1

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY LOKOJA

DEPARTMENT OPF PHYSICS
PHY 281: INTRODUCTORY GEOPHYSICS (2 CREDIT UNITS)

LECTURE NOTES
LECTURER: AYUA, K.J.
RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOKS: FUNDAMENTALS OF GEOPHYSICS BY WILLIAM LOWRIE; AN
INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICS BY KEAREY AND BROOKS
PRE-REQUISITE: NIL
GRADING:
1. GROUP ASSESSMENT (ORAL PRESENTATION)/ASSIGNMENTS – MIDWAY THROUGH THE
COURSE
2. WRITTEN ASSESSMENT TEST – AT THE CLOSE OF THE COURSE
3. ATTENDANCE TO CLASS
4. WRITTEN EXAMINATION

MODULE ONE
GEOPHYSICS AS A DISCIPLINE
As Physics students, this is your first adventure in the study of Geophysics. Some of you may
never have imagined that the study of physics could involve looking into the interior of the Earth.
You may never have considered that there is an intersection between the Physics you are
studying and Geology. However, Geophysics is just that. Geophysics, (Geo = Greek for Earth) is
the application of the methods of physics to the study of the earth.
Geophysics is essential to understanding the solid Earth, particularly on a global scale. Modern
ideas of the structure and evolution of continents and oceans, or of the formation of mountain
chains on land and below the oceans, for instance, are based extensively on discoveries made
using geophysics. Geophysics can contribute to geological knowledge on all scales from the
global; regional mapping or the search for oil and minerals; down to the small-scale – such as civil
engineering, archaeology, and groundwater pollution, as well as geological mappings.
Geophysics is different from other methods of studying the earth because it can ‘look into the
Earth’ even though its measurements are made remotely from the target, usually at the surface.
It is able to do this by measuring differences in the physical properties of the subsurface rocks or
structures, which are revealed by their effects at the surface, such as magnetic field of some
rocks. But it describes the subsurface in physical terms – density, electrical resistivity, magnetism,
elastic moduli and seismic velocities.
 2

THE RELATION OF GEOPHYSICS TO GEOLOGY

A geologists studies and describes rocks and earth structures mainly visually (for instance a
conglomerate is recognized by the size and shape of its clasts while offsets in the layers of
sedimentary rocks reveal the presence of faults). However, the visual observation of buried rocks
is something that geophysics cannot do, instead it remotely measures the physical properties of
the rocks (usually their spatial variations) and interpretation is then made to decipher the rocks
or structures giving rise to the measurements.

While Geologists describe rocks (and structures) they can see on the surface and make inference
as to their continuation at depth, Geophysicists take measurement of physical parameters at
the surface and interprets in order to describe the unseen rocks (and structures) at depth.

Geophysicists therefore often have to deduce (by measuring) the values or variation of various
physical properties at depth, and these in turn have to be related to the types of rocks and their
structures. This is known as the inverse problem of Geophysics – reconstructing a geologic model
(type of rock, or earth structures) from a set of measurements.
Geophysics also has the problem of ambiguity or non-uniqueness. Non-uniqueness essentially
means that in the absence of any other information (from geological observations, bore-hole
data, drill-holes, other geophysical methods) acting as control, there are an infinite number of
subsurface property distributions that fit a set of geophysical measurements. Simply put, a
number of mathematical models can accurately be described by the measured geophysical data.
To arrive at the correct geological configuration at depth will require information from other
sources. Geophysics does not replace geology but complements it.

THE GEOPHYSICIST
Geophysicists belong to a larger group called Geoscientists, which include geologists,
geochemists and oceanographers. A geophysicists may specialize in any of the following
specialties: Seismology, Marine Geophysics, Mining Geophysics, Environmental Geophysics,
Atmospheric Geophysics etc.
The first place people think of when they hear Geophysics is the oil industry. However, a
geophysicists may work in a number of other industries such as Academics, Research, Mining
and Mineral Exploration, Seismology, Archaeology, Engineering, Environmental Protection or
even Crime Detection - Forensics.
The Pay is good too. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Geoscientists earned a
median annual salary of $89, 780 in 2016. Some earned as much as $127, 620.
 3

Having understood what Geophysics is, we will go further to learn what the Geophysical methods
are and how they are applied.
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
Several Geophysical methods can be employed. They are dependent on the type of physical
parameter that is measured. Some of them include Seismic methods, Gravity, Electromagnetic,
Magnetic, Electrical, Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Radiometrics, Magneto-telluric Methods
etc (Table 1.0). These methods are largely classified into active and passive methods according to
whether the field source for which a subsurface response is measured is artificial or natural.

Passive methods measure naturally occurring phenomena (Gravity field, Magnetic field,
Seismic arrivals – earthquakes) while Active methods Transmit a signal into the subsurface and
record what comes back (Seismic arrival – explosions, Electrical current, Electromagnetic
waves)

Table 1.0: Geophysical Methods (Kearey, Brooks and Hills, 2002)

GEOPHYSICAL MEASURED PARAMETER OPERATIVE PHYSICAL
METHOD PARAMETER
Seismic Travel times of reflected/refracted seismic Density and elastic
waves moduli, which
determine the
propagation velocity of
seismic waves
Gravity Spatial variations in the strength of Density
the gravitational field of the Earth
Magnetic Spatial variations in the strength of the Magnetic susceptibility
geomagnetic field and remanence
Electrical

Resistivity Earth resistance Electrical conductivity

Induced- Polarization voltages or frequency- Electrical capacitance

polarization dependent ground resistance

Self-potential Electrical potentials Electrical conductivity

Radar Travel times of reflected radar pulses Dielectric constant

Electromagnetic Response to electromagnetic radiation Electrical conductivity and

inductance

The type of physical property to which a method responds clearly determines its range of
applications. Thus, for example, the magnetic method is very suitable for locating buried
magnetite ore bodies because of their high magnetic susceptibility. Similarly, seismic or electrical
 4

methods are suitable for the location of a buried water table because saturated rock may be
distinguished from dry rock by its higher seismic velocity and higher electrical conductivity.

The main fields of application of geophysical surveying, together with an indication of the most
appropriate surveying methods for each application, are listed in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Geophysical Surveying Applications (Kearey, Brooks and Hills, 2002)
APPLICATIONS APPROPRIATE SURVEY METHODS*
Exploration for fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal) S, G, M, (EM)
Exploration for metalliferous mineral deposits M, EM, E, SP, IP, R
Exploration for bulk mineral deposits (sand S, (E), (G)
and gravel)
Exploration for underground water supplies E, S, (G), (Rd)
Engineering/construction site investigation E, S, Rd. (G), (M)
Archaeological investigations Rd, E, EM, M, (S)
* G, gravity; M, magnetic; S, seismic; E, electrical resistivity; SP, self-potential; IP, induced
polarization; EM, electromagnetic; R, radiometric; Rd, ground-penetrating radar. Subsidiary
methods in brackets.

GEOPHYSICAL PROCEDURE
The geophysical procedure involves three major steps: Data Acquisition, Data Processing and
Data Interpretation.
The first stage of most of the geophysical methods involve making measurements in the field
(Data Acquisition). This is usually followed by further stages of working with the data (Data
Reduction and Processing), before they are ready for geological deductions (Data
Interpretation) to be drawn.

DATA ACQUISITION
Geophysical surveys measure the variation of some physical quantity, with respect either to
position or to time. Geophysical data is measured at the surface using a geophysical instrument
(Magnetics –Magnetometer, Gravity – Gravimeter, Electrical resistivity – terrameter). The
quantity may, for example, be the strength of the Earth’s magnetic field across an igneous
intrusion. It may be the motion of the ground surface as a function of time associated with the
passage of seismic waves. The instrumental readings are taken along a line or traverse. Usually,
readings are not taken continuously along the traverse but at intervals. A point where a reading
is taken is called a station. The simplest way to present the data is to plot the variation of the
measured quantity with respect to distance or time as appropriate. When the readings are
plotted (against time or space), they form a profile. Several traverses may be run parallel to each
other thus forming a grid. The grid may then be contoured (a line joining several points with the
same readings) to aid visualization and reveal the presence of an anomaly.
 5

DATA PROCESSING
Most times, the raw readings provided by the instrument are not readily useful. Converting the
readings into a more useful form is called data reduction. For instance, in a magnetic survey,
allowance has to be made for changes (variations) in the earth’s magnetic field during the survey.
Since the presence of a target (causative body) is often revealed by an anomaly, Reduction is
important because if these changes are not accounted for, their presence may be interpreted to
be of geologic significance – as originating from the target.

An Anomaly in geophysics refers to that part of a profile or contour map that is above or below
the surrounding average and not “something out of the ordinary” as used in everyday
language.

Profiles are usually complex waveform shape, which reflect physical variations in the underlying
geology (the signal components of the waveform), superimposed on unwanted variations from
non-geological features (such as the effect of electrical power cables in the magnetic example,
or vibration from passing traffic for the seismic case), instrumental inaccuracy and data collection
errors (these forming geological noise). The detailed shape of the waveform may be uncertain
due to the difficulty in interpolating the curve between widely spaced stations. The
geophysicist’s task is to separate the ‘signal’ from the ‘noise’ and interpret the signal in terms
of ground structure.
Analysis of waveforms such as these represents an essential aspect of geophysical data
processing and interpretation – and this involves some fairly sophisticated mathematics. The
principles of convolution, deconvolution and correlation form the common basis for many
methods of geophysical data processing. Others include digital filtering, spectral analysis, and
digitization. Before the general availability of digital computing, the quantity of data and the
complexity of the processing severely restricted the use of the known techniques. This no longer
applies and nearly all the techniques may be implemented in standard computer spreadsheet
programs. Most geophysical software are capable of carrying out data processing as well.

Noise is not sound but refers to unwanted variations or fluctuations in the quantities being
measured while the signal is the wanted part.

Signal to Noise ratio can also be improved by taking repeated readings and averaging. The signal
parts of each reading add up whereas the noise, usually being random, tends to cancel out. This
procedure is called stacking and can also be done with profiles.
 6

The use of these ideas is also widespread in other technological areas such as radio, television,
sound and video recording, radioastronomy, meteorology and medical imaging, as well as
military applications such as radar, sonar and satellite imaging.
Improving the sound of old sound recordings to remove hisses and scratches is done by signal
processing.

DATA INTERPRETATION
Once the geophysical waveforms have been processed to maximize the signal content, that
content must be extracted for geological interpretation. Geophysical interpretation is the
translation of the physical model into geological terms.
In common language, a model is a small version of the real thing but in geophysics, a model is
a body or structure (described by such physical properties as depth, size, density etc) that could
account for the data measured.

Sometimes, it is possible to deduce the causative body directly from the results. This is called
inverse modelling. More often however, a computer is used to ‘guess’ a model, calculate the
values it would produce, compare them with the measured data and then modify the model
until it matches with the observations sufficiently well. This iterative (trial and error) process is
called forward modelling. The goodness of the match obtained depends on both the signal-to-
noise ratio of the waveforms and the initial choice of the model used.

The results obtained in the above has to be presented in such a manner as to be understood. It
can be presented as contour maps, isometric projections etc.

The end product of any geophysical endeavor is the production of a geologic map
 7

MODULE TWO
GENERATION AND PROPAGATION OF ELASTIC WAVES
The propagation of a seismic disturbance through the Earth is governed by physical properties
such as density, and by the way in which the material of the Earth’s interior reacts to the
disturbance. Material within the seismic source suffers permanent deformation, but outside the
source the passage of a seismic disturbance takes place predominantly by elastic displacement
of the medium; that is, the medium suffers no permanent deformation.
Before analyzing the different kinds of seismic waves, it is important to have a good grasp of
elementary elasticity theory. This requires understanding the concepts of stress and strain, and
the various elastic constants that relate them.
The basis of elasticity theory is the linear relationship called Hooke’s Law. It states that, for
elastic behavior, the strain in a body is proportional to the stress applied to it.
Find more details in Fundamentals of Geophysics (W. Lowrie, pp.122-129)

ELASTIC, ANELASTIC AND PLASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS

When a force is applied to a material, it deforms. This means that the particles of the material
are displaced from their original positions.
Provided the force does not exceed a critical value, the displacements are reversible; the particles
of the material return to their original positions when the force is removed, and no permanent
deformation results. This is called elastic behavior. An elastic material deforms immediately upon
application of a stress and maintains a constant strain until the stress is removed, upon which
the strain returns to its original state.
However, in some materials the strain does not reach a stable value immediately after application
of a stress, but rises gradually to a stable value. This type of strain response is characteristic of
anelastic materials. After removal of the stress, the time-dependent strain returns reversibly to
the original level.
In plastic deformation, the strain keeps increasing as long as the stress is applied. If the applied
stress is removed in the plastic range, the strain does not return to zero (or the original level); a
permanent strain has been produced and is left in the material.
Eventually the applied force (stress) exceeds the strength of the material and failure occurs. In
some rocks failure can occur abruptly within the elastic range; this is called brittle behavior
 8

SEISMIC WAVES
Seismic waves are parcels of elastic strain energy that propagate outwards from a seismic source
such as an earthquake or an explosion. Except in the immediate vicinity of the source, the strains
associated with the passage of a seismic pulse are minute and may be assumed to be elastic. On
this assumption the propagation velocities of seismic pulses are determined by the elastic moduli
and densities of the materials through which they pass. There are two groups of seismic waves,
body waves and surface waves.
A seismic wave passes through the Earth as an elastic disturbance. Seismic waves are either
body waves (travelling through the interior of the earth e.g. P-Waves and S-waves) or surface
waves (traveling much like ripples along the surface of the earth e.g. Rayleigh, Stonely or Love
waves).

BODY WAVES
Body waves can propagate through the internal volume of an elastic solid and may be of two
types.
Compressional waves (the longitudinal, primary or P-waves of earthquake seismology)
propagate by compressional and dilatational uniaxial strains in the direction of wave travel.
Particle motion associated with the passage of a compressional wave involves oscillation, about
a fixed point, in the direction of wave propagation. P-waves can travel through solids, liquids and
gases, all of which are compressible. These waves travel faster than any other type of wave
generated by seismic disturbances.
Shear waves (the transverse, secondary or S-waves of earthquake seismology) propagate by a
pure shear strain in a direction perpendicular to the direction of wave travel. Individual particle
motions involve oscillation, about a fixed point, in a plane at right angles to the direction of wave
propagation. If all the particle oscillations are confined to a plane, the shear wave is said to be
plane-polarized. Liquids and gases do not allow shear. The maximum velocity of an S wave is
about 70% of the P wave velocity through the same medium.
In homogeneous, isotropic media the velocities of compression (Vp) and shear waves (Vs) can be
described in simple terms of elastic modulii and density as shown below (see Fundamentals of
Geophysics by Lowrie pp. 130 – 132 for proof).
 9

Where ‘k’ is the Bulk Modulus - incompressibility of the medium; ‘μ’ is Shear Modulus -
resistance to shearing; shear stress/shear strain and ‘ƿ’ is the density of the material.
Any changes in the shear or bulk moduli or the density will therefore cause a change in shear
and compression velocity.
Note that from the above equations, fluids do not allow the propagation of S waves (µ = 0 for
fluids).

Elastic deformations and ground particle motions associated with the passage of body waves.
(a) P-wave. (b) S-wave. (From Bolt 1982 in Kearey, Brooks and Hill, 2002. pp.24)

SURFACE WAVES
In a bounded elastic solid, seismic waves can propagate along the boundary of the solid. These
seismic waves are known as surface waves.
Rayleigh waves propagate along a free surface, or along the boundary between two dissimilar
solid media. The associated particle motions are elliptical in a plane perpendicular to the surface
 10

(in the vertical plane) and containing the direction of propagation. Rayleigh waves generally
attenuate rapidly with distance. The velocity of these waves depends on wavelength and the
thickness of the surface layer. In general, Rayleigh waves travel slower than P or S waves.

Love waves are polarized shear waves with a particle motion parallel to the free surface and
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. Love waves which occur only when the
surface layer has a low P wave velocity with respect to the underlying layer. The wave motion is
horizontal and transverse. The velocity of these waves may be equal to the S wave velocity of the
surface layer or the underlying layer depending on the wavelength of the Love wave. Energy
sources used in seismic work do not generate Love waves to a significant degree. Love waves are
therefore generally considered unimportant in seismic investigation.

Elastic deformations and ground particle motions associated with the passage of surface waves.
(a) Rayleigh wave. (b) Love wave. (From Bolt 1982 in Kearey, Brooks and Hill, 2002. pp. 25)

GENERATION OF SEISMIC WAVES

A seismic source is usually some mechanical device or explosive that thumps the earth, causing
energy to be transmitted through the earth. Characteristics of the wave include Amplitude (A),
Wavelength (λ), Period (T), Velocity (V) and Frequency (f).

Read up on the definitions of these characteristics, their units and the mathematical
relationship between them.
 11

PROPAGATION OF SEISMIC WAVES

A seismic pulse propagates outwards from a seismic source at a velocity determined by the
physical properties of the surrounding rocks. If the pulse travels through a homogeneous rock it
will travel at the same velocity in all directions away from the source.
The wave propagation can be visualized as a wavefront and raypaths. Consider a seismic wave
generated by an explosion (a point source). The resulting wave propagates outward from the
source as shown in the diagram below:

Ray path
The relationship of a ray path to the associated wavefront (Modified from Kearey, Brooks and
Hill, 2002 pp. 25).

At any subsequent time the wavefront, defined as the locus of all points which the pulse has
reached at a particular time, will be a sphere. The wavefront connects positions of the seismic
wave that are in phase. Seismic rays are defined as thin pencils of seismic energy travelling along
ray paths. Ray paths are lines that show the direction in which is everywhere perpendicular to
the wavefront in isotropic media. The ray paths show the path of the seismic energy from the
source to the receiver. Rays have no physical significance but represent a useful concept in
discussing travel paths of seismic energy through the ground.

HUYGENS’S PRINCIPLE
The propagation of the wavefront overtime can be visualized using the Huygen’s principle.
The principle states that every point on a wavefront acts a secondary point source generating
a new wave that also travels out in expanding spheres
 12

The principle helps to explain how information about seismic disturbances are communicated in
the earth. Given the location of a wavefront at a particular time, future positions of the wavefront
can be determined. This is because the points on the initial wavefront act as secondary sources
whose wavelengths interfere constructively to produce the wavefront at a later time.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT SEISMIC VELOCITES
The velocity at which seismic waves travel through the earth is given by the elastic parameters
(moduli) and or density of the earth materials (Refer to pp. 8 of this lecture note).
Other factors include porosity (ф), Depth, Age etc.

ATTENUATION OF SEISMIC ENERGY

The further a seismic signal travels from its source, the weaker it becomes. The decrease of
amplitude with increasing distance from the source is referred to as attenuation. It is partly due
to the geometry of propagation of seismic waves, and partly due to anelastic properties of the
material through which they travel.
The most important reduction is due to geometric spreading or spherical divergence. Seismic
energy is propagated as a spherical wavefront of expanding radius. Conservation of energy
requires that the total amount of energy in the wavefront is constant at all times. Therefore, as
the sphere expands, the energy will be spread out over a larger area. This means that the energy
at each point on the surface of the sphere will decrease.
If there is no energy loss due to friction, the energy E0 in the wavefront at distance r from its
source is distributed over the surface of a hemisphere with area 2𝜋𝑟 2 . The intensity (or energy
density, E(r) of the body waves is the energy per unit area of the wavefront, and at distance r is
given by:
𝐸0
𝐸(𝑟) =
2𝜋𝑟 2
From the above equation, we can deduce that the E(r) varies inversely with the square of the
radius of the expanding sphere. Also, the energy of a seismic wave is proportional to the square
of the amplitude. This implies that the amplitude varies inversely with the distance,
Mathematically,
𝟏
E(r) ∝ and E(r) ∝ A2
𝒓𝟐
𝟏
This implies that A2 ∝
𝒓𝟐
𝟏
Or A ∝
𝒓

The decrease of the seismic waves by a factor of 1/r as the wave or sphere expands is known as
geometrical spreading or spherical divergence.
 13

Another reason for attenuation is the absorption of energy due to imperfect elastic properties.
If the particles of a medium do not react perfectly elastically with their neighbors, part of the
energy in the wave is lost (reappearing, for example, as frictional heat) instead of being
transferred through the medium. This type of attenuation of the seismic wave is referred to as
anelastic damping. The attenuation of a seismic wave by absorption is dependent upon the
frequency of the signal. High frequencies are attenuated more rapidly than are lower
frequencies.
Attenuation by absorption is characterized by the quality factor, Q, which indicates the fractional
loss of energy per cycle of the seismic wave. It is given by
2𝜋𝐸
𝑄=
∆𝐸
Where E = total elastic energy in the wave and ∆𝐸 the energy lost in one cycle.
High values of Q means that little energy is lost as the wave propagates away from the source.
Total Exploration & Production Nig. Ltd uses a Q factor of 120 for processing seismic data
acquired in most parts of the Niger-Delta offshore.

Attenuation results in an exponential decrease in amplitude of seismic waves as they travel. If

the waves have initial amplitude, A0, with frequency, f, its amplitude, A(t), after time, t, will be
−𝜋𝑓𝑡
𝐴(𝑡) = 𝐴0 𝑒 𝑄

The above equation can also be expressed in terms of the distance, x, travelled by the wave with
wavelength, 𝜆 as
−𝜋𝑥
𝐴(𝑡) = 𝐴0 𝑒 𝑄𝜆

The Equations indicate that amplitudes decays more rapidly for

(a) Rocks with low values of Q
(b) Waves that have a high frequency (short wavelength)

Seismic energy is also attenuated as a result of scattering. Most rocks contain small
heterogeneities such as grains with different compositions and edges of mineral pores. As a
seismic wave encounters these heterogeneities, some seismic energy will be scattered. As a
result, some energy will be lost and amplitude decreases.

Attenuation of Seismic Amplitudes or Energy takes place as a result of Geometrical spreading

(spherical divergence), absorption and scattering.
 14

MODULE THREE
SEISMIC EXPLORATION METHOD
Seismic methods are active geophysical methods. A seismic source is introduced into the earth
and elastic waves called seismic waves are generated which propagate into the earth (or along
the surface of the earth) from the source at velocities that depend on the elastic properties and
density of the earth materials through which the waves travel.
As the wave travel through the earth, they become either refracted, reflected or transmitted
when they encounter an interface where seismic velocity and or density changes. Waves
refracted or reflected eventually return to the surface where they are recorded by seismic
detectors (Seismometer) placed at various distances from the source. These detectors are called
geophones (in land surveys) or hydrophones (in marine or offshore surveys). The detectors
convert the motion or pressure variations to electricity that is recorded by electronic
instruments. The record of ground motion with time constitutes a seismogram and is the basic
information used for interpretation.
The fundamental purpose of seismic surveys is to accurately record the ground motion caused
by a known source in a known location. The seismic method is rather simple in concept. An
energy source (dynamite in the early days) is used to produce seismic waves (similar to sound)
that travel through the earth to detectors of motion, on land, or pressure, at sea.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SEISMIC SURVEY

When an incident compressional wave strikes a boundary between two media with different
velocities of wave propagation and/or different densities, Part of the energy is reflected from the
boundary and the rest is transmitted into the next layer. The sum of the reflected and transmitted
amplitudes is equal to the incident amplitude.
The relative sizes of the transmitted and reflected amplitudes depend on the contrast in acoustic
impedances of the rocks on each side of the interface. While it is difficult to precisely relate
acoustic impedance to actual rock properties, usually the harder the rocks the larger the acoustic
impedance at their interface.
The acoustic impedance of a rock is determined by multiplying its density, 𝝆, by its P-wave
velocity, V. Acoustic impedance is generally designated as Z. i.e. Z = 𝝆𝑽

Consider a P-wave of amplitude A0 that is normally incident on an interface between two layers
having seismic impedances (product of velocity and density) of Z1 and Z2
 15

P-waves normally incident on an interface between two layers.

The result is a transmitted ray of amplitude A2 that travels on through the interface in the same
direction as the incident ray, and a reflected ray of amplitude A1 that returns to the source along
the path of the incident ray.
The reflection coefficient, R, is the ratio of the amplitude A1 of the reflected ray to the amplitude
Ao of the incident ray,
𝐴1
𝑅=
𝐴0
The magnitude and polarity of the reflection coefficient depends on the difference between
seismic impedances of layers 1 and 2. Large differences in seismic impedances results in relatively
large reflection coefficients. If the seismic impedance of layer 1 is larger than that of layer 2, the
reflection coefficient is negative and the polarity (phase) of the reflected wave is reversed.
The transmission coefficient, T, is the ratio of the amplitude transmitted to the incident
amplitude. It is given by:
𝐴2
𝑇= = 1−𝑅
𝐴0
The Transmission coefficient is never negative but can be larger than 1. Transmitted waves have
the same phase as the incident wave.

Reflection and Transmission coefficients can be given in terms of Zoeppritz Equations:

𝒁𝟐 − 𝒁𝟏 𝝆𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝝆𝟏 𝑽𝟏
𝑹= =
𝒁𝟐 + 𝒁𝟏 𝝆𝟐 𝑽𝟐 + 𝝆𝟏 𝑽𝟏
𝟐𝒁𝟏 𝟐𝝆𝟏 𝑽𝟏
𝑻= =
𝒁𝟐 + 𝒁𝟏 𝝆𝟐 𝑽𝟐 + 𝝆𝟏 𝑽𝟏

When a P-ray strikes an interface at an angle other than 900, reflected and transmitted P-rays
are generated as in the case of normal incidence. If there is a contrast in velocity of the two layers,
 16

there will be a change in the direction of the transmitted P-ray as it passes through the interface.
The wave is thus said to be refracted. In addition, some of the incident P-wave energy is
converted into reflected and transmitted (or refracted) S-waves. This is called mode conversion.
The resulting S-waves, called SV waves, are polarized in the vertical plane.

P-waves Incident at an oblique angle on the interface between two layers

Seismic method is divided into two: Seismic Reflection and Seismic refraction methods.
Seismic Reflection survey places emphasis on the seismic energy arriving later after the initial
ground motion. The method focuses on seismic energy that has been reflected from various
subsurface boundaries, based on the contrast in velocity and or density of the earth materials.
From the arrival times of the various reflections and offsets, information about the subsurface
formation, including the depths to the various reflectors are obtained and all of these are
interpreted in terms of subsurface structures.
Seismic Refraction survey is designed to measure the travel times of the component of the
seismic energy which travels down to the top of a rock (boundary with a distinct velocity or
density contrast), becomes critically refracted along the boundary and then returns to the surface
where they are recorded. The refracted waves recorded at the surface usually represent the first
arrivals of seismic energy. Seismic refraction data set usually consists of a series of time versus
offset measurement which can be interpreted to give the depth to the interface, as well as
seismic velocities of different layers.

In this course, we will limit our adventure in seismic survey methods to Seismic Refraction
method alone. Ensure to review Snell’s Law which applies equally to the optical and seismic
cases. It is fundamental to understanding Reflection and Refraction of obliquely incident rays.
 17

SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD

In the case of oblique incidence, the transmitted P-wave ray travels through the lower layer with
a changed direction of propagation (is refracted) and Snell’s Law of Refraction can be applied to
the seismic case. Snell defined the ray parameter p = sin i/v, where i is the angle of inclination of
the ray in a layer in which it is travelling with a velocity v. The generalized form of Snell’s Law
states that, along any one ray, the ray parameter remains a constant.
For the refracted P-wave ray shown in the figure below:

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑉1

= 0𝑟 =
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2 𝑉2

When the P-wave velocity is higher in the underlying layer, the refracted P-ray is “bent” toward
the boundary. As the angle of incidence increases the refracted P-ray will be bent to where it is
just below and along the boundary, which means that the angle of refraction is 90 ◦. The particular
angle of incidence at which this occurs is known as the critical angle, usually designated θc.
The critical angle is given by
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 𝑆𝑖𝑛900 1
= =
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉2
This implies that
𝑉1 𝑉1
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = 𝑜𝑟 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1
𝑉2 𝑉2

The sine of the critical angle is equal to the ratio of velocities across the boundary or interface.
 18

This refracted wave, known as a head wave, passes up obliquely through the upper layer toward
the surface, as shown in the figure below

Seismic refraction (Gadallah and Fisher, 2009)

At the receiver end, seismic waves that are refracted upward emerge at the critical angle.
Additional refractions may occur at deeper boundaries, if the seismic velocities below the
boundaries are faster than those above the boundaries.

Idealized seismic refraction method showing receivers at different offset (Gadallah and Fisher,
2009)
 19

Simulated Seismic refraction record

The simulated seismic refraction record shown above is based on the idealized refraction
method. Two events are apparent. The first is the refraction from the boundary between layer 1
and 2. The second is the direct arrival from the source.
Less processing is applied to refraction data than reflection data. The main interest is in being
able to pick the arrival time of refraction events.
These times are plotted against offsets (distances between source and receivers) in what are
called T-X plots. Analysis and interpretation of these plots may allow determination of subsurface
layer thicknesses and velocities. The refraction method can supply data that allow interpreters
to identify rock units, if the acoustic velocities are known. The refraction method can also be used
to detail structure of certain deep, high-velocity sediments, where reflection data are not of
sufficient quality.

Values of the best-fitting plane layered model parameters, V1, V2 and z, can be determined by
analysis of the travel-time (T-X) curves of direct and refracted arrivals:
• V1 and V2 can be derived from the reciprocal of the gradient of the relevant travel-time
segment.
• The refractor depth, z, can be determined from the intercept time t1.
 20

GEOMETRY OF REFRACTED RAY PATHS: PLANAR INTERFACES (2-layer earth model)

Successive positions of the expanding wavefronts for direct and refracted waves through a two-
layer model. Only the wavefront of the first arrival phase is shown. Individual ray paths from
source A to detector D are drawn as solid lines (Kearey, Brooks and Hill, 2009)

The figure above illustrates progressive positions of the wavefront from a seismic source at A
associated with energy travelling directly through an upper layer and energy critically refracted
in a lower layer. Direct and refracted ray paths to a detector at D, a distance x from the source,
are also shown. The layer velocities are V1 and V2 (> V1) and the refracting interface is at a depth
Z.
The direct ray travels horizontally through the top of the upper layer from A to D at velocity V1.
The refracted ray travels down to the interface and back up to the surface at velocity V1 along
slant paths AB and CD that are inclined at the critical angle 𝜃, and travels along the interface
between B and C at the higher velocity V2. The total travel time along the refracted ray path ABCD
is
𝑡 = 𝑡𝐴𝐵 + 𝑡𝐵𝐶 + 𝑡𝐶𝐷
𝑍 (𝑥 − 2𝑍 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃) 𝑍
= + +
𝑉1 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑉2 𝑉1 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃

Recall: Noting that Sin𝛉 = V1/V2 (Snell’s Law) and Cos𝛉 = (1- V12/V22)1/2

The travel-time equation may be expressed in a number of different forms, a useful general
form being
𝑥 2𝑍𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑡= +
𝑉2 𝑉1
 21

Alternatively,
1
𝑥 2𝑍(𝑉2 2 − 𝑉1 2 )2
𝑡= +
𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉1
𝑥
or 𝑡= + 𝑡1
𝑉2

If we plotted t against x, t1 is the intercept on the time axis having a gradient of 1/V2. The
intercept time t1, is given by
1
2 2 2
2𝑍(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
𝑡1 =
𝑉2 𝑉1
Solving for z, we obtain
𝑡1 𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑍= 1
2 2 2
2(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

Travel-time curves for the direct wave and the head wave from a single horizontal refractor.
At the crossover distance Xcros the travel times of direct and refracted rays are equal
1⁄
𝑋𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑋𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠 2𝑍(𝑉2 2 − 𝑉1 2 ) 2
= +
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉1 𝑉2
Thus solving for Xcros,
1⁄
𝑉2 + 𝑉1 2
𝑋𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠 = 2𝑍 [ ]
𝑉2 − 𝑉1
From this equation it may be seen that the crossover distance is always greater than twice the
depth to the refractor. Also the crossover distance equation provides an alternative method of
calculating z.
 22

PRACTICE QUESTION ONE

The Table following lists densities and velocities of three layers. What can you infer about the
magnitudes and polarities of reflection coefficient 1 (for the interface between layers 1 and 2)
and reflection coefficient 2 (for the interface between layers 2 and 3)?
Densities and velocities for earth model
Layer Density (g/cm3) Velocity (m/s)
1 2.2 1500
2 2.9 3000
3 2.6 2500

PRACTICE QUESTION TWO

Consider a 600 m thick layer of sandstone of velocity 4100 m/s and density 2.7 g/cm3 overlying a
granite basement of velocity 5600 m/s and same density with the sandstone. If a seismic wave
with original amplitude, Ai = 1.0 is generated and travels vertically downwards (ignore Amplitude
attenuation)
(a) Calculate the Amplitudes of the reflected and transmitted waves
(b) What will be the time taken for the reflected wave to be recorded by the receiver
(c) Draw a sketch of the expected seismogram

PRACTICE QUESTION THREE

The following dataset was obtained from a seismic refraction line 275 m long. The survey was
carried out in a level area of alluvial cover to determine depths to the underlying bedrock surface.
Offset (m) Travel time (ms)
12.5 6.0
25 12.5
37.5 19.0
50 25.0
75 37.0
100 42.5
125 48.5
150 53.0
175 57.0
200 61.5
225 66.0
250 71.0
275 76.5

a. Draw a T-X profile of the data set

b. Determine the Velocities V1 and V2 of the layers
c. Using any convenient method, determine the depth to the top of the Bedrock