension of in the string and μ 2l2 2 f2
the mass per unit length of the string. Then
For the third length segment
using equation (11.13), we get
v v
f3 = ⇒ l3 =
v 1 T 2l3 2 f3
f= = in Hertz (11.66)
λ 2l µ
Therefore, the total length
Let ρ be the density of the material of the
string and d be the diameter of the string. l=l1 +l2+l3
Then the mass per unit length μ, v v v v 1 1 1 1
πρd 2 = + + ⇒ = + +
μ = Area × density = πr ρ =
2 2f 2 f1 2 f 2 2 f f f1 f 2 f3
4
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11.8.4 Fundamental We have,

frequency and overtones v v 
fn = = n  (11.70)
λn  2L 
Let us now keep the rigid boundaries at
x = 0 and x = L and produce a standing The lowest natural frequency is called the
waves by wiggling the string (as in plucking fundamental frequency.
strings in a guitar). Standing waves with a
specific wavelength are produced. Since, the v  v 
f1 = =   (11.71)
amplitude must vanish at the boundaries, λ1  2L 
therefore, the displacement at the boundary The second natural frequency is called the
must satisfy the following conditions first over tone.
y(x = 0, t) = 0 and y(x = L, t) = 0 (11.68) v  1 T
f 2 = 2  =
 2L  L µ
Since the nodes formed are at a distance
λn λ  The third natural frequency is called the
apart, we have n n  = L, where n is
2 2 second over tone.
an integer, L is the length between the two  1 T 
v 
boundaries and λn is the specific wavelength f 3 = 3  = 3 
 2L   2L µ 
that satisfy the specified boundary and so on.
conditions. Hence,
Therefore, the nth natural frequency can be
 2L  computed as integral (or integer ) multiple
ln =   (11.69)
 n  of fundamental frequency, i.e.,
fn = nf1, where n is an integer (11.72)
What will happen to wavelength if n is
taken as zero? Why is this not permitted? If natural frequencies are written as integral
multiple of fundamental frequencies, then the
Therefore, not all wavelengths are allowed. frequencies are called harmonics. Thus, the
The (allowed) wavelengths should fit with first harmonic is f1 = f1 (the fundamental
the specified boundary conditions, i.e., for n frequency is called first harmonic), the
= 1, the first mode of vibration has specific second harmonic is f2 = 2f1 , the third
wavelength λl = 2L. Similarly for n = 2, harmonic is f3 = 3f1 etc.
the second mode of vibration has specific
E X A M P L E 11 . 22
wavelength
 2L  Consider a string in a guitar whose length is
λ 2 =   = L
 2  80 cm and a mass of 0.32 g with tension 80 N
For n = 3, the third mode of vibration has is plucked. Compute the first four lowest
specific wavelength frequencies produced when it is plucked.
 2L 
λ 3 =   Solution
 3 
The velocity of the wave
and so on.
The frequency of each mode of vibration T
v=
(called natural frequency) can be calculated. µ
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The length of the string, L = 80 cm = 0.8 m (ii) The law of tension:

The mass of the string, m = 0.32 g For a given vibrating length l (fixed) and
= 0.32 × 10–3 kg mass per unit length μ (fixed) the frequency
Therefore, the linear mass density, varies directly with the square root of the
0.32×10−3
µ= = 0.4 ×10−3 kg m−1 tension T,
0. 8
fµ T
The tension in the string, T = 80 N
⇒ f = A T , where A is a constant
80
v= = 447.2 m s-1
0.4 ×10−3
(iii) The law of mass:
The wavelength corresponding to the
fundamental frequency f1 is λ1 = 2L = 2 × For a given vibrating length l (fixed) and
0.8 = 1.6 m tension T (fixed) the frequency varies
The fundamental frequency f1 inversely with the square root of the mass
corresponding to the wavelength λ1 per unit length μ,
v 447.2 1
f1 = = = 279.5 Hz fµ
λ1 1. 6 µ
Similarly, the frequency corresponding to B
⇒f= , where B is a constant
the second harmonics, third harmonics µ
and fourth harmonics are
f2 = 2f1 = 559 Hz
11.9
f3 = 3f1 = 838.5 Hz
INTENSITY AND
f4 = 4f1 = 1118 Hz LOUDNESS
Consider a source and two observers

11.8.5 Laws of transverse (listeners). The source emits sound waves
vibrations in stretched which carry energy. The sound energy
strings emitted by the source is same regardless of
whoever measures it, i.e., it is independent
There are three laws of transverse vibrations of any observer standing in that region. But
of stretched strings which are given as
the sound received by the two observers
follows:
may be different; this is due to some factors
(i) The law of length : like sensitivity of ears, etc. To quantify such
thing, we define two different quantities
For a given wire with tension T (which is known as intensity and loudness of sound.
fixed) and mass per unit length μ (fixed) the
frequency varies inversely with the vibrating
length. Therefore, 11.9.1 Intensity of sound
1 C
f∝ ⇒f= When a sound wave is emitted by a source, the
l l
energy is carried to all possible surrounding
⇒l×f = C, where C is a constant points. The average sound energy emitted or
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transmitted per unit time or per second is 1

called sound power. Therefore, the intensity and since, I µ
r2
of sound is defined as “the sound power
the power output does not depend on
transmitted per unit area taken normal to the
propagation of the sound wave ”. the observer and depends on the baby.
Sound Therefore,
Sound 2
Source
Source
I1 r 2
Area 1
=
I 2 r 12
Area 1
Area 2
Distance
Distance 1
1 Area 2
reaArea
Area 3 rea 3
r12
Distance
Distance 22 I 2 = I1
r22
Distance 3 3
Distance
I I2 = 0.25 × 10–2 W m–2
I 9 I
P
I = P2
I = 4r 4 I 9
4r I
2 4
Source I
Source 11.9.2 Loudness of sound
r
2r
r 3r
Two sounds with same intensities need not
2r
3r have the same loudness. For example, the
Figure 11.35 Intensity of sound waves sound heard during the explosion of balloons
in a silent closed room is very loud when
compared to the same explosion happening
For a particular source (fixed source), the in a noisy market. Though the intensity of
sound intensity is inversely proportional to the sound is the same, the loudness is not.
the square of the distance from the source. If the intensity of sound is increased then
power of the source 1 loudness also increases. But additionally, not
I= 2
⇒ I∝ only does intensity matter, the internal and
4 πr r2
subjective experience of “how loud a sound
This is known as inverse square law of sound is” i.e., the sensitivity of the listener also
intensity. matters here. This is often called loudness.
That is, loudness depends on both intensity
E X A M P L E 11. 23 of sound wave and sensitivity of the ear (It is
purely observer dependent quantity which
A baby cries on seeing a dog and the cry
varies from person to person) whereas the
is detected at a distance of 3.0 m such that intensity of sound does not depend on the
the intensity of sound at this distance is observer. The loudness of sound is defined
10–2 W m–2. Calculate the intensity of the as “the degree of sensation of sound produced
baby’s cry at a distance 6.0 m. in the ear or the perception of sound by the
Solution listener”.
I1 is the intensity of sound detected at a
distance 3.0 m and it is given as 10-2 W m-2. 11.9.3 Intensity and
Let I2 be the intensity of sound detected at loudness of sound
a distance 6.0 m. Then,
Our ear can detect the sound with intensity
r1 = 3.0 m, r2 = 6.0 m level ranges from 10-2 Wm-2 to 20 W m-2.
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According to Weber-Fechner’s law, “loudness Solution

(L) is proportional to the logarithm of the  
I
actual intensity (I) measured with an accurate ΔL
L=10
=10log
log1010  1  = 50 dB
I 
 0
non-human instrument”. This means that
I 
L ∝ ln I log10  1  = 5 dB
I 
 0
L = k ln I I1 = 105⇒ I = 105 I = 105 × 10–12 Wm–2
1 0
where k is a constant, which depends on I0
the unit of measurement. The difference I1 = 10–7 Wm–2
between two loudnesses, L1 and L0 measures Since three musical instruments are played,
the relative loudness between two precisely therefore, Itotal = 3I1 = 3 × 10–7 Wm–2.
measured intensities and is called as sound
intensity level. Mathematically, sound
intensity level is 11.10
I 
∆L = L1−L0 = k ln I1− k lnI0 = k ln  1  VIBRATIONS OF AIR
I 0  COLUMN
If k = 1 bel, k = 10 decibel, then sound
intensity level is measured in bel, in honour Musical instruments like flute, clarinet,
of Alexander Graham Bell. Therefore, nathaswaram, etc are known as wind
I  instruments. They work on the principle of
L  ln  1  bel vibrations of air columns. The simplest form

I 0 
of a wind instrument is the organ pipe. It is
However, this is practically a bigger unit,
made up of a wooden or metal pipe which
so we use a convenient smaller unit, called
1 produces the musical sound. For example,
decibel. Thus, decibel = bel. Therefore, flute, clarinet and nathaswaram are organ
10
by multiplying and dividing by 10, we get pipe instruments. Organ pipe instruments
are classified into two types:
  I   1
L = 10 ln  1   bel
  I 0   10
  (a) Closed organ pipes:
I 
L = 10 ln  1  decibel with k = 10
 I0 
 
For practical purposes, we use logarithm to
base 10 instead of natural logarithm,
I  
L=10
ΔL log10  1  decibel (11.73)
= 10log
10  I  Figure 11.36: Clarinet is an example of
 0
a closed organ pipe
E X A M P L E 11. 24
The sound level from a musical instrument Look at the picture of a clarinet, shown
playing is 50 dB. If three identical musical in Figure 11.36. It is a pipe with one end
instruments are played together then closed and the other end open. If one end
compute the total intensity. Calculate the of a pipe is closed, the wave reflected at
intensity of the sound from each instrument this closed end is 180° out of phase with
as the threshold of hearing is 10–12 W m–2. the incoming wave. Thus there is no
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λ1
2
1 λ1 1 λ1
λ 2 2
= 4
4
A
A
N N
A
A
L L
Figure 11.37 No motion of particles which leads to nodes at closed end and antinodes at
open end (fundamental mode) (N-node, A-antinode)
displacement of the particles at the closed nodes, for which we have, from example
end. Therefore, nodes are formed at the 11.20.
closed end and anti-nodes are formed at 1 λ2
=
λ2 1
λ2 = λ22
open end. 2 2 4 2
λ2 λ2 3
+ = λ2
Let us consider the simplest mode 2 4 4
A A
of vibration of the air column called the A
fundamental mode. Anti-node is formed N

at the open end and node at closed end.
A A
From the Figure 11.37, let L be the length A
of the tube and the wavelength of the wave L
produced. For the fundamental mode of

vibration, we have, Figure 11.38 second mode of vibration
having two nodes and two anti-nodes
l1
L= or l 1 = 4 L (11.74)
4 4L = 3λ2
The frequency of the note emitted is 3 l2 4L

L= or l2 =
4 3
v v
f1 = = (11.75)
l1 4 L The frequency for this,
v 3v
which is called the fundamental note. f2 = = = 3 f1
l2 4 L
The frequencies higher than fundamental
frequency can be produced by blowing air is called first over tone, since here, the
strongly at open end. Such frequencies are frequency is three times the fundamental
called overtones. frequency it is called third harmonic.
The Figure 11.38 shows the second mode of The Figure 11.39 shows third mode of
vibration having two nodes and two anti- vibration having three nodes and three anti-
nodes.
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both open ends, anti-nodes are formed. Let us

λ3 consider the simplest mode of vibration of the
λ3 λ3 λ3 air column called fundamental mode. Since
4 2 2 anti-nodes are formed at the open end, a node
λ3 5 is formed at the mid-point of the pipe.
λ3 + 4
= 4 λ3
λ1 λ1
4 4
A A A
λ1 λ1
4
+ 4
= λ
2
1
N N N A A
N
A A A
L A A
L
Figure 11.39 Third mode of vibration Figure 11.41 Antinodes are formed at
having three nodes and three anti-nodes the open end and a node is formed at
the middle of the pipe.
We have, 4L = 5λ3
5 l3 4L From Figure 11.41, if L be the length of the
L= or l3 =
4 5 tube, the wavelength of the wave produced
The frequency is given by
v 5v l1
f3 = = = 5 f1 L= or l = 2 L (11.77)
λ 3 4L 2
1
The frequency of the note emitted is

is called second over tone, and since n = 5
here, this is called fifth harmonic. Hence, the v v
f1 = = (11.78)
closed organ pipe has only odd harmonics and l1 2L
frequency of the nth harmonic is fn = (2n+1)f1. which is called the fundamental note.
Therefore, the frequencies of harmonics are
The frequencies higher than fundamental
in the ratio
frequency can be produced by blowing
f1 : f2 : f3 : f4 :…= 1 : 3 : 5 : 7 : … (11.76) air strongly at one of the open ends. Such
(b) Open organ pipes: frequencies are called overtones.
λ2 λ2 λ2
4 2 4
λ2 λ2 λ2
4
+ + = λ2
2 4
A A A
N N
A A
Figure 11.40 Flute is an example of A
open organ pipe
Figure 11.42 Second mode of
Consider the picture of a flute, shown in Figure vibration in open pipes having two
nodes and three anti-nodes
11.40. It is a pipe with both the ends open. At
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The Figure 11.42 shows the second mode f1 : f2 : f3 : f4 :…= 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : … (11.79)

of vibration in open pipes. It has two nodes
and three anti-nodes, and therefore,
E X A M P L E 11 . 25
L =λ2 or λ2 = L
If a flute sounds a note with 450Hz, what
The frequency are the frequencies of the second, third,
v v v and fourth harmonics of this pitch?. If the
f2 = = = 2× = 2 f1
l2 L 2L clarinet sounds with a same note as 450Hz,
then what are the frequencies of the lowest
is called first over tone. Since n = 2 here, it is
three harmonics produced ?.
called the second harmonic.
Solution
λ3
λ3 λ3 λ3 λ3 For a flute which is an open pipe, we have
4 2 2 4
λ3
Second harmonics f2 = 2 f1 = 900 Hz
λ3
+ λ3 +
3
λ3
4 4 = 2 Third harmonics f3 = 3 f1 = 1350 Hz
Fourth harmonics f4 = 4 f1 = 1800 Hz
For a clarinet which is a closed pipe, we
have
Second harmonics f2 = 3 f1 = 1350 Hz
L
Third harmonics f3 = 5 f1 = 2250 Hz
Fourth harmonics f4 = 7 f1 = 3150 Hz
Figure 11.43 Third mode of vibration
having three nodes and four anti-nodes
E X A M P L E 11 . 26
The Figure 11.43 above shows the third If the third harmonics of a closed organ
mode of vibration having three nodes and pipe is equal to the fundamental frequency
four anti-nodes of an open organ pipe, compute the length
of the open organ pipe if the length of the
3 2L
L= l 3 or l 3 = closed organ pipe is 30 cm.
2 3
Solution
The frequency
Let l2 be the length of the open organ pipe,
v 3v with l1 =30 cm the length of the closed
f3 = = = 3 f1
λ 3 2L organ pipe.
It is given that the third harmonic of closed
is called second over tone. Since n = 3 here, it
organ pipe is equal to the fundamental
is called the third harmonic.
frequency of open organ pipe.
Hence, the open organ pipe has all the The third harmonic of a closed organ pipe
harmonics and frequency of nth harmonic is v 3v
is fn = nf1. Therefore, the frequencies of f2 = = = 3 f1
λ2 4l1
harmonics are in the ratio
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The fundamental frequency of open organ by raising or lowering the water in the
v v reservoir R. The surface of the water will act
pipe is f1 = =
l1 2l2 as a closed end and other as the open end.
Therefore, Therefore, it behaves like a closed organ pipe,
v 3v 2l forming nodes at the surface of water and
= ⇒ l2 = 1 = 20 cm
2l2 4l1 3 antinodes at the open end. When a vibrating
tuning fork is brought near the open end
11.10.1 Resonance air of the tube, longitudinal waves are formed
column apparatus inside the air column. These waves move
downward as shown in Figure 11.44, and
Tuning
fork
Reservoir R reach the surfaces of water and get reflected
A
0
10
A
and produce standing waves. The length of
20
30 Water
N
the air column is varied by changing the
One meter
A
water level until a loud sound is produced
40
cylindrical
50
glass tube Water
in the air column. At this particular length

60
70
80
the frequency of waves in the air column

Water
90
100
B
resonates with the frequency of the tuning

Rubber tube
fork (natural frequency of the tuning fork).
At resonance, the frequency of sound waves
produced is equal to the frequency of the
tuning fork. This will occur only when
the length of air column is proportional to
th
 1 
5  of the wavelength of the sound waves
L
1
4
λ
3
4
λ 4
λ  4 
produced.
Let the first resonance occur at length L1,
then
1
λ = L1 (11.80)
Figure 11.44: The resonance air 4
column apparatus and first, second and But since the antinodes are not exactly
third resonance formed at the open end, we have to include
The resonance air column apparatus is one a correction, called end correction e, by
of the simplest techniques to measure the assuming that the antinode is formed at some
speed of sound in air at room temperature. small distance above the open end. Including
It consists of a cylindrical glass tube of one this end correction, the first resonance is
meter length whose one end A is open and 1
λ = L1 + e(11.81)
another end B is connected to the water 4
reservoir R through a rubber tube as shown Now the length of the air column is
in Figure 11.44. This cylindrical glass tube increased to get the second resonance. Let L2
is mounted on a vertical stand with a scale be the length at which the second resonance
attached to it. The tube is partially filled with occurs. Again taking end correction into
water and the water level can be adjusted account, we have
Unit 11 Waves 265

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3 3l 3
λ = L2 + e(11.82) L2 = = = 0.75 m
4 4 4
In order to avoid end correction, let us The third resonance occurs at length
take the difference of equation (11.82) and
5l 5
equation (11.81), we get L3 = = = 1.25 m
4 4
3 1
λ − λ = (L2 + e) − (L1 + e) and so on.
4 4
Since total length of the tube is 1.0 m the
1
⇒ λ = L2−L1 = ΔL third and other higher resonances do not
2
⇒ λ = 2ΔL occur. Therefore, the minimum height of
water Hmin for resonance is,
The speed of the sound in air at room
temperature can be computed by using the Hmin = 1.0 m − 0.75 m = 0.25 m
formula
v = f λ = 2f ΔL E X A M P L E 11 . 28
Further, to compute the end correction, we A student performed an experiment to
use equation (11.81) and equation (11.82), determine the speed of sound in air using
we get the resonance column method. The length
L2 −3L1 of the air column that resonates in the
e=
2 fundamental mode with a tuning fork
is 0.2 m. If the length is varied such that
E X A M P L E 11. 27
the same tuning fork resonates with the
A frequency generator with fixed frequency first overtone at 0.7 m. Calculate the end
of 343 Hz is allowed to vibrate above a correction.
1.0 m high tube. A pump is switched on to
fill the water slowly in the tube. In order to Solution
get resonance, what must be the minimum End correction
height of the water?. (speed of sound in air
L2 − 3L1 0.7 − 3(0.2)
is 343 m s−1) e= = = 0.05 m
2 2
Solution
c
The wavelength, λ = E X A M P L E 11 . 29
f
343 ms-1 Consider a tuning fork which is used to
λ = 343 Hz =1.0 m produce resonance in an air column. A
Let the length of the resonant columns be resonance air column is a glass tube whose
L1, L2 and L3. The first resonance occurs at length can be adjusted by a variable piston.
length L1 At room temperature, the two successive
resonances observed are at 20 cm and 85 cm
λ 1 of the column length. If the frequency of the
L1 = = = 0.25 m
4 4 length is 256 Hz, compute the velocity of the
The second resonance occurs at length L2 sound in air at room temperature.
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Solution
Stationary observer and stationary
Given two successive length (resonance) source means the observer and source
to be L1 = 20 cm and L2 = 85 cm are both at rest with respect to medium
respectively
The frequency is f = 256 Hz
v = f λ = 2f ΔL = 2f (L2 − L1) i) Observed frequency: Stationary source

and Moving listener
= 2 × 256 × (85 − 20) × 10 −2 m s−1 Consider a point source S of sound at rest
with respect to the medium (air) in which it is
v = 332.8 m s−1
kept. The medium is assumed to be uniform
and is also at rest. The source emits sound
11.11 waves of frequency f and wavelength λ.
v
DOPPLER EFFECT
Imagine that you are standing on a railway

platform and listening to the blowing L S
whistle of a train moving past you, the vL v v
pitch (or frequency) of the sound you listen
as the train approaches you is higher than Compressions
the pitch you listen as it moves away from of sound waves v
you. This is an example of Doppler effect.
Figure 11.45 Listener moves toward the
This effect occurs due to the relative motion stationary source
between the source of sound and its listener.
This motion−related frequency change Sound waves travel with the same speed
was first observed and studied by Johann v in all directions radially away from the
Christian Doppler (1803–1853), an Austrian source in the form of spherical waves. The
Mathematician and Physicist. compressions (or wavefronts) of sound
waves are represented by concentric circles
Whenever there is a relative motion in the Figure 11.45. The distance between
between the source of sound and the two successive compressions is equal to its
listener, the frequency of the sound wavelength λ and the frequency of the wave
observed by the listener is different from is given by
the frequency produced by the source.
This is known as Doppler effect. v
f= (11.83)
l
The Doppler effect is a wave phenomenon.
Therefore, it occurs not only for sound When the listener L is stationary, there
waves but for any wave such as light and is no relative motion between the source
other electromagnetic waves. Here, we will and the listener. Since v and l remain
discuss different cases of Doppler effect for unchanged, the frequency of sound
sound and derive the expression for the observed by the listener is the same as the
frequency observed by the listener. source frequency f.
Unit 11 Waves 267

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Now the listener moves directly toward the also shown and are represented by two
stationary source (Figure 11.45). If v L is concentric circles. The second compression
the speed of the listener, then the relative has just been emitted and is still near the
speed of sound with respect to the listener source. The distance between two successive
becomes v ′ = v + v L . Since the wavelength compressions is the wavelength l of the
remains unchanged (because the source is sound. Since f is the frequency of the
stationary), the frequency of sound observed source, then the time between emissions of
by the listener is changed and the observed compressions is
frequency f ¢ is given by
1 l
T= =
v ′ v +v L f v
f ′= =
l l
Using the equation (11.83), Compressions
v + v L  L v λ S
f ′ =  f (11.84)
 v 
v
(listener moving toward the source)
Thus, the observed frequency is greater (a) Source at rest

than the source frequency when the listener
Compression emitted
moves toward the stationary source. when S was at A
vsT
If the listener is moving away from the
vs
stationary source, the observed frequency L S SA
λ′
can be obtained from equation (11.84) by B
taking negative value for v L . It is given by Compression emitted

when S is at B
v + (−v L )
f ′ =   f (b) Source moving
 v 
Figure 11.46 Source moves toward the
v −v L  stationary listener
f ′ =  f (11.85)
 v 
Now the listener is stationary and the source
(listener moving away from the source) moves directly toward the listener (Figure
Thus, the observed frequency is less than 11.46(b)). Let the speed of the source be v S
the source frequency when the listener is which is less than the speed of sound v.
moving away from the stationary source.
In a time T, the first compression travels
a distance v T = l and the source moves
ii)
Observed frequency: Moving source a distance v ST . As a result, the distance
and stationary listener between two successive compressions
Assume that both the source S and the is decreased from l to l ′ = l −v ST.
listener L are at rest as shown in Figure Therefore, the wavelength observed by the
11.46a. Two successive compressions are listener is given by
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v 
l ′ = l −v ST = l −  S  v + v 
 f  f ′ =  L
 f (11.88)
 v − v 
S 
The observed frequency is then given by
v v The sign convention we used here is that both
f ′= = v S and v L take positive values if the source or
l′ v 
l −  S  the listener moves toward the other. Likewise,
 f 
they are negative when the source or the
v listener moves away from the other.
=
 v  v S 
  −   The observed frequency for different situations
 f   f 
of relative motion between the source and the
listener is consolidated in Table 11.4.
 v 
f ′ =   f (11.86)
v −v S  It is important to note that
Note the change in frequency oc-
(source moving toward the listener)
curs either due to the change
Thus, whenever the source moves toward the in speed of sound (when the listener
stationary listener, the observed frequency moves and source at rest) or due to the
is greater than the source frequency. change in wavelength of sound (when
the source moves and observer at rest).
If the source is moving away from the
stationary listener, the observed frequency If both source and listener move, the
can be obtained from equation (11.86) by change in frequency occurs due to
taking negative value for v S . It is given by both the change in speed of sound and
the change in wavelength of sound
 v  wave.
f ′ =   f
v − (−v S )
Suppose the source

 v  moves faster than
f ′ =   f (11.87)
v + v S
 sound (that is, the
(source moving away from the listener) source is supersonic),
the equations (11.84) and (11.86) for
Thus, the observed frequency is less than observed frequency will become invalid
the source frequency when the source is and a stationary listener in front of the
moving away from the stationary listener. source hears no sound as the sound
waves are at the rear of the source.
iii) Observed frequency: Both source and At such speeds, the newly produced
listener moving waves and the old waves interfere
constructively which leads to very large
When both source and listener are moving,
amplitude of sound, called a ‘sonic
the observed frequency is obtained by
boom’ or ‘shock wave’.
combining equations (11.84) and (11.86).
Unit 11 Waves 269

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Table 11.4: Observed frequency for different situations

S.No. Situation Observed frequency
v + v L 
f ′ =  f
1 L moves toward the stationary S  v 
v −v L 
f ′ =  f
2 L moves away from the stationary S  v 
 v 
3 S moves toward the stationary L f ′ =   f
v −v S 
 v 
4 S moves away from the stationary L f ′ =   f
v + v S 
v + v 
5 S and L move toward each other f ′ =  L
 f
 v − v S 

v −v 
6 S and L recede from each other f ′ =  L
 f
v + v S 
v −v 
7 S chases the L f ′ =  L
 f
v −v S 
v + v 
8 L chases the S f ′ =  L
 f
 v + v S

S and L move toward each other and (v + v ) + v 

9 the medium also moves in the direction f ′ =  m L
 f
 (v + v m ) −v S 
of sound with speed vm
Doppler effect in sound is Doppler effect in sound is asymmetric.

Note asymmetric while that in light The reason is that sound wave requires a
is symmetric. medium for its propagation and it has its
speed with respect to that medium.
The observed frequency of sound when
the source moves toward stationary But in the case of light and other
listener and the observed frequency when electromagnetic radiations, the observed
the listener moves toward stationary frequency is the same in both abovesaid
source with the same speed are not equal. cases. Therefore, Doppler effect in light
Although the relative speed is same and other electromagnetic waves is
in both the cases, observed frequency symmetric because the propagation of
is different. Hence, we say that the light is independent of the medium.
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E X A M P L E 11. 30 E X A M P L E 11 . 31
A sound of frequency 1500 Hz is emitted by a An observer observes two moving trains,
source which moves away from an observer one reaching the station and other leaving
and moves towards a cliff at a speed of the station with equal speeds of 8 m s−1.
6 ms–1. If each train sounds its whistles with
(a) Calculate the frequency of the sound frequency 240 Hz, then calculate the
which is coming directly from the number of beats heard by the observer.
source.
(b) Compute the frequency of sound Solution:
heard by the observer reflected off the Observer is stationary
cliff. Assume the speed of sound in air (i) Source (train) is moving towards an
is 330 m s–1. observer:
The observed frequency due to train
Solution arriving station is
(a) Source is moving away and observer  v   
fin =   f =  330  ×240 = 246Hz
is stationary, therefore, the frequency  v −v   330 − 8 
 s
of sound heard directly from source
is (ii) Source (train) is moving away from an
observer:
 v   
f′=  f =  330  ×1500 = 1473Hz The observed frequency due to train
v + v   330 + 6 
 s leaving station is
(b) Sound is reflected from the cliff and  v   
f out =   f =  330  ×240 = 234Hz
reaches observer, therefore, v + v   330 + 8 
 s
 v   
f′=  f =  330  ×1500 = 1528Hz So the number of beats = | fin–fout| =
 v −v   330 − 6 
 s (246–234) = 12
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SUMMARY
A disturbance which carries energy and momentum from one point in space to
another point in space without the transfer of medium is known as a wave.
The waves which require medium for their propagation are known as mechanical waves.
The waves which do not require medium for their propagation are known as
non-mechanical waves.
For a transverse wave, the vibration of particles in a medium is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the wave.
For a longitudinal wave, the vibration of particles in a medium is parallel to the
direction of propagation of the wave.
Elasticity and inertia are necessary properties of the medium for wave propagation.
Waves formed in still water (ripples) are transverse and wave formed due to vibration
of tuning fork is longitudinal.
The distance between two consecutive crests or troughs is known as wavelength, λ.
The number of waves which crossed a point per second is known as frequency, f.
The time taken by one wave to cross a point is known as time period, T.
Velocity of the wave is v = λf.
Frequency is source dependent and wave velocity is medium dependent.
The velocity of a transverse wave produce in a stretched string depends on tension
in the string and mass per unit length. It does not depend on shape of the wave form.
T
Velocity of transverse wave on a string is v = ms−1 .
µ
E
Velocity of longitudinal wave in an elastic medium is v = ms−1 .
ρ
The minimum distance from a sound reflecting wall to hear an echo at 20°C is
17.2 meters.
∂2 y 1 ∂2 y
The wave equation is = in one dimension.
∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2
2π
Wave number is given by k = rad m−1 .
λ
During interference the resultant intensity is I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1I 2 cosj, where the
intensity is square of the amplitude I = A2 .
For constructive interference, I maximum = ( I1 + I 2 ) = ( A1 + A2 ) .
2 2
For destructive interference, I minimum = ( I1 − I 2 ) = (A1− A 2 ) 2 .

2
When we superimpose two or more waves with slightly different frequencies then
a sound of periodically varying amplitude at a point is observed. This phenomenon
is known as beats. The number of amplitude maxima per second is called beat
frequency.
272 Unit 11 Waves

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� For n springs connected in parallel, the effective spring constant is

216 Unit 10 O scill ations

UNIT-10(XI-Physics_Vol-2).indd 216 25-03-2022 20:30:36

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

a= −ω2 A sinω t F=−kx x=+A sinωt

Simple Pendulum U - Tube k Spring mass

Unit 10 O scill ations 217

UNIT-10(XI-Physics_Vol-2).indd 217 25-03-2022 20:30:36

I. Multiple Choice Questions

218 Unit 10 O scill ations

UNIT-10(XI-Physics_Vol-2).indd 218 25-03-2022 20:30:40

Unit 10 O scill ations 219

UNIT-10(XI-Physics_Vol-2).indd 219 25-03-2022 20:30:42

II. Short Answers Questions 3. What is meant by angular harmonic

220 Unit 10 O scill ations

UNIT-10(XI-Physics_Vol-2).indd 220 25-03-2022 20:30:42

c. + =1 , equation is an ellipse whose

d. x2+y2 = A2, equation is a circle whose

Unit 10 O scill ations 221

UNIT-10(XI-Physics_Vol-2).indd 221 25-03-2022 20:30:44

Hint and answer:

BOOKS FOR REFERENCE

222 Unit 10 O scill ations

UNIT-10(XI-Physics_Vol-2).indd 222 25-03-2022 20:30:45

Through this activity you will be able to

Unit 10 O scill ations 223

UNIT-10(XI-Physics_Vol-2).indd 223 25-03-2022 20:30:47

In this unit, the student is exposed to

propagates and reaches the other end. That

UNIT-11(XI-Physics_Vol-2).indd 224 26-03-2022 17:24:13

(a) (b) (c)

Let us take a long string and tie one end of

Unit 11 Waves 225

UNIT-11(XI-Physics_Vol-2).indd 225 26-03-2022 17:24:13

Mean position Compression

Figure 11.5 Waves due to strike of a

226 Unit 11 Waves

UNIT-11(XI-Physics_Vol-2).indd 226 26-03-2022 17:24:14

11.1.5 Mechanical wave In transverse wave motion, the constituents

Compressed Stretched Compressed Stretched

Longitudinal waves Motion

Unit 11 Waves 227

UNIT-11(XI-Physics_Vol-2).indd 227 26-03-2022 17:24:14

Table 11.1: Comparison of transverse and longitudinal waves

11.2 If we are interested in counting the number

Consider a wave produced in a stretched Figure 11.10 Defining wavelength

UNIT-11(XI-Physics_Vol-2).indd 228 26-03-2022 17:24:15

Unit 11 Waves 229

UNIT-11(XI-Physics_Vol-2).indd 229 26-03-2022 17:24:17

From the example 11.2, we observe that E X A M P L E 11 . 3

230 Unit 11 Waves

UNIT-11(XI-Physics_Vol-2).indd 230 26-03-2022 17:24:20

But one minute is 60 second, therefore, E X A M P L E 11 . 5

The velocity of ocean wave is

(a) Wavelength, (b) Frequency and

The waves shown in the Figure 11.14 have

UNIT-11(XI-Physics_Vol-2).indd 231 26-03-2022 17:24:21

is faster than the sound we hear through

232 Unit 11 Waves

Note: Classification of sound waves: 11.6.1 haracteristics of

point O, the phase difference between two E X F