Oscillations and Waves

Luis Anchordoqui
 Simple harmonic motion
If an object vibrates or oscillates back and forth
over the same path, each cycle taking the same
amount of time, the motion is called periodic

The mass and spring system is useful

model for a periodic system

Luis Anchordoqui
Simple harmonic motion (cont’d)
If an object vibrates or oscillates back and forth
over the same path, each cycle taking the same
amount of time, the motion is called periodic

The mass and spring system is

useful model for a periodic
system

Luis Anchordoqui
 Simple harmonic motion (cont’d)

We assume that the surface is frictionless.

There is a point where the spring is neither streched nor compressed

The equilibrium position

We meassure displacement from that point ( x = 0 on the previous figure)

The force exerted by the spring depends on the displacement

F = - kx

Luis Anchordoqui
 Simple harmonic motion (cont’d)
The minus sign on the force indicates that it is a restoring force

it is directed to restore the mass to its equilibrium position

k is the spring constant

The force is not constant, so the acceleration

is not constant either

Luis Anchordoqui
Simple harmonic motion (cont’d)
Displacement is measured from the equilibrium point

Amplitude is the maximum displacement

A cycle is a full to-and-fro motion.

This figure shows half a cycle

Period is the time required to complete one cycle

Frequency is the number of cycles

completed per second
Luis Anchordoqui
 Simple harmonic motion (cont’d)
Any vibrating system where the restoring force
is proportional to the negative of the displacement
is in simple harmonic motion (SHM)
and is often called a simple harmonic oscillator
We know that the potential energy of a spring is given by

PE = ½ kx²
The total mechanical energy is then:

E = ½ mv² + ½ kx²
The total mechanical energy will be conserved,
as we are assuming the system is frictionless

Luis Anchordoqui
Energy in the simple harmonic oscillator

If the mass is at the limits of its motion,

the energy is all potential

If the mass is at the equilibrium point,

the enrgy is all kinetic

We know what the potential

energy is at the turning points

E = ½ k A²

Luis Anchordoqui
The period and sinusoidal nature of SHM
The figure shows how we can experimentally
obtain x versus t for a mass on a spring
A marking pen is attached to a mass on a
spring and the paper is pulled to the left.
As the paper moves with constant speed the
pen traces out the displacement x as a
function of time.

The general equation for such curve is

x = A cos ( ωt + δ)
Phase constant
2π f

Luis Anchordoqui
 Sinusoidal Nature of SHM
Consider an object on a spring on a frictionless surface
Equilibrium

Fx = -kx
Using Newton’s second law
m d²x
= -kx
dt²
The general solution is
x = A cos (ωt + δ) Luis Anchordoqui
 Sinusoidal Nature of SHM (cont’d)

The velocity and acceleration can be calculated as function of time

Displacement x

v = -v max sin ωt

v max = A (k/m) ½

Velocity v a = -a max cos (2πt/T)

a max = k A/m
Luis Anchordoqui
Acceleration a
 Spider Web
A spider of mass 0.3 g waits in its web of negligible mass.
A slight movement causes the web to vibrate
with a frequency of about 15 Hz.
a) Estimate the value of the spring stifness constant k for the web.
(b) At what frequency would you expect the web to vibrate if an insect of
mass 0.1 g were trapped in addition to the spider?

k = 2.7 N/m

f= 13 Hz

Luis Anchordoqui
Oscillating systems: object on a vertical spring
∑ Fy = -ky + mg
Changing variables y’ = y – y
0
∑ Fy= -k(y’ + y ) + mg
0
But ky 0 = mg ∑ Fy = -ky’
From Newton’s second law
-ky’ = d²y
m dt²
y = y’ + y d²y = d²y’
0
dt² dt²
d²y’ k
= -― y’
dt² m
The solution is
y’ = A cos (ωt + δ)
ω = (k/m)½ Luis Anchordoqui
 You are teaching your sister how to make paper party
decorations using paper springs.
She makes a paper string.
The spring is stretched 8 cm and
has a single sheet of colored
paper suspended from it.

You want decorations to bounce

at approximately 1 cy/s.
How many sheets of colored papers should be used for
the decoration on that spring?

Three sheets are needed

Luis Anchordoqui
 Oscillating systems: the simple pendulum
-mg sin Φ = m d²s
Where the arc length s = LΦ dt²
Repeatedly differentiating on both sides of s gives
d²s = L d²Φ
dt² dt²
Substituting and re-arranging gives
d²Φ = -― g
sin Φ
dt² L
Note that the motion of the pendulum does not
For small Φ sin Φ ≈ Φ depend on its mass

g
d²Φ ≈-― Φ« 1
Φ
dt² L
General solution for small oscillation

Φ = Φ0 cos (ωt + δ)
Where g
ω² = ― and T = 2π
― = 2π (L/g) ½ Luis Anchordoqui
L ω
 The simple pendulum

As long as the cord can be

considered massless and te
amplitude is small, the period
does not depend on the mass

Luis Anchordoqui
 Sin θ at small angles
θ θ %
(degrees) (radians) sin θ Difference
0 0 0 0

1º 0.01745 0.01745 0.005%

5º 0.08727 0.08716 0.1%

10º 0.17453 0.17365 0.5%

15º 0.26180 0.25882 1.1%

20º 0.34907 0.34202 2.0%

30º 0.52360 0.50000 4.7%

Luis Anchordoqui
The pendulum in an old clock is made of brass and keeps
perfect time at 17º C.
How much time is gained or lost in an year if the clock is
kept at 25º C?

Δ T = 40 min

(Assume the frequency dependence on length

for a simple pendulum applies.)

Luis Anchordoqui
 A straight tunnel is dug through Earth as shown in the figure.
Assume that the walls of the tunnel are frictionless.
(a) The gravitational force exerted by Earth on a particle of
mass m at a distance r from the center of Earth when r < R
is Fr = (G m M / R3 ) r.

Show that the net force on a particle of mass m at a distance x from

the middle of the tunnel is given by Fx = -(G m M /R 3 ) x and
that the motion of the particle is therefore simple harmonic motion.
Show that the period of the motion is independent of the length
of the tunnel and is given by T = 2 π (R /g) ½
Find its numerical value in minutes.

T = 84.4 min

Luis Anchordoqui
 Energy in a simple harmonic motion
U = ½ kx²

U = ½ kA² cos² (ωt+δ)

K = ½ mv²

K = ½ mω² A² sin² (ωt+δ)

Using ω² = k/m

E = U + K = ½ kA²[cos²(ωt+δ) + sin²(ωt+δ)] = ½ kA²

Luis Anchordoqui
 Energy in a simple harmonic motion (cont’d)

The total energy is, therefore ½ k A²

And we can write

½ mv² + ½ kx² = ½ kA²

This can be solved for the velocity as a function of position:

v = ± v max √1 - x²
―
A²

where

v²max = (k/m) A²
Luis Anchordoqui
Simple Harmonic Motion and circular Motion

If we look at the projection onto the

x axis of an object moving in a circle of
radius A at a constant speed v max ,
we find that the x component of its
velocity varies as :

v = v max √ x²
1 - ―
A²

This is identical to SHM

Luis Anchordoqui
 SHM and Circular Motion (cont’d)

Therefore, we can use the period and frequency of a

particle moving in a circle to find the period and frequency

2πr
T =
v Simplifying gives

r = A
½ T = 2 π (m/k)½
v = (k/m) A

½
T = 2πA
1 1
f = ― = ― (k/m)
½ T 2π
(k/m) A
Luis Anchordoqui
 Damped oscillations
Left to itself a spring or pendulum eventually stops oscillations
because the mechanical energy is dissipated by frictional forces
The damped force exerted on an oscillator can be represented by the
empirical expression
Such a system is said to be
Fd = -bv linearly damped
The motion of a damped system can be obtain from Newton’s second law
dx
-kx –b dt = m d²x
dt
Rearranging
m d²x + b dx + kx = 0
dt dt
The solution to this equation is

x = A 0
e (-b/2m) t
cos (ω’t +δ)
ω’ = ω0 1-( b )² ½
2mω 0
½
ω 0 = (k/m) frequency with no damping
For weak damping b/(2mω 0 ) « 1 and ω’ is nearly equal ω0
Luis Anchordoqui
 Damped oscillations (cont’d)
Because the damping force is opposite to the direction of motion it does
negative work and causes the mechanical energy of the system to decrease
This energy is proportional to the square of the amplitude

A² = A² e-t/τ τ = m/b
0

The dashed curves correspond to x = A and x = -A

If the damping constant b is gradually increased the angular
frequency ω’ decrease until it becomes zero at the critical value

b c = 2mω
0
When b ≥ b c system is overdamped
(does not oscillate)

Luis Anchordoqui
A bug on the surface of a pond is observed to move up and
down a total vertical distance of 6 cm, from the lowest to
the highest point as a wave passes.

If the ripples decrease to 4.5 cm, by what factor does

the bug's maximum kinetic energy change?

KE 2
= 0.56
KE 1

Luis Anchordoqui
 A bungee jumper (with mass 65 kg)
jumps from a high platform in
Kuta Beach (Bali, Indonesia).

After reaching his lowest point, he

oscillates up and down, hitting a
low point eight more times in 38 s

k = 114 N/m He finally comes to rest 25 m

below the level of the bridge.
Calculate the spring stiffness
L = 19.4 m constant and the unstretched
length L of the bungee cord.

Luis Anchordoqui
 Wave Motion
A mechanical wave is caused by a disturbance in a medium
As wind passes over the water's surface friction forces it to ripple
The strength of the wind, the distance the wind blows
and the duration determine how big the ripples will become
The crest is the highest point on a wave
the trough between two waves is the lowest point
Wavelength is the horizontal distance, either between the crests or
troughs of two consecutive waves

Wave height is a vertical distance between

a wave's crest and the next trough

Wave period measures the size of the

wave in time

Luis Anchordoqui
 Wave Motion (cont’d)
If you have ever watched the ocean waves moving toward shore before they
break you may have wondered if the waves were carrying water from far out
at the sea into the beach
Water moves with a recognizable velocity THEY DON'T
but each of the molecule of water itself
merely oscillates about an equilibrium point
This is clearly demostrated by observing a bottle on a pond as waves move by
The bottle is not carried forward by the waves, but simply oscillate about an
equilibrium point because this is the motion of water itself
Watch the water droplet move in a vertical circle as the wave passes
The droplet moves forward with the wave's crest and backward with the trough

These vertical circles are more obvious at the surface

As depth increases, their effects slowly decrease until

completely disappearing about half a wavelength below
the surface
Luis Anchordoqui
Looking a little more closely at how a wave its forme and how it comes to travel:
Pulse
A single wave bump or pulse can be formed on a rope by a quick
up-and- down motion of the hand
The figure shows a pulse on a string at time t =0

The shape of the string at this instant can be represented by some function y = f(x)

At some later time the pulse is farther down the string

In a new coordinate system with origin O' that moves to the right with the same speed
as the pulse the pulse is stationary
The string is described in this frame by f(x') for all times
The x-coordinates of the two reference frames are related by
x' = x - vt f(x') = f(x - vt)
The shape of the string in the original reference frame is y = f(x - vt)
wave moving in the +x direction

The same line of reasoning for a pulse moving to the left leads to y = f (x + vt)
Luis Anchordoqui
Looking a little more closely at how a wave its formed and how it comes to travel:
Periodic wave
A continuous or periodic wave has as its source a disturbance that is
continuous and oscillating

When a taut string is plucked the disturbance in this case is

the change in shape of the string from its equilibrium shape

Its propagation arises from the interaction of each string

segment with the adjacent segments

The segments of the string move in the direction perpendicular to the string as the
pulses propagate back and forth along the string

Luis Anchordoqui
 Types of waves

Waves in which the motion of the medium

(molecules of water, particles on the string)
is perpendicular to the direction of propagation are called transverse waves

Waves in which the motion of the medium is along (parallel to)

the direction of propagation of the disturbance are called longitudinal
waves. (Sound waves are examples of longitudinal waves)
Luis Anchordoqui
 Speed of waves
The speed of the waves relative to the medium depends on
elastic and inertial properties of the medium but is
independent of the motion of the source of the waves
For a pulse on a rope
String tension
FT ½
v =
µ
Linear mass density

For sound waves

Bulk modulus
B ½
v = ρ
Volume mass density
Luis Anchordoqui
 Inchy runs for his life
Inchy, an inchworm, is inching along a cotton clothesline.
The 25-m-long clothesline has a mass of 1 kg and is kept taut by a hanging
object of mass 10 kg as shown in the figure.
Gaby is hanging up her swimsuit 5 m from one end when she sees Inchy 2.5
cm from the opposite end. She plucks the line sending a terrifying 3-cm-
high pulse towards Inchy. If Inchy crawls at 1 in/s, will he get to the end
of the clothesline before the pulse reaches him?

Inchy does not beat the pulse

Luis Anchordoqui
 Graphic representations of a sound wave

(A) Air at equilibrium, in

the absence of a sound
wave

(B) Compressions and

rarefactions that
constitute a sound wave

(C) Transverse representation of the wave,

showing amplitude (A) and wavelength (λ)
Luis Anchordoqui
 Speed of sound in air
For sound waves in a gas the bulk modulus is proportional to the
pressure wich in turn is proportional to the density and to the
absolute temperature of the gas

The ratio B/ρ is independent of density and is merely

proportional to the absolute temperature
v = (γ RT/M) ½
The dimensionless constant γ depends on the kind of gas
For diatomic molecules such as O2 and N 2 γ = 7/5
Because O2 and N 2 comprise 98% of the atmosphere for air γ = 7/5
For gases composed of monoatomic molecules such as He γ = 5/3
T = t + 273
C
R = 8.3145 J/(mol K)
The molar mass from air is
M = 29 x 10 -3 kg/mol
The speed of sound at 20ºC is the about 343 m/s
Luis Anchordoqui
 The explosion of a depth charge beneath the surface of a body of
water is recorded by an helicopter hovering above the water's surface
as shown in the figure.
Along which path (A, B, or, C) will the sound wave take the least time
to reach the helicopter?

The speed of sound in water is greater than

the speed of sound in the air path C

Luis Anchordoqui
 Wave intensity
Wave transports energy from one place to another
As waves travel through a medium the energy is transferred as
vibrational energy from a particle to particle in the medium
If a point source emits waves uniformely in all directions then the
energy at a distance r from the source is distributed uniformly on a
spherical surface of radius r and area A = 4π r²

The average power per unit area that is incident perpendicular to the
direction of propagation is called the intensity
Pav
I =
A Luis Anchordoqui
 Wave intensity (cont’d)

Sound waves from a telephone handset spreading out in the air

The wave have been made visible by sweeping out the space in
front of the handset with a light source whose brightness is
controlled by a microphone
Luis Anchordoqui
 Doppler Effect
You may have noticed that you hear the pitch of the whistle on a
speeding train dropped abruptly as it passes you

This phenomenon is known as Doppler effect

Luis Anchordoqui
 Doppler effect (cont'd)
Consider the whistle of a train at rest which is emitting sound of a particular
frequency in all directions as shown in the figure
The sound waves are moving at the speed of sound in air which
is independent of the velocity of the source or observer

If the our source is moving then whistle emits sounds

at the same frequency as it does at rest
The sound wavefronts it emits forward are closer together than when the train is
at rest
This is because the train as it moves is "chasing"
the previously emitted wavefronts and emits each
crest closer to the previous one
Thus an observer in front of the train will detect
more wave crests passing per second so the
frequency heard is higher
The wavefronts emitted behind the train are farther apart than when the
train is at rest because the train is speeding away from them
Fewer wave crest per second pass by an observer behind the moving train and
the perceived pitch is lower
Luis Anchordoqui
 Doppler effect (cont'd)
In the following discussion all motions are relative to the medium
Consider a source moving with speed us and a stationary receiver

The source has frequency fs

The received frequency
(the number of crests passing the receiver per unit time)
is related to the wavelength λ (distance between successive crests)
and the wave speed v by fr λ = v

Luis Anchordoqui
 Doppler effect (cont'd)

A wave crest leaves the source at

time t1 and the next wave crest
leaves the source at time t2

The time between these two events is Ts = t 2 - t1

and during this time the source and crest leaving the source
at time t travel distances usTs and vTs , respectively
1

At time t 2 the distance between the source and the crest leaving at
time t1 equals the wavelength λ
Luis Anchordoqui
 Doppler effect (cont'd)
If us < v

Behind the source

λ = λ b = (v + u s) Ts
In front of the source
λ = λf = (v - u s) Ts

We can express both λ and λ as

b f
v ± u
s
λ = (v ± us ) Ts =
fs
Substituting for our expression for λ and rearranging
v v
f = ― = f (stationary receiver)
r λ v ± u s
s Luis Anchordoqui
 Doppler effect (cont'd)
When the receiver moves with respect to the medium the received
frequency is different because the receiver moves past more or fewer
wave crests in a given time
Let Tr denote the time between arrivals of succesive crests for a receiver
moving with speed u r
During the time between the arrivals of two succesive crests each crest will
have traveled a distance vT r and during the same time the receiver will have
traveled a distance u r Tr
If the receiver moves in the direction
opposite to the wave during a time T
the distance
r a wave moves + the distance
the receiver moves equals the wavelength

vTr + u r T r = λ Tr = λ/(v + u r )
If the receiver moves in the same direction as the wave

vTr - u r Tr = λ Tr = λ/(v - u r )
Luis Anchordoqui
 Doppler effect (cont'd)
Because fr = λ / T we have
v ± ur
f = 1 =
Tr λ
Substituting for λ
v ± ur
fr = fs
v ± us

In a reference frame in which the medium is moving

(for example the reference frame of the ground
if air is the medium and there is a wind blowing)

The wave speed v is replaced by v’ = v ± uw

where uw is the velocity of the wind relative to the ground

Luis Anchordoqui
Batman has sent a signal to the batcave calling for his batfriends to
cover his escape.

Answering the signal, a bat which is nearby starts flying at 5 m/s.

As it flies, the bat emits an ultrasonic sound wave with frequency
30 kHz towards the tall wall of the building.
What frequency does the bat hear in the reflected wave?

f = 3.09 x 104 Hz

Luis Anchordoqui
 Shock Waves
During our derivations of the Doppler-shift expressions we assumed that
the speed u of the source was less than the wave speed v
If the source moves with speed greater than the wave speed there
will be no waves in fron of the source
Instead the waves pile-up behind the source to form a shock wave

In the case of sound waves this shock wave is heard as a sonic boom
when it arrives at the reciver

Luis Anchordoqui
Shock waves produced by a bullet traversing
a helium balloon

Luis Anchordoqui
 Mach Number
The figure shows a source originally at point P
1
moving to the right with velocity u
After some time t the wave emitted from point
P1 has traveled a distance vt

The source has traveled a distance ut and

will be at point P2

The line from this new position of the source to the

wavefront emitted when the source was at P makes
1
an angle θ with the path of the source known as the
v t v Mach angle +
sin θ = = ―
u t u
The shock wave is confined to a cone that narrows as u increases
The ratio of the source speed u to the wave speed v is called
the Mach number
u
Mach number = ― Luis Anchordoqui
v
 Sonic Boom

Shock waves from a supersonic plane

Luis Anchordoqui
 A supersonic plane flying due east at an altitude of 15 km passes directly
over point P.
The sonic boom is heard at point P when the plane is 22 km east of point P.
What is the speed of the plane?

velocity = 610 m/s

Luis Anchordoqui
 Doppler Effect (summary)
Stationary Sound Source

Doppler Shift

Source moving with vsource < v sound

Breaking the Sound Barrier Sonic Boom

Source moving with source
v > v
sound

Luis Anchordoqui
Physics 209
Luis Anchordoqui