Unit 5: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF BLASTING

Subject: Blasting Technology

Taught By: Dr. Sunny Murmu
Book Reference:
• Engineering Rock Blasting, Sushil Bhandari
• Explosives & Blasting techniques, G.K. Pradhan
• Elements of Mining Technology, Vol. 1, D.J. Deshmukh
Blasting Mechanism

When an explosive in the blast hole is detonated, quintessentially there are four major phenomenon that occur:

• Induction of shock waves due to detonation pressure

• Shock wave reflection from the free surface
• Wedge action i.e. the bore hole pressure at the crack tips induced by shock waves due to high temperature and
pressure.
• Fragmentation due to flight collision and throw of the material.

Following the detonation of explosive, the adjacent charged holes gets connect with each other within tens of
microseconds to form a new free face. Accompanying this process, there occurs transient release of normal in-situ
stress, which leads to damage in surrounding rock mass. The fracture zone formed due to detonation of explosive is about
8-10 times the diameter of borehole. It eventuates up to the area where energy is irreversible and energy loss is observed.
It means that rocks depicts inelasticity. Beyond this fracture zone, the other dominant factors such as high temperature
and pressure extends the cracks up to 10-100 times higher than what is caused by the shock waves, forming a zone of
disturbance.
Fracturing of rock under blasting
Blasting Mechanism

❑ When an explosive detonates in a hole the pressure can exceed 10 GPa, sufficient enough to shatter the rock near the
hole, and also generate a stress wave that travels outward at a velocity of 3000-5000 m/s.

❑ The leading front of the stress wave is compressive but is closely followed by the tensile stresses that are mainly
responsible for rock fragmentation.

❑ A compressive wave reflects when it reaches a nearby exposed rock surface, and on reflection, becomes a tensile
strain pulse. Rock breaks more easily in tension than in compression, and fractures progress backward from the free
face.

❑ The gas pressure generated during the process also act to widen and extend stress generated cracks or natural joints.

❑ The fragmentation process which takes place is the combined effect of the above two, the role of each is dependant
upon the rock conditions, blasting geometry, explosive materials and initiation systems.
 Effects of blasting

❑ Whenever explosives in a blast-hole are detonated, huge energy is

created in the form of waves and gas in the air and in the earth.
Only 20–30 % of the produced energy is utilized for fragmentation
and movement of the rock mass and the rest of this energy is
wasted and creates undesirable environmental impacts.

❑ Fragmented rock, heap, ground vibrations, air overpressure,

noise, fumes, dust, and flyrock are some of the outcomes of a
blast, further classified into favourable and unfavourable
parameters.
1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Inception
❑ When an explosive charge is detonated in a blast
hole, rapid release of energy takes place within a
very short period causing tremendous rise of
temperature and pressure.

❑ The surrounding rock melts, flows, crushes and

fractures. At some distance from th explosion
source the inelastic processes and elastic effects
starts.

❑ Only a part of the total chemical energy released is

converted into elastic form. The elastic
disturbances which propagate away from the
explosion source are termed as seismic waves.
These waves are quickly transmitted through the
solid medium which comes back to original
configuration after the passage of the seismic
waves.
1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Adverse effect
❑ The unutilized explosive energy creates a lot of problem both for the workers associated in the excavation process
and the local inhabitants in the nearby area. Although blasting vibrations are short term transient phenomena, the
residents in the vicinity of operations feel that if vibration continues then their dwelling may get damaged.

❑ The unsavoury problems may lead to confrontation and even litigations between the mining industry and the general
public.

❑ The problem continues to be of great concern to governments, explosive manufacturers, industries utilizing blasting,
insurance companies and scientists.

❑ With the increased awareness about environment, increased complaints and litigations about damage due to blasting
have been experienced by operators.

❑ Further, it is in the interest of operators themselves that attempts be made to control harmful effects of blasting
operation.
1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Basic Seismic waves
❑ Based on the characteristic features, seismic waves can be divided into two broad categories:
1. Body waves: Waves that travel through the rock mass are termed as body waves. They can further be sub
divided into:
a. Primary waves: P waves
b. Secondary waves: S waves
2. Surface waves: Waves which travel along the surface and cause ground motion.
a. Rayleigh or R waves
b. Love or Q waves
c. Coupled waves
1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Basic Seismic waves

Recording of Body and Surface waves in a seismograph

1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Basic Seismic waves
❑ Primary or P waves: This is a compression wave which alters the volume of the body without altering its shape. In
such cases, particles vibrates in the direction of the propagation of the wave.
❑ The longitudinal wave is also called the compression wave or primary wave (P-wave).
❑ It excites the particle of the rock in back and forth (compression and rarefaction) motion in same direction as the
propagation of the wave.
❑ Solid, liquid and gas transmit longitudinal wave.
❑ It is the fastest wave to be propagated through the ground.
❑ The velocity of P-wave depends upon the Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio and density of rock.
1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Basic Seismic waves
❑ Secondary or S waves: This is a shear wave resulting in change of shape only when the medium particles oscillate
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. These body waves propagate outward in a spherical manner until they
intersect into a boundary such as another rock layer, soil or the ground surface. At this intersection shear surface
waves are produced.
❑ The transverse wave is also called the shear wave or secondary wave (S-wave). It excites the particle of the rock at
right angle to the wave propagation.
❑ S-wave can travel only through the solids.
❑ The velocity of S-wave also depends upon the elastic constants and density of the rock.
❑ It is slower than the P-wave
1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Basic Seismic waves
❑ Rayleigh or R waves: This is longitudinal wave and causes mainly retrograde motion.
❑ The particle motion is elliptical and in a vertical plane with respect to the direction of propagation.
❑ Rayleigh waves travel only in the free surface.
❑ The amplitude of the Rayleigh wave decreases rapidly with depth below the surface.
❑ The Rayleigh waves travel slowly than P-wave and S-wave.
1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Basic Seismic waves
❑ Love or Q waves: This is a shear wave causing transverse vibration horizontally with no vertical component.
❑ The particle motion is horizontal.
❑ They have much slower than body waves but are faster than Rayleigh.
❑ They exist only in the presence of semi-infinite medium overlain by an upper finite thickness.
❑ Confined to the surface of the crust, Love waves produce entirely horizontal motion.
1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Basic Seismic waves
❑ Coupled waves: This oscillate particle in an inclined elliptical motion having components both horizontal and vertical
directions. The use of term ‘coupled’ implies combined P wave and S wave motions.
1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Peak Particle Velocity (PPV)
❑ PPV: The attenuation of shock wave energy is very fast due to its utilization
in crushing and fracturing process. Beyond the inelastic zone the unutilized
energy propagates in the form of seismic waves which is termed as blast
induced ground vibration. For simplification ground vibration due to
seismic waves generated from explosive blasting is represented as peak
particle velocity. The stress waves generated due to detonation of
explosives consists of three components vertical, horizontal and radial. It
is necessary to measure all the three components and use the maximum
termed as peak particle velocity (PPV). When the seismic waves passes via
the ground, each particle of the rock or soil undergoes an elliptical motion
and the velocity of this motion is measured to access the blast damage.The
ground motion consists of a combination of the seismic waves. These
waves affect buildings and structures on the surface and around the
vicinity of the excavation through compression and tension and through
vertical and horizontal shearing effects. PPV in mm/sec is the largest value
of the vector sum of the transverse, longitudinal and vertical components.
❑ Longitudinal: back and forth horizontal particle movement in the same
direction that the vibration wave is travelling.
❑ Vertical: up and down particle movement perpendicular to particle
movement perpendicular to the direction that the vibration wave is
travelling.
❑ Transverse: horizontal particle movement perpendicular to the direction
that the vibration wave is travelling.
❑ All these terms are used in expressing the vibration levels.
1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Prediction
❑ Many researchers have developed empirical equations to predict PPV based on the charge scaling law. However, the
most popular one is the square root charge scaling law as proposed by United States Bureau of Mines (USBM,1959).
❑ An extensive research was carried out leading to the conclusion that whenever long cylindrical geometry charge is to
be used, i.e. length to diameter ratio is >6, dimensional analysis shows that the monitoring distance needs to be
scaled to the square root of charge weight. The prediction equation proposed was

𝑅 −𝑏
𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑣 = 𝑘( ) .
𝑊

Where, 𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑣 = Peak particle velocity in (mm/s)

𝑅
= scaled distance in (𝑚/𝑘𝑔0.5 )
𝑊

R = Distance from the geometric centre of the point of blast to the monitoring point (𝑚)
𝑊 = maximum charge per delay in (𝐾𝑔)
𝐾 and 𝑏 = are site constants obtained by regression. It gives an idea of the propagating media and monitoring
points.
1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Influencing factors
❑ Blast induced ground vibration is a complex phenomenon depending upon several factors categorized as controllable
and non-controllable factors as shown below:

Blast Induced Ground Vibration

Controllable factors Uncontrollable factors

Blast Design Geotechnical and Geo-mechanical

Blasting Parameters Parameters
Parameters
1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Influencing factors
1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Influencing factors
Some important factors are discussed below:
❑ Blast Geometry: The burden is one of the important factors which affect ground vibrations. A charge with proper
burden will produce less vibrations then a charge with greater burden. Excessive burden increases the ground
vibration because the explosive energy which is insufficient to break the burden rock will be converted into
vibrations.
The increased charge weight and blast confinement that result from the use of large diameter holes will produce
higher amplitude ground vibrations than blasts using smaller diameter blast holes. Most recent work by Redpath
and Ricketts (1987) indicate that blast hole diameter has influence on vibration levels.
For minimizing the ground vibrations the sub drilling length should be judiciously chosen as the sub drilling portion
creates as a zone of extra explosive energy which causes ground vibration.
❑ Type and amount of explosive: Charge weight per delay is most important factor which controls the intensity of
ground vibrations. The larger the quantity of charge detonated per delay the higher the vibrations.
ANFO mixtures produce ground vibrations of lower intensity as compared to slurry and gelatinous explosive
because of load density and low detonation pressure.
❑ Stemming: There is an optimum stemming length beyond which further increments in stemming column serve no
useful purpose. Ash (1968) recommended stemming length wearing from 1/2 - 1/3 the burden value, depending on
strata conditions. Stemming columns of less than 20 times the diameter of hole may result in more ground Vibrations.
❑ Priming and Initiation: The selection of suitable delay interval is very important in multi-row large blasts. Ground
vibration levels are reduced by the use of delay detonators because each delay generates its own pulse. The delay
provides separate wave fronts emanating from the corresponding charges thus avoiding the superimposition of
waves. The delay interval can be provided in between holes in the same row. Blasting and larger benches located in
environmentally sensitive areas can be carried out by providing more than one delay within a single blast hole.
1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Influencing factors........
Proper burden relief has to be provided to each row, in the case of multirow blasts, for effective horizontal
movement of the burden. If the delay between rows a smaller than what it should have been, the front row burden
cannot move forward to sufficient distance to provide a free phase to the next subsequent row. This adds to more
confinement of charges in subsequent rows resulting increased ground vibration. Based on the burden rock
movement, it was suggested that the optimum inter delay varies from 5 ms/m for short collars, high energy factors
and strong massive rocks to about 10 ms/m for long stemming columns, low energy factors and weak or highly
fractured strata.
❑ Geomechanical characteristics of the strata: The propagation of ground vibration is strongly influenced by the
lithology of the Rock mass. Siskind et al. (1980) reported that coal blasts produce low frequency waves compared to
quarry and construction blasts. The reason being that thick soil overburdens normally encountered in coal mining
favor the development of low frequency surface waves. The strength, density, porosity of Rock affect the
propagation velocity of the waves significantly. Harder the Rock more is the frequency. Blasto vibrations are more
intense in loose soil then in harder rocks. The presence of discontinuities and the nature of filling materials changes
the direction of propagation.
❑ Distance and conditions of structures: As the distance from shot increases, the particle velocity and frequency of
ground vibrations decrease due to absorption, dispersion, and dissipation of elastic waves. The natural frequency of
the structures vary with the foundation, condition and age of structure and construction of these structure.
 1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Measurement
The instrument used to measure blast induced ground vibration is called Seismograph. A standard seismograph
consists:
• A transducer (for sensing ground vibration)
• A microphone( for sensing air over pressure)
• A base unit ( for storing, processing and displaying the events recorded)
 1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Measurement
Transducer (for sensing ground vibration)
• A standard transducer essentially consists three geophone placed at right angle to each other.
• Two units lie in the horizontal plane at right angle to each other while the third unit is oriented in the vertical plane.
• The geophone is basically a electromagnetic transducer which converts the ground motion into electric voltage.
• The induced coil voltage is proportional to the speed of the ground motion.
• The sensor transmit the induced coil voltage to the base unit, where it is converted back into motion.
 1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Measurement
A microphone( for sensing air over pressure)
• The microphone senses the air pressure and converts into electrical signals.
• The electrical signal are transmitted to the microprocessor where these are again
converted back to pressure.
• Generally a linear measurement (L scale) is used to measure the effect of low
frequency air pressure on the structure.
• Microphone of A weight is used to measure noise levels by which people may get
annoyed
A base unit ( for storing, processing and displaying the events recorded)
• A battery for supply power
• A system for converting the electrical signals back into ground motion/ air
pressure.
• A micro-processor for processing the data.
• A displaying unit for displaying the results
• Memory for storing the events
• Modern seismograph are fully compatible to PC, the events stored can be
transferred to PC for further analysis.
 1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Measurement
Placement of transducer
• The geophone should be placed on or in the ground on the side of the structure towards the blast.
• The data recorded should adequately represent the vibration levels received at the structure being protected. The geophone
should be placed within 3 m of the structure or less than 10% of the distance from the blast, whichever is less.
• Placing of geophone on unconsolidated soil, sand, fill materials, flower- bed mulch should be avoided. The density of soil should
be greater than the density of the geophone.
• The geophone should be installed nearly level.
• The longitudinal channel of the geophone (generally marked with an arrow on the geophone) should be pointed towards the
blast.
• Coupling of the geophone with ground is extremely important. If the acceleration exceeds 0.2 g, slippage of the geophone may
take place.
• To avoid slippage of geophone with ground, depending on the anticipated acceleration levels spiking, burial or sandbagging of
the geophone to the ground should be done.
• If the expected acceleration is less than 0.2 g no burial or attachment is necessary, if it is between o.2 and 1.0 g burial/
attachment or spiking should be done, if it is greater than 1.0 g burial or firm attachment is required.
• For burying the geophone, a hole of height not less than three times the height of the geophone should be excavated. The
geophone should be spiked to the bottom of the hole and soil should be firmly compacted around and over the geophone.
• The geophone can be attached to the bedrock by bolting, clamping or gluing the sensor to the rock surface.
• For spiking the geophones, the sod should be removed with minimum disturbance to the soil the geophone should be pressed
firmly to the ground with spikes attached to it.
• For sand bagging also, the sod should be removed and sand bag should be placed over the bare spot with sand bag over it.
Sand bag should be large and loosely filled with about 5 kg of sand. When placed over the sensor the sand bag profile should be
as low and wide as possible.
 1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Measurement
Output of seismograph
Peak particle velocity:
• Peak particle velocity is the maximum speed a particle travel
resulting from an event’s ground vibrations.
Zero Crossing Frequency ( ZC frequency)
• The Zero crossing frequency is the event waveform’s frequency at
the largest peak.
Peak acceleration:
• Peak acceleration is the peak value of acceleration along the
entire wave form:Peak acceleration is not necessary at the peak
velocity for an individual wave form.
Peak displacement:
• The peak displacement is the maximum value of displacement of a
particle along the entire wave form. Peak acceleration is not
necessary at the peak velocity for an individual wave form.
Peak Vector Sum:
• The vector sum represent the resultant particle velocity
magnitude. Its peak value is called PVS.
PVS = √ (T2 + V2+L2)
1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Damage Criteria
The peak particle velocity has so far been considered as the best criterion for evaluating blast vibrations in terms of its potentials to
cause damage. The extensive studies on the problem have established that the frequency of the waves is also equally important
factor to consider the effect of damage.
Effect of surface blast on surface structures

Dominant excitation frequency, Hz

Type of structures DGMS Tech.
Circular No. 7,
<8 Hz 8-25 Hz > 25 Hz
1997
(A) Buildings /structures not belonging to the owner

1. Domestic houses / structures 5 10 15

(Kuchcha, brick & cement)

2. Industrial buildings (RCC & framed 10 20 25

structure)
3. Objects of historical importance and 2 5 10
sensitive structures

(B) Buildings belonging to owner with limited span of life

1. Domestic houses / structures 10 15 25

2. Industrial buildings (RCC & framed 15 25 50

structure)
1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Damage Criteria
Effect of surface blast on surface structures

Sl. No. Category Description of damage

1. No appreciable damage No formation of noticeable cracks
2. Threshold damage Formation of fine cracks, fall of plaster, opening &
lengthening of old cracks to opening of joints, dislodging
of loose objects etc.
3. Minor damage Superficial not affecting the strength of the structure.
Hair line cracks in masonary around openings near
partition, broken windows. Fall of loose mortar etc.
4. Major damage Formation of several large cracks, serious weakening of
structures, shifting of foundation, fall of masonary,
ruptures of opening vaults etc.
1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Damage Criteria
Effect of surface blast on underground structures
The stability of below ground coal mining openings, coal pillars, water dams and ventilation and isolation stoppings in close
proximity to operating opencast mines are likely to be affected from blast induced vibration. In india presently an increasing trend
has been observed to win top coal seams, weather it is virgin or developed and standing on pillars buy open cast method wherever
it is economical. The damage to the below ground openings in reference to opencast blasting his generally classified into four
categories.

Sl. No. Category Description of damage

1. No appreciable damage No visible damage
2. Threshold damage Formation of superficial cracks in pillars, roof, isolation
and/or ventilation stoppings, air crossing, dams and other
belowground structures.
3. Minor damage Detachment of loosened chips from roof and/or pillars,
opening and lengthening of old cracks, loosening of
joints.
4. Major damage Fall of rock/coal blocks from roof and/or pillars, cracks in
isolation/ventilation stoppings, serious weakening of
belowground structures.

DGMS Tech. Circular No. 6, 2007

1. Blast Induced Ground Vibration: Damage Criteria
Permissible standards
Threshold values of vibrations for the safety of roof in the below ground workings for different RMR.

RMR of roof rock Threshold values of vibrations in PPV (mm/s)

20-30 50
30-40 30-40
40-50 70-100
50-60 100-120
60-80 120

Threshold values of vibrations for the safety of pillars in the below ground workings for different RMR.

RMR of roof rock Threshold values of vibrations in PPV (mm/s)

20-30 20
30-40 20-30
40-50 30-40
50-60 40-50
60-80 50

DGMS Tech. Circular No. 6, 2007

2. Air Overpressure or Air blast: Introduction
❑ Define as " an Airborne shock wave resulting from
the detonation of explosive, may be caused by
burden movement, or release also a measure of
expanding gas into the air, may or may not be
audible". It is also a measure of explosive energy
in efficiency in a series of blasting round. Air blast
or air overpressure and noise are associated with
each other and jointly or single can cause
structural damage such as breaking of windows of
the houses or the equipments .
❑ It is also defined as pressure above normal
atmospheric pressure. These are produced either
by the direct action of the explosion from an
unconfined explosive in air or by the indirect action
of a confining material subject to blast loading.
The wave produced by the effect of blasting
interacts with the air and increases the air
pressure from peak to ambient and drops to
negative slowly.
The over pressure wave near the blast site contains a wide range of frequencies (20-20000 Hz). The higher frequency
portion of the pressure wave is audible and is the sound that accompanies a blast, the lower frequency portion is not
audible, but excites structures and intern causes a secondary and audible rattle within a structure.
 2. Air Overpressure or Air blast: Sources
• Rock displacement from the face
• Ground induced air borne vibration
• Release of gases through natural fissures
• Release of gases through stemming
• Insufficiently confined explosive charges
2. Air Overpressure or Air blast: Causative factors
❑ Blast Geometry: If the burden is less than optimum the gaseous energy is dissipated into atmosphere without doing
useful work, there by causing flyrock and air blast. This early release of gases generates air waves of large
amplitude. Front row holes with small burden pose a problem of airblast especially in high and inclined faces.
Inclined holes which offer uniform burden throughout are better in this situation.
Hole spacing along with delay between them is an important factor influencing air overpressure levels. It has been
reported that strong air blast over pressures can be produced by the adjacent movement of a face during blasting
if spacing between holes is less than the distance travelled by a sound wave during the delay time between
adjacent blast hole detonations. To prevent any three enforcement of hair blast from adjacent holes in a row of
holes it is recommended that the spacing between holes divided by the time interval between the delay. Used in the
holes should be less than the sound velocity in air (330 m/s).
❑ Type and amount of explosive: The amplitude of pressure pulse is directly proportional to the amount of explosive
used. The more the explosive the greater the energy released. The amount of explosive used for hole is also
important factor.
The explosives which produce more gaseous energy than Shock energy such as ANFO, are more likely to produce
ejection of gases and their wife producing higher amplitude air blast over pressure.
2. Air Overpressure or Air blast: Causative factors
❑ Stemming: The air blast levels created due to blasting are a function of the amount and efficiency of these stemming.
If insufficient stemming is used, blowing out of stemming materials may occur before gaseous energy effectively
utilised for fragmenting and displacing rock. It was found out that the type and length of stemming controls the air
blast. Their results indicated that stemming particle size of about 1/4 of the blast hole diameter provides the best
confinement. The stemming to burden ratio between 1 to 1.15 was suggested. Air blast could be minimise by using
course and angular streaming material.
❑ Priming and Initiation: Whenever top priming is carried out the probability of airblast generation increases. However
bottom priming on the other hand produces less operation levels because of more confinement. In the case of top
priming relatively largest in columns of greater than 30 times hole dia are suggested.
The detonating card commonly used in surface mind blasting his major source of high frequency pressure pulses.
This problem could be minimised by covering the trunk line with sand or drill cuttings. Other systems of initiation
like low energy detonating code (LEDC) and non-electric systems are referred in environmentally conscious
situations.
❑ Geomechanical characteristics of the strata: Whenever the burden rock consists of highly fractured or jointed strata
there exist a possibility of escape of gases through them and which on reaching the atmosphere produces high air
pressure levels. If any weak band, mud seam, open joint extends from the blast hole wall to the free face, the
gaseous energy escapes through it creating air blast. Such weak zones should be properly loaded using decking or
using weaker explosives.
❑ Direction of blast: Studies reveal that the type of firing pattern also affect the air over pressure levels. Experiment
work conducted show that air blast query at least 6 decibel higher when the observation point was perpendicular to
the firing pattern rather than parallel to the blasting face, due to blast hole reinforcement. It was also observed that
if the direction of initiation was towards the affected location then increase of 10 to 15 decibel was possible. This
can be avoided by using proper delay intervals between. The air blast behind the face is normally weaker and less
noisy because of the absence of high frequency components in this direction.
2. Air Overpressure or Air blast: Causative factors
❑ Meteorological conditions: Because air over pressure is transmitted through the atmosphere, meteorological
conditions such as wind speed and direction, temperature, cloud cover and humidity will all affect the intensity of air
pressure experience at a distance from the blast site.
Figure shows that with isothermal air and zero velocity conditions which would produce isovelocity conditions
resulting and straight ray paths and spherical wave fronts. However, this is an ideal condition which does not exist
in reality. Normally as the altitude increases, the atmospheric temperature decreases which is known as adiabatic
lapse rate, resulting in reducing the velocity of sound waves therefore refracting them upward. Under such
conditions, there would not be much effect of airblast in fire field reasons as the sound is absorbed in the air.
Whenever temperature inversion exist (where the temperature increases with altitude), the velocity of Acoustic
waves increases as the atmosphere becomes more dense near ground level their by refracting the waves
downwards back to the ground. Under such conditions and increase in the overpressure levels by a factor of 2 to 3
is not uncommon. That is why blast fired in early morning or in evening or night usually result in high noise and
airblast level. However, as sunlight increases this temperature inversion is slowly eliminated. The presence of
clouds also creates temperature in virgin as the farmer screen and prevent sunlight from providing ground heat to
reduce the inversion.
Wind is another factor which influences the propagation of sound waves. The wind ads to the velocity affect
produced during inversion there by increasing sound velocity and over pressure. It has been observed that
inserting cases the over pressure created due to temperature inversion and wind is as much as 50 times greater
than that expected from a direct wave.
2. Air Overpressure or Air blast: Causative factors (Temperature inversion and wind)
2. Air Overpressure or Air blast: Prediction

Air overpressure can be measured in two ways: either in pressure units or more commonly are reported in terms of
decibels (dB), which is given as sound pressure level (SPL) by the following equation:

𝑃
𝑆𝑃𝐿 𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑃𝑟
Where P is the measured overpressure in Pa and Pr is a reference pressure level. The threshold of hearing,
representing the lowest audible sound to the ear, and is taken as 2 x 10-5 Pa and represents level of zero dB.
3. Noise
❑ Airblast and noise are caused due to the same contributing factors. As has been stated the same cause of a blast is
responsible for the generation of noise, to the discomfort of the resident. This can be minimised by reorientation of
the quarry face if geologic and other operational conditions permits, reducing the height of the face, proper timing
of the blast, loading of the holes vis-a-vis the geologic abnormalities, preparing angular aggregate stone for
stemming, etc.
4. Fumes
❑ Blast fumes are the gases that may be generated during blasting. Some of the gases are toxic and some are not. In
terms of health impacts, the critical gases generated are oxides of nitrogen (NOx) - nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitric
oxide (NO).
❑ Nitrogen dioxide gives blast gas plumes their characteristic reddish orange colour and pungent odour.
❑ Gases produced during blasting usually disperse rapidly and pose no acute health risk. Under certain conditions the
gas plume (gas or aerosol released into the atmosphere at an approximately steady rate) may persist and can affect
nearby people or residents who are downwind of the blast site.
❑ Exposure to the fumes in a blast plume is usually very brief – seconds to minutes. For most people, any health effects
from exposure to a blast plume are short lived.
❑ Symptoms from high level exposure may include:
• Eye, nose and throat irritation and coughing
• Dizziness and headache
• Shortness of breath
• Wheezing or exacerbation of asthma
❑ Serious lung inflammation (pulmonary oedema) has been known to develop several hours after exposure to very high
levels of NO2.
4. Fumes: Precautions against fumes in underground blasting (DGMS Tech. Circular No. 4, 1984)
❑ No plaster shooting with ANFO should be done at all below ground.
❑ The manager should determine and specify the period of waiting after blasting in any place of getting a special study
done with the types and the maximum amount of explosive used in the mine at a place underground in any one round,
taking all precautions, and no person shall enter or be permitted to enter the place of blasting during the waiting
period so specified. The waiting period specified shall be such that the proportion of nitrous fumes and carbon
monoxide in the air at the end of the such period at the working place does not exceed 5 ppm and 50 ppm
respectively in any event.
❑ The manager should issue written instructions to all concerned so as to ensure that no person including the shot
firer/blaster takes shelter or otherwise remains in the return air from the place of blasting during the blasting
operations and until the waiting period specified by the manager as above expires.
5. Flyrock: Introduction
❑ Flyrock is defined as the excessive random throw of
rock fragments from a blast that can travel distances
beyond desired values and present a serious threat
to people and property in and around the mine. There
can be small to fatal accidents due to flyrock and is,
thus, a subject of concern.
❑ Flyrock is one of the contentious issues in surface
blasting. The phenomenon of flyrock is important
since it involves risk to people and structures within
and outside the mining area.
❑ flyrock is responsible for more injuries and fatalities
than any other blast related accidents, nearly 30 % of
the blasting related accidents.
❑ The causes of flyrock are attributed among others to
site geology/rock conditions, bench face conditions,
improper blast design, improper explosive selection,
explosive loading, and distribution of explosive in the
blast hole, inappropriate delay allocation or
carelessness.
5. Flyrock: Modes and causes
❑ Briefly it can be explained that excessive flyrock gets projected beyond the normal blast area and is generated due to:
• Too much explosive energy for the amount of burden
• Stemming is insufficient
• Venting of explosive energy through a weak plane
❑ Flyrock occurrence can be explained with the help of three basic mechanisms, i.e. cratering, rifling and face burst, as
described in Fig. below:
❑ Inadequate burden, inadequate stemming length,
faulty drilling, back breaks, loose rock on top of the
bench due to poor previous blast, very high
explosive concentration, inappropriate delay timing,
and their sequence, and inaccuracy of delays are
the prominent blast design parameters responsible
for flyrock problems.
❑ Unfavorable geological conditions, such as open
joints, weak seams, and cavities, have been
identified as the major causes of flyrock hazards in
opencast mines

Mechanism of Flyrock
5. Flyrock: Causative factors
Some important factors responsible for flyrock are Uneven distribution of
discussed in details: burden
❑ Inadequate burden and spacing: An insufficient
burden will cause breakthrough of drill hole
charges, resulting in flyrock. A burden dimension
less than 25 times the charge diameter gives high
specific charge hence, the excess energy results in
long flyrock distances. Burden to bench high ratio
less than 1.5 is also a cause of flyrock. Too large
burden will cause venting of stemming material and
also cratering effects giving rise to flyrock.
Spacing appreciably less than the burden tend to
cause premature splitting between blast holes and
early loosening of stemming. Both these effects
encourage Rapid release of gases to the
atmosphere and flyrock is considerable. To close a
spacing causes crushing between the holes and
also cratering giving rise to flyrock. Large burden with top
priming
5. Flyrock: Causative factors
❑ Overloaded holes: When cavities are present in the
strata or due to the negligence of the blasting crew if Open joints, cavities or
explosive charges are excessively loaded on the weak seam may result in
blast holes then such a blast may result in excessive gas escape
flyrock.
❑ Geological conditions: Zones of weakness and voids
are often causes of flyrock. Any explosive loaded in
this zone will have the line of least resistance and
blow out causing flyrock. Where holes loaded with
explosive intersect or lie in close proximity of faults,
weakness planes or joints, the high pressure gas
upon initiation of the explosive jet out along these
paths of low resistance, which in addition tear out
rock pieces and give rise to flyrock. An abnormal lack
of resistance to drill penetration usually indicates a
mud seam, a zone of incompetent rock or even a
void.
5. Flyrock: Causative factors
❑ Inaccurate drilling: Accurate drilling provides proper
burden and spacing which are essential for better Requirement for
results. This is achieved by proper positioning of drill an inclined drill
to accurately collar to the hole and by proper hole.
inclination of holes. However, if the driller is not
guided properly for the position and direction of the
hole the drill may deviate from its calculated position
and during the time of blast effect may be same as
that of reduced burden and overloaded hole thereby
resulting in flyrock.
❑ Inadequate stemming: Stemming improves rock
breakage by confining the gases in the hole to
effectively fracture and heave the rock. If stemming
column is inadequate, the explosion gases are not
force to heave up the partly fractured ground but are
simply allowed to rifle out of the top of the blast hole
at very high velocity causing considerable flyrock
and airblast.
5. Flyrock: Causative factors
❑ Faulty delay timing and initiation sequence: Optimum
fragmentation and displacement is achieved in
blasting operations by giving sufficient inter row or
inter hole delays. The delay is needed so that the
fragmented rock from the previously fired holes as
enough time to move forward and accommodate the
broken rock from subsequent rows. If the delay is
not sufficient, movement from the back rows will be
upward rather than forward, giving rise to flyrock.
Lack of proper Delay timing leads to crowding and
excess burden which inturn leads to crowding thus
giving rise to flyrock.
❑ Miscellaneous causes: Secondary blasting viz. Pop
shooting can give rise to potential flyrock. Removal
of toe by using short drill holes can cause excessive
flyrock if not carefully carried out. The loose
fragments at the slope of the face or at the bench Effect of inadequate and adequate delay.
may fly to a longer distance as compared to blasted
rock. Large diameter holes produce more flyrock as
compared to small diameter holes due to the use of
heavier explosive charges.
5. Flyrock: modes of flyrock
5. Flyrock: Calculation
The main concern in predictions is explained below and Fig.:
✓ The maximum distance (Rmax) a flyrock can travel in a given mining/blasting condition.
✓ The distribution of flyrock about a face.
✓ The location of object of concern and its vulnerability to damage.
• On the same horizontal plane as that of the blast.
• On a different plane than that of the blast—more likely to represent a hilly mine condition.
✓ The probability of flyrock occurrence.
✓ The probability of flyrock hitting a particular object of concern

Parameters related to flyrock

5. Flyrock: Prediction

Lundborg et al. (1975) used a semi-empirical approach to estimate flyrock range. Based on the conservation of
momentum and the scaling laws of spherical charge, a relationship between charge diameter ‘d’ and rock velocity
‘V0’ was obtained. They proposed the following relationship for initial velocity (V0) throw and size of flyrock in crater
blasting in granite blocks:

10𝑑 × 2600
𝑉0 =
𝑇𝑏 × 𝜌𝑟

2
𝐿𝑚 = 260𝑑3

2
𝑇𝑏 = 0.1𝑑3

Where, Lm = flyrock range in m, d = hole diameter in inch, Tb = size of rock fragment in m, and ρr = density of rock in
g/cc
6. Controlled blasting techniques: Introduction and purpose
Controlled blasting technique is essential due to the impact of blasting on wall fractures and overbreak. It is also
adopted to ensure ‘safety of the rock beyond the designed contour’.
❑ Controlled blasting techniques are adopted to reduce
damage to the rock and improve the competence of the
rock at the perimeter of the excavation by reducing the
development and growth of uncontrolled fracture. In
many cases the technique is also called cautious
blasting, contour blasting or smooth blasting. Many a
time controlled blasting techniques have included
controlling damage due to vibrations, air blast and
flyrock. Only those blasting techniques have been
considered which reduce damage to the rock itself or to
the remaining rock and reduce overbreak beyond the
perimeter.
❑ Controlled blasting techniques have several advantages.
Besides retaining load carrying capacity of the rock as it
allows desired roof curvature so that the load carrying
capacity of the structure is greater. In conventional
blasting overbreak tendency of rock is experienced,
whereas by controlling the overbreak the smoothness
and precision of rock walls are achieved and extra cost
of loading the muck and concreting or providing rock
reinforcement is reduced. Finally, smooth walls
resultant reduced fractional resistance to air flow, and
improve mine ventilation capacity.
 6. Controlled blasting techniques: Types
The main types of controlled blasting techniques are:
• Line drilling
• Pre-splitting
• Smooth wall blasting
• Cushion blasting
• Air decking
Except the air decking technique rest all the controlled blasting techniques are related to the modification of perimeter
holes.
Controlled blasting techniques: Line Drilling
❑ It consists drilling a row of closely spaced holes along the final excavation limits and keeping holes empty. The line
drilled holes provide a plane of weakness to which the final role of blast holes can break (free face) and also reflect
a portion of the shockwave (plane of reflection) generated from the blast.
❑ Line drilling is adopted mostly in small blasting operations and involves small holes in the range of 50-100 mm
diameter. Line drilling holes are spaced (centre to centre) 2-4 diameters apart but are more closely spaced at the
corners.
❑ The maximum practical depth to which line drilling can be done is governed by how accurately the alignment of the
holes can be held at depth, typically 10 to 15 m. To further protect the final perimeter, the blast holes adjacent to
the line drill are spaced more closely and loaded more lightly than the rest of the blast, and that charges are used as
necessary. The distance between the back row blast holes and the line of drill holes is between 50 and 75% of the
normal burden distance.
❑ Best results are obtained in a homogenous rock with few joints or bedding planes or when the holes are aligned with
the major joint plane. Line drilling sometimes used in conjunction with pre-splitting where the corners a line drilled
and the remainder of the perimeter is pre split. The use of line drilling his limited to jobs were even a light load of
explosives in the perimeter holes would cost and acceptable damage. The results of line drilling are often
unpredictable, the cost of drilling is high, and the results depend on the accuracy of the drilling.
Controlled blasting techniques: Line Drilling

Line drilled holes along the final line of excavation

Controlled blasting techniques: Pre-Splitting
❑ Pre-splitting is also termed as pre-shearing. It is a technique Where are row of parallel holes closely spaced along
the excavation perimeter or final excavation are fired simultaneously prior to the primary blast using d-coupled
charges or low strength and energy explosive.
❑ When two charges are shot simultaneously in adjoining holes, collision of the shockwave between holes place the
web intention and cause cracking resulting in a shared zone between the holes. This creates a fracture line and a
reflective plane at the periphery. This fracturing is further explain in figure, where a split forming between the holes
without the necessity for a free face. This coincides with the theory that uniaxial compressive stress in rock induces
tensile failure parallel to the stress and inhibits crack growth perpendicular to it. Here, crack growth beyond the
desired limits is inhibited by the closing effect of the radial stresses from neighbouring holes and can be entirely
eliminated by using light charges.

Pre split blast design Theory of pre splitiing

Controlled blasting techniques: Pre-Splitting
❑ Pre-split holes are fired before any of the adjacent main blast holes. Crack between the holes is propagated by the
light explosive charge. In a highly fractured rock, unloaded guide holes maybe drilled between the loaded holes.
The light explosive load maybe obtained by using specially designed slender cartridges, partial or hole cartridges
taped to a detonating cord downline, and explosive cut from a continuous reel, or heavy grained detonating cord.
❑ The maximum depth for a pre-split is limited by the accuracy of the drill holes and is usually about 15 to 25 m. Pre-
split charges must be fired simultaneously by joining all detonating cord downlines with a trunk line of d-cord, or by
using electronic detonators or instantaneous electric detonators. Delay detonators having scatter of delay times are
avoided. Typical hole spacing for pre-split blasting are 8 to 16 hole diameters.
Controlled blasting techniques: Smooth wall blasting
❑ The smooth blasting technique uses blast holes drilled on a reduced burden and spacing and charged with a
reduced explosive charge to improve the explosives distribution in the rock mass and their for reduce the amount of
damage to the final wall. The quality of the final walls achieved from smooth blasting is very high, especially if the
rock mass is strong, the average joint spacing is greater than about 500 mm and joints are 'tight'. Joint direction will
also influence the result and best results are obtained with strike perpendicular to the face or dipping near vertical.
❑ Smooth blast rows may be used as the last row of a production blast to produce a final wall, or separate cushion
blast maybe fired after production blasting in the area to be completed. Unlike normal blasting practice, this pacing
is sometimes made smaller than the burden in smooth blasting. This maximizes the distance between the fully
charged holes and their perimeter while permitting maximum cooperation between perimeter holes. This works well
in hard competent rock but should not be done in friable weak rock the increased confinement causes the explosive
gases to be forced into the solid rock causing more back break. As a Thumb Rule, S = 0.8B - 1.2 B.

Smooth blasting
Controlled blasting techniques: Cushion or Trim blasting
❑ Cushion blasting is similar to smooth blasting and is practiced in surface blasting. Like other controlled blasting
techniques, it involves a row of closely spaced, lightly loaded holes at the perimeter of the excavation.
❑ Hole sizes are commonly 100-175 mm in diameter, and holes are spaced 1.5-2.5 m apart. After the explosives are
loaded, stemming material is usually placed in the void space around the charges. The spacing between the holes is
normally larger than that used in the pre-splitting. The burden is designed so that it is greater than the spacing, B =
1.2-1.35S. In general, subdrilling is not necessary. The holes are fired after the main excavation is removed. A
minimum delay between the holes is desired.
Controlled blasting techniques: Air Decking
❑ The air deck technique involves loading a small charge of explosive (usually at the toe) in a blast hole that is
otherwise empty. This is similar in principle to that of air cushioning practice in Russia. Near the top, the hole sealed
with a plug (inflatable device or chemically activated plug) and then stemmed.
❑ When explosive in the hole is fired, the peak pressure is lowered due to expansion of gases in the empty space, the
crashing and cracking immediately around the holes is reduced but other effects are sufficient to start the cracking
process from the hole but lacks sufficient energy to cause breakage beyond the desired limit. When fired the
rebounding shock waves produce a cleanly split rock.
❑ In place of inflatable plugs, jute bags filled with sand are utilised, suspending up to the desired depth by nylon
cord. Conventionally charges are decked by separating portions of the explosive column n by wooden or cardboard
spacers or by taping charges on to detonating cord.
Advantages of Air Decking:
❑ Improved high wall stability leading to better safety and percentage recovery
❑ Reduction in toe formation
❑ 40-50 % cheaper than conventional method of pre-splitting
❑ Best suited for cast blasting in high dragline benches
❑ Reduction of vibration levels
❑ Improved flyrock control
❑ Tunnel overbreak protection
❑ Reduction of fines
Materials used for Air Decking:
❑ Saver plug
❑ Air filled bottles
❑ Use of funnels
❑ Use of rubber balloons etc.
Thank You!