Block 4

BGYCT - 133
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY,
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences MINERALOGY AND
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
Block
4
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
UNIT 11
Ore and Ore Deposits 91
UNIT 12
Processes of Ore Formation 117
UNIT 13
Metallic Minerals 145
UNIT 14
Non-Metallic Minerals 175
UNIT 15
Coal and Petroleum 197
Glossary 216
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Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Prof. M. A. Malik Prof. K. R. Hari
Former Director Department of Geology School of Studies in Geology &
School of Sciences University of Jammu Water Resources Management
IGNOU, New Delhi Jammu, J & K Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University
Prof. V. K. Verma (Retd.) Prof. D. C. Srivastava Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Science Prof. S.J. Sangode
University of Delhi, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Department of Geology
Delhi Roorkee, Uttarkhand Savitribai Phule Pune University
Late Prof. Pramendra Dev Prof. L. S. Chamyal Pune, Maharashtra
School of Studies in Earth Sciences Department of Geology Dr. K. Anbarasu
Vikram University M.S. University of Baroda Department of Geology
Ujjain, MP Vadodara, Gujarat National College
Prof. P. Madhusudhana Reddy (Retd.) Prof. H. B. Srivastava Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu
Department of Geology Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Faculty of Geology Discipline
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University Banaras Hindu University School of Sciences, IGNOU
Hyderabad Varanasi, UP
Prof. Meenal Mishra
Late Prof. G. Vallinayagam Prof. Arun Kumar
Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Sciences
Kurukshetra University Manipur University Dr. M. Prashanth
Kurukshetra, Haryana Imphal, Manipur Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Prof. J. P. Shrivastava Prof. (Mrs.) Madhumita Das Dr. Omkar Verma
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Department of Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi Utkal University
Bhubaneshwar, Odisha
Block Preparation Team

Course Contributors
Dr. Nishi Rani (Units 11 to 14) Prof. Meenal Mishra (Units 11 & 12) Dr. Kakoli Gogoi (Unit 15)
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology School of Sciences School of Sciences
University of Delhi, Delhi School of IGNOU New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Content and Language Editor
Prof. J. P. Shrivastava
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi
Transformation: Prof. Meenal Mishra
Course Coordinators: Prof. Meenal Mishra and Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Audio Visual Materials
Dr. Amitosh Dubey Prof. Meenal Mishra and Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Producer, EMPC, IGNOU Content Coordinators
Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Sunil Kumar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU A.R. (P), SOS, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Ms. Savita Sharma for assistance in preparation of CRC and some of the figures.
December, 2019
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019
ISBN: 978-93-89969-65-8
Disclaimer: Any material adapted from web-based resources or any other sources in this block are being used only for
educational purposes only and not for commercial purposes and their copyrights rest with the original authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s office at
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU.
Printed by : Chandra Prabhu Offset Printing Works Pvt. Ltd., C-40, Sector-8, Noida-201301 (U.P.)
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BGYCT-133: CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, MINERALOGY
AND ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
Block 1 Basic Concepts of Crystallography

Unit 1 Crystal Properties
Unit 2 Crystal Symmetry
Unit 3 Crystal Systems
Block 2 Mineralogy
Unit 4 Minerals: The Building Blocks of Rocks
Unit 5 Classification of Minerals
Unit 6 Rock-Forming Minerals-I
Unit 7 Rock-Forming Minerals-II
Block 3 Optical Mineralogy

Unit 8 Polarising Microscope
Unit 9 Optical Properties of Minerals
Unit 10 Optical Properties of Rock-Forming Minerals
Block 4 Economic Geology

Unit 11 Ore and Ore Deposits
Unit 12 Processes of Ore Formation
Unit 13 Metallic Minerals
Unit 14 Non-Metallic Minerals
Unit 15 Coal and Petroleum
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BLOCK 4: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
Minerals of economic importance play a vital role in all walks of human life as well as stages of
advancement of a civilisation. The nomenclature used to describe pre-historic periods such as
Stone Age, Bronze Age, Copper Age or Iron Age is based on prolific usage of Earth materials
during that period. Kautilya in the 4th century B.C. in his well-known treatise ‘Arthashastra’,
stated that the wealth obtained from mining operations would be utilised in functioning of seven
departments controlling the various branches of the mining and mineral industry. Kautilya, had
also suggested the means of identification of various ores of copper, lead, tin, iron, silver, gold
and possibly uranium. Economic Geology is one of the subdisciplines of geology devoted to
scientific study of the Earth’s resources involving their distribution, economic considerations
concerning their exploitation and also the assessment of the available reserves.
This block comprises five units, wherein you will be introduced to the basic concepts of ore and
ore deposits, processes of ore formation, metallic minerals, non-metallic minerals deposits and
coal and petroleum.
Unit 11 Ore and Ore Deposits is devoted to the introduction of fundamental concepts related
to ore and ore deposits, processes of ore formation, morphology and nature of ore deposits,
metallic and non-metallic minerals, strategic, critical and essential mineral deposits.
In Unit 12 Processes of Ore Formation, you will learn about the classification of ore forming
processes. Endogenous ore forming processes such as magmatic concentration, sublimation,
pegmatite / pneumatolytic, hydrothermal, contact metamorphism and metasomatism will be
discussed. You will also learn about the exogenous processes of ore formation such as
sedimentation, residual and mechanical concentration, oxidation and supergene enrichment and
evaporation.
In Unit 13 Metallic Minerals, you will learn about the chief ores of common metals, such as
ferrous metals (iron and manganese), base metals (copper, lead and zinc), precious metals
(gold and silver), light metal (aluminium) and radioactive metals such as uranium and thorium.
Their processes of formation, distribution in India and uses will be discussed.
Unit 14 Non-Metallic Minerals introduces you to the industrial minerals such as mica, gypsum
and magnesite. It also discusses about the building and construction materials like granite,
marble and limestone. This unit provides an elaborate discussion on minerals used in refractory,
ceramic and glass manufacturing industries, fertiliser, chemical, paint and pigments and
abrasive industries. You will also read about gemstones.
In Unit 15 Coal and Petroleum, you will be introduced to coal and petroleum. You will read
about the origin, varieties, rank and grades of coal, mode of occurrence and formation of coal
and petroleum deposits. Indian occurrences of coal and petroleum have also been discussed.
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this block, you should be able to:
• discuss the basic concepts of ore and ore deposits, morphology and nature of ore deposits
and processes of their formation;
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• recognise the types of metallic, non-metallic, strategic, critical and essential mineral
deposits;
• identify and discuss various endogenic and exogenic ore forming processes;
• describe chief types of ores of iron and manganese, copper, lead and zinc, gold, aluminium
and radioactive minerals, their processes of formation and distribution in India and uses;
• describe industrial minerals, building and construction materials and minerals used in
refractory, ceramic and glass manufacturing industries, fertiliser, chemical, paints and
pigments and abrasive industries; and
• discuss origin, mode of occurrence, formation of coal and petroleum and their Indian
occurrences.
We hope that after studying this block, you will acquire knowledge about the basic concepts of
ore deposits, processes of ore formation, nature and morphology of ore bodies, metallic and
non-metallic minerals and coal and petroleum.
Wishing you success in this endeavour!
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UNIT 11
ORE AND ORE DEPOSITS
Structure_______________________________________________________________
11.1 Introduction 11.7 Strategic, Critical and Essential
Expected Learning Outcomes Minerals
Definitions
11.2 Scope of Economic Geology
Applications of Minerals in War
11.3 Concept of Ore and Ore Deposits
11.8 Summary
Basic Terminology
Clarke and Clarke of Concentration 11.9 Activity
11.4 Processes of Formation of Ore 11.10 Terminal Questions

Deposits 11.11 References
11.5 Nature and Morphology of Ore Bodies 11.12 Further/Suggested Readings
Discordant Ore Bodies 11.13 Answers
Concordant Ore Bodies
11.6 Ore Minerals
Metallic Ore Minerals
Non-Metallic Ore Minerals
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Economic geology had its inception with utilisation of metals and mineral products from
prehistoric time. However, long time period must have passed, before the early crude
knowledge which was undoubtedly utilitarian gave birth to an intellectual thinking by the Greek
philosophers. The first Earth materials used by primitive man were non-metallic minerals like
flint, chert, quartz, and certain hard and soft stones such as soapstone or limestone. The early
man used them in weapons, implements, utensils and for carving. The ancient Indians appear
to have practised the process of distillation and calcination of minerals and their ores. Apart
from this, clay was widely and extensively used for manufacturing pottery and bricks.
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Among the metals gold appears to have attracted the attention of early man even
before copper. There is a very ancient shaft about 640 feet deep in the Hutti mine area
of Raichur District in Karnataka state which appears to have been operating even
during the reign of Emperor Asoka (240 BC). There are frequent mention of gold and
silver in the Vedic mantras written probably 2000 BC. The evidences obtained from
Mohenjodaro and Harappa civilisations also indicate the abundant usage of metals like
gold, silver, copper, lead and zinc, iron and tin.
We have learnt in Unit 4 Minerals that mineralogy (or mineral science) is the study of
naturally occurring, inorganic solid substances called minerals. Now in this unit, we will
discuss various aspects pertaining to economic geology like concept of ore and ore
deposits, processes of ore formation, metallic and non-metallic minerals and origin,
occurrence and distribution of coal and petroleum.
Expected Learning Outcomes______________________

Outcomes
After reading this unit you should be able to:
describe the scope of economic geology and its relationship with other branches of
geology;
define ore and terminologies related to ore deposits;
discuss the concept of ore and ore deposits:
list processes of ore formation;
discuss the morphology and nature of ore deposits; and

describe metallic, non-metallic, strategic, critical and essential mineral deposits.
11.2 SCOPE OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

We have read the definition of economic geology in previous section now let us discuss
the scope of economic geology.
Economic Geology is the branch of geology that deals with the scientific study and
extraction of Earth’s resources like minerals, ores, rocks, ground water etc. It leads us
in the search of new mineral deposits and in their detailed investigations (Pohl, 2011).
‘The discipline of ‘economic geology’ covers all aspects pertaining to the description
and understanding of mineral resources. It is also the discipline that underpins the
training of professional Earth scientists working in the minerals and related industries of
the world’ (Robb, 2015). Economic geology is one of the core components of Earth
science undergraduate and postgraduate curriculum.
Economic geology deals with the materials of the mineral kingdom that man derives
from the earth for his necessities of life and comfort. This search and discovery has
given rise to settlement of new lands. The ownership of mineral deposits has resulted in
commercial or political supremacy or has caused strife and war. We are witnessing in
present scenario that with the accelerating growth of world’s population and
improvement of living standards, the demands for all types of minerals and metals have
increased, which in future will continue to grow. Therefore the search for mineral
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deposits is becoming more complex with the escalating urbanisation and
industrialisation. Thus man is continuously in the process to devise new geologic,
geochemical and geophysical exploration techniques and ideas to supplement the
existing ones, in order to obtain sufficient supplies for the future.
The recovery, recycling and mining techniques are being improved so that large bodies
of near-surface economic minerals in future can be explored with due regard for
ecological and environmental constraints. Hence a successful economic geologist must
develop ‘exploration thinking’ requiring originality in imagination with a degree of
optimism. The economic geologist should also possess a thorough knowledge of
structural geology, stratigraphy, petrology and mineralogy (Fig.11.1). Since the tools
like geochemistry and geophysics are becoming increasingly useful in the search for
buried deposits thus the economic geologists should also be familiar with their
fundamental techniques. Economic geologist is also required to be able to interpret the
field and laboratory significance of observable relationship of minerals deposits using
geologic, geochemical, geophysical, and mathematical and computer skills. We can
say this field of study of economic geology is concerned with the distribution of mineral
deposits, the economic considerations involved in their recovery, and the assessment
of available reserves. According to Lindgren (1933) ‘the broad domain economic
geology stands on the fundamental sciences of chemistry and physics. It is related to
theoretical geology, palaeontology, mineralogy, and petrography on one side; on
another side to mining, metallurgy, and many other technological arts; on still another
side to economics and finance’.
Fig. 11.1: Relationship of Mineralogy (economic geology) with mineral science and other
branches of Earth science. (Modified after, Shrivastava, 2009)
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11.3 CONCEPT OF ORE AND ORE DEPOSITS

We have learnt about the scope of economic geology in earlier section. Now in this
section we will learn the definitions about the basic terminology, and concepts of ore
and ore deposit.
11.3.1 Basic Terminology

Let us learn some basic definitions related to economic geology.
Ore: The word ore has been derived from the Middle English, oor, because of its
similarity to earlier names for copper ore and brass. Ore is defined as a naturally
occurring mineral or aggregate of minerals from which metal/metals could be extracted
with profit. It usually occurs with useless gangue mineral or mineral aggregates,
substance or unwanted substance. In simplified words, we can define ore as an
aggregation of one or more ore minerals and gangue from which one or more metals
are extracted profitably. After their mining the ores are further processed to extract the
elements of interest from the waste rock and from the ore minerals. Metal ores
commonly concentrated in the Earth’s crust are generally sulphides, oxides, silicates or
native metals (like gold). The term ore is generally confined to the sources of metallic
minerals. The minerals having appreciable concentration of metallic elements are called
as ore minerals.
Let us study an example of why a mineral is called as ore?
Chalcopyrite is a mineral (it is naturally occurring and has a fixed chemical composition-
CuFeS2), but also an ore of copper; when you find huge quantities of mineral
chalcopyrite confined in a place it constitutes an economic mineral or ore deposit of
copper. Thus the ore minerals are different from common rocks and minerals.
Ore deposits or mineral deposits are natural concentrations of useful minerals or
rocks, which can be economically exploited (Fig. 11.2 and 11.3). Concentrations that
are too small or too low-grade for mining are called occurrence or mineralisation (Pohl,
2011). The definition of ore deposits includes ores of metals and non metals, industrial
minerals, gemstones, rocks used as aggregate for building stone and coal and oil shale.
Let us discuss an example of ore deposit. Copper mineralisation in Malanjkhand mine
located in the Balaghat District of Madhya Pradesh state (Fig. 11.2), is found within
tonalite-granodiorite plutonic rocks. The bulk of the mineralisation occurs in sheeted
quartz-sulfide veins and potassium-silicate alteration zones. This entire assemblage of
rock types together with copper mineralisation constitutes an ore deposit.
Ore bodies: The ore deposit consists of the rock bodies or ore bodies (Fig. 11.3)
enclosing one or more ore minerals along with those natural materials which are not
ore. Not all the ore within the ore body will be extracted. Ore bodies are divided into
reserves and resources.
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Fig. 11.2: Panoramic view of Malanjkhand copper deposits.
Gangue: It is the commercially worthless material that surrounds or is closely mixed

with wanted mineral in an ore deposits. Let us read about the difference between ore
and gangue. Minerals with high percentage of metal, that can be profitably extracted is
known as ore. The term gangue refers to the impurities like sand, soil that are removed
from the ores.
Reserves are ore that are economically feasible to mine and for which there are no
legal or engineering impediments to mining.
Resources are ores that may potentially be extracted at sometimes in the future.
Fig. 11.3: Malanjkhand copper deposits showing ore bodies marked by black arrows.
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Industrial minerals: They have been defined as any rock, mineral or other naturally
occurring substance of economic value, exclusive of metallic ores, mineral fuels and
gemstones (Noetstaller, 1988). The non-metallic minerals are considered as industrial
minerals rather than ores. Thus, galena (PbS) is an ore mineral, while halite (NaCl) and
phosphorite or rock phosphate (Ca5FO12P3) (Fig. 11.4) are industrial minerals. Many
other minerals are mined for industrial uses, namely cement, building stone, abrasives,
fertilisers, fillers, fluxes, ceramics, glasses, etc. They are classed as industrial minerals.
Although practically all industrial minerals contain metallic elements and they are often
confused with non-metallic. Many metallic ores, such as bauxite, ilmenite, chromite and
manganese minerals are also considered important raw materials for industrial
minerals.
Fig. 11.4: Phosphorite/rock phosphate deposit at Jhamarkotra in Rajasthan. (Photo credit:

Ganga Singh Bhartiya)
Apart from metals and non-metals there is another category of economically important
natural energy resources commonly known as fossil fuel like coal, petroleum, natural
gas and the radioactive minerals. You have read in Unit 4 that as per the definition of
a mineral, coal, petroleum and natural gas are not considered as minerals however they
form significant economic deposits.
Host Rock: It is the rock which surrounds or encloses ore deposits and like gangue it
has no commercial value.
Tenor: It is the actual metal content present in an ore. Tenor in case of non-metallic
minerals refers to the percentage of metal content in an ore mined, whereas in case of
metallic minerals, it signifies metal content in an ore mined. For example, in case of
asbestos the tenor is 6%. It means that the occurrence of asbestos fiber in the ore is
6%. While metallic deposits, such as copper ore, it is referred to as 2%, it means that
the ore contains 2% copper metal. The tenor may reach up to 100% in the case of
native deposits. It may vary from deposits to deposit. The lower limit of tenor is
dependent upon the various techno-economic factors such as location, size, price, and
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advancement of mining and extractive technology. It also depends upon the presence
of other recoverable substances. Tenor is described as economic indicator because it
has great economic significance, particularly to the life of a mine or deposit.
Ore Grade: The term ore grade is used in the commercial classification of ores which
takes into account the chemical and physical properties of an ore. It is usually
expressed as percentage or parts per million (ppm) for metal contents, e.g. Cr2O3 in
chromite ore, WO3 in tungsten ore and P2O5 in apatite and rock phosphate. While
penny weight, troy ounce, gram per unit weight is used for precious minerals. Ore grade
is also an expression of the quality of the deposit. The strength of the material and
colour are also important and taken into account for grading. Carbon concentration, ash
content, volatile matter, calorific value, moisture and caking quality all together
determine a grade in case of coal. In some cases, impurities also determine the grade
of an ore, e.g. presence of sulphur and phosphorous in iron and manganese ores and
coal. Shape and size of ore deposits affect the workable grade. Large, low grade
deposits which occur at the surface can be exploited by cheap open pit methods, whilst
thick tabular vein deposits require more expensive underground extraction methods.
Specification: It is another important term which is related with the grade. It focuses on
the tolerance limits of all constituents present in it and depends upon:
• Technique of manufacturing process adopted by individual units; and
• Grade of other raw material required to be used as whole or to obtain the end
product.
Beneficiation: It refers to improving the quality of an ore mineral before feeding
smelting or other operations. Different physical or chemical methods are used to
separate the gangue or undesired minerals from the ore minerals.
Ore magma: This term is used for the abnormally rich magma that crystallises out into
an ore most often in case of sulphide or oxide ore minerals.
Ore guides: The final aim of the geologist is to detect subsurface ore bodies. The
exploration for ore bodies is often done with the help of ore guides. Thus ore guides are
structural or other features and conditions which serve as clues to the location of ore
body. The most practical and definite type of guides are those that are capable of
representation on maps, sections or models. The ore guides include geological,
geochemical, botanical and biogeochemical observations or even biotic activity that
provides clue about sub-surface mineralisation.
Ore genesis: The ore deposits are formed by variety of geological processes and the
process of their formation is called ore genesis.
Ore shoot: This term is commonly used in mining operations. These are relatively rich
portions of mineralised body.
Ore microscopy: Most of the metallic ores are opaque. Therefore study of ore requires
a specially designed microscope called as ore microscope, where polished ore sections
or slabs are studied under the microscope in a reflected light.
Gossan: They are signboards that point to what lies beneath the surface. The word
‘gossan’ is a Cornish word and is used to designate the oxidised outcropping
comprising cellular mass of limonite. The outcropping of cellular mass of limonite or
capping is the leached upper part of a rock body that contains disseminated sulfide
minerals (Fig. 11.5). They are quite interesting and draw attention as to what they may
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mask. In other words, gossans are most significant indicators of the previous existence
of sulphide ore, including porphyry systems and other ore forming environment.
Fig. 11.5: Capping of the upper part of ore body shows oxidised outcropping of limonite.
(Photo credit: Ganga Singh Bhartiya)
11.3.2 Clarke and Clarke of Concentration

Let us consider a thorough mixture of all varieties of rocks (igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic) constituting around 30 km of crustal rocks. The data shows that all the
elements are present in the crust, though not in uniform distribution. The abundance of
different elements in such a mixture of rocks is referred to average crustal abundance
(Fig. 11.6). In such a hypothetical composition, only eight elements are worth
mentioning. In order of abundance, they are O (46.6%), Si (26.72%), Al (8.13%), Fe
(5.00%), Mg (2.09%), Ca (3.63%), Na (2.83%) and K (2.59%). Rest of the elements
constitutes only around 1% of the average crustal abundance. However, the Earth’s
crust does not have such an idealised composition.
Fig 11.6: Eight abundant elements in the Earth’s crust (Modified after Mason and Moore,
1982). Numbers in square brackets refer to coordination number. (Modified after
Klein, 2008)
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Let us discuss the two terms ‘Clarke value’ and ‘Clarke of concentration’. They are
important to understand concept of ore in comparison to average crustal abundance.
Famous Russian geochemists Fersman and Vernadsy introduces these two important
terms in honour of F.W. Clarke, who was Chief Chemist of United States Geological
Survey for 41 years (1884-1925). Clarke value refers to the average abundance of a
particular element in the Earth’s crust. Clarke values are synonymous with the crustal
abundances. Clarke of Concentration is the concentration of an element in a
particular rock compared with its average concentration in the Earth's crust, or of an
element within a particular mineral. It represents how many times the average crustal
abundance of a particular element needs to be enhanced to become an ore mineral.
Thus, ore is always defined in terms of its comparison with the average
percentage of an element in the Earth’s crust.
Let us study an example to understand these definitions. Clarke (abundance of that

particular metal in Earth’s crust) of copper (Cu) is about 55 ppm or 0.006%; in the
mineral chalcocite (Cu2S), Cu concentration is 79.8%. Thus, the Clarke of
Concentration within chalcocite mineral is 79.8/0.006, or 13,300. We will look at another
example. The average crustal abundance of Mn at 0.1% is termed as Clarke of Mn, but
when this is enhanced to 632 times due to various complex natural processes such as
in the ore mineral pyrolusite. Thus, the Clarke of Concentration of Mn in pyrolusite
(MnO2) is 632/0.1 or 6320. We should note that Clarke of Concentration values is not
same for all the elements and also differ for the same elements found in different ore
minerals (Table 11.1).
Table 11.1: Concentrations of some economically important metals in average upper

crust (Clarke values), and typical grades and enrichment factor of ores
(Clarke of concentration). Compositions are in ppm, except where indicated.
(Source: Ridley, 2013)
Metal Clarke=average Grade in Clarke of

concentration typical ore concentration=enrichment
in upper crust factor of average crust ore
Al 8% 30% 4
Fe 5% 60% 12
Mn 950 5% 50
Cr 100 5% 500
Cu 55 1% 200
Ni 75 1% 100
Zn 70 10% 1000
Sn 2 1% 5000
Pb 12 10% 10,000
Au 0.004 5% 1200
U 3 0.1% 300
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Watch the following videos to know more about the classification and types of ore
deposits.
• Introduction to ore deposits

Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53454
• Classification of ore deposits

11.4 PROCESSES OF FORMATION OF ORE DEPOSITS

After having learnt about concept of ore deposits, we will read about processes of
formation of ore deposits. We can categorise the processes of ore formation into
endogenous and exogenous processes. Endogenous processes result from the
dynamics of the Earth’s interior that mainly result due to the heat flow of the Earth.
Such type of processes operative in the primary environment are characterised by high
pressure, high temperature and low oxygen conditions. Exogenous processes take
place on the surface of the Earth that is mainly due to the flow of energy from the Sun.
Let us list the endogenic and exogenic processes as given below in Table 11.2.
Table 11.2: Endogenic and exogenic processes.
Endogenous processes Exogenous processes
Magmatic concentration / segregation Sedimentation

(early and late magmatic)
Sublimation Residual and Mechanical concentration
Pegmatite / Pneumatolytic Oxidation and Supergene enrichment
Hydrothermal Evaporation
Contact metasomatism and contact Bacteriogenic precipitation

metamorphism
Metamorphism Syn-sedimentary volcanogenic
We will discuss these processes in detail in Unit 12 Processes of Ore Formation of this
course. In the previous sections we have studied about the concept of ore formation.
Before going to the next section spend 5 minutes to check how you are progressing.
SAQ 1
1. How metallic minerals are different from non-metallic /industrial minerals?
2. How economic geology is related to other disciplines of geology?
3. Define ores. How ore is different from gangue?
4. List endogenic and exogenic processes.
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11.5 NATURE AND MORPHOLOGY OF ORE BODIES

Now before we discuss the nature and morphology of ore bodies let us read two terms
which are often used by mining geologists, i.e. syngenetic and epigenetic deposits.
Syngenetic deposit is the ore deposit which has formed by the same process and at
the same time as the enclosing rock in which it occurs is sometimes part of a
stratigraphical succession, such as an iron-rich sedimentary horizon.
Epigenetic deposit is the ore deposit which has formed after the formation of host rock
in which they occur, e.g. vein. These ore minerals have been introduced into pre-
existing country rock after their formation.
We can study the nature and morphology of ore deposits under two categories in the
same way as it is done for igneous rocks. You will study about igneous rocks in Unit 1
of BGYCT-135 course.
• Discordant ore body refers to ore body which cuts across the bedding plane or
banding.
• Concordant ore body refers to ore body which is parallel to the lithological bedding
plane or banding.
11.5.1 Discordant Ore Bodies

We can further divide the discordant ore bodies on the basis of their shape into:
• Regularly shaped ore bodies
• Irregularly shaped ore bodies
Let us read about them.
A) Regularly Shaped Ore Bodies
i) Tabular ore bodies: These bodies are extensive in two dimensions, but have a
restricted development in their third dimension. In this we find veins (sometimes
called fissure-veins) and lodes. Veins are considered to have resulted mainly from
the infilling of pre-existing open spaces. While the formation of lodes involve the
extensive replacement of pre-existing host rock. Veins of ore are deposited
between the layers of rock. Veins are often inclined and frequently pinch and swell
out as they follow up or down a stratigraphical sequence (Fig. 11.7a). Lode is a
deposit of metallic ore that fills or is embedded in the fissure or crack in the rock
formation. Stringer lode is a deposit of metallic ore which is permeated by
many irregular branching and anastomosing stringers and small veinlets (Fig. 11.7b
and b) so that the entire mass of ore and the host rock is mined (as it is inseparable
from the country rock).
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 11.7: a) Vein occupying a normal fault and exhibiting pinch and swell structure,
giving rise to ribbon ore shoots (Source Alexander, 2009); b) Outcrop containing
chalcopyrite deposits (golden yellow) are in form of stringers at 225m depth,
host rock is biotite chlorite schist (bluish grey); and c) Hand specimen of
copper ore in for of stringers (marked by red arrow) from Surda mine, Ghatshila.
Host rock is quartz. (Photo credit: Saurabh Sinha)
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ii) Tubular ore bodies: As the name implies, tubular ore bodies are restricted in two
dimensions. They are extensive in the third dimension. When they are vertical or
subvertical they are called pipes or chimneys. ‘Mantos’ (Spanish word meaning
‘blanket’) are horizontal or subhorizontal tubular ore bodies. Mantos and pipes may
branch and anastomose as shown in Fig. 11.8. They are often found occurring in
association with the pipes which frequently act as feeders. Sometimes mantos pass
upwards from bed to bed by way of pipe connections. We also find discontinuous
pod shaped bodies when mineralisation takes place in some tubular deposits
formed by sub-horizontal flow of mineralising fluid.
Fig. 11.8: Cross section showing tubular ore bodies. (Source Alexander, 2009)
B) Irregular Shaped Ore Bodies
i) Disseminated deposits: When the ore minerals are scattered throughout the
body of the host rock they are known as disseminated deposits. Disseminated
accessory minerals like zircon or apatite in the igneous rocks can be considered
as analogy to recognise them. Disseminated deposits may wholly occur along
close-spaced veinlets cutting the host rock and form an interlacing network called
stock work (Fig. 11.9 and 11.10). This type of mineralisation generally fades
gradually outwards into sub-economic mineralisation and the boundaries of the
ore body are assessing limits irrespective of mode of occurrence. They are often
irregular in form ore body may cut across the geological boundaries. The overall
shapes of some are cylindrical and cap like. Stock works occur most commonly in
felsic to intermediate plutonic igneous intrusions, but they may cut across the
contact (Figs. 11.9 and 11.10) into the country rocks. World’s copper and
molybdenum deposits occur as disseminated deposits.
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Fig. 11.9: Stock work of ore bearing quartz veinlets in granite. (Source: Alexander, 2009)
Fig. 11.10: Sketch of stock work showing the occurrence of disseminated ore bodies in
the form of veinlets. (Source: Alexander, 2009)
ii) Irregular replacement deposits: They are the ore deposits formed by the
replacement of pre-existing rocks carbonate rich sediments (e.g. magnesite
deposits). These replacement processes often occur at high temperatures,
contacts with the medium to large size igneous intrusions. Such deposits have
therefore been called contact metamorphic or pyrometasomatic deposits;
however, skarn is a more popular term. You will read about them in Unit 12 of this
course.
11.5.2 Concordant Ore Bodies

We can classify them depending upon their host rock which can be of igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic origin.
Concordant ore bodies in sedimentary rocks are very important for several different
metals, e.g. base metals and iron ore deposits. As the name implies they are
concordant or parallel with the bedding. They can be an integral part of the
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stratigraphical sequences, as is the case with Phanerozoic ironstones. They may be
epigenetic infillings of pore spaces or replacement ore bodies. Usually these ore bodies
show a considerable development in two dimensions, i.e. parallel to the bedding with
limited development perpendicular to it. Therefore, these deposits are also referred as
stratiform. These deposits are concentrated within one or more strata of volcano-
sedimentary and sedimentary rock formations. This must not be confused with
stratabound. Stratabound refers to any type(s) of ore body, concordant or discordant,
which are restricted to particular stratigraphic column.
A) Sedimentary Host Rocks

Now we can categorise the sedimentary host rocks depending on their origin as follows:
i) Limestone host rock: Limestone is very common host rocks for base metal
deposits. They often provide zones in which permeability has been increased by
dolomitisation or fracturing. Limestone because of their solubility and reactivity can
become favourable horizons for mineralsation.
ii) Argillaceous host rock: Shale, mudstone, argillite and slate are important host
rocks in case of concordant ore bodies. For example, Kuperschiefer deposit of
Germany has Upper Permian shale as host rock. World’s largest, single lead-zinc
ore body occurs at Sullivan, British Columbia wherein the host rocks are Late
Precambrian argillites.
iii) Arenaceous host rock: Some ore bodies occur in altered feldspathic sandstones
such as in the Mufulira copper deposit in Proterozoic rocks of Zambia (Fig. 11.11).
Fig. 11.11: Mineralisation in arenaceous host rocks. Cross section through the Mufulira
ore bodies, Zambia. (Source: Alexander, 2009)
iv) Rudaceous host rock: Alluvial gravels and conglomerates also form important
recent and ancient placer deposits. World’s gold is found in Precambrian deposits of
this type occurs in famous Witwatersrand goldfields in South Africa. Uranium is
recovered as a byproduct.
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v) Chemical sedimentary host rocks: Sedimentary iron, manganese, evaporates
and phosphorite deposits occur scattered throughout the stratigraphical column
forming very extensive beds.
B Igneous Host Rocks

We can classify igneous host rock depending upon their origin, viz volcanic and plutonic
origin.
i) Volcanic host rock: The principal type of deposits found in volcanic rocks are:
• Vesicular filling deposits, and
• Volcanic-associated massive sulphide deposits.
The vesicular filling type of deposit is not very important but the volcanic-associated
massive sulphide deposits more widespread type of ore deposits (Fig. 11.12). They
are generally stratiform bodies, lenticular to sheet like developed at the interfaces
between volcanic units or at volcanic sedimentary interfaces.
Fig. 11.12: Schematic cross section through an idealised volcanic- associated massive
sulphide deposit showing underlying feeder stock work and typical
mineralogy. Py=pyrite, sp=sphalerite, ga=galena, cp=chalcopyrite. (Source:
Alexander, 2009)
ii) Plutonic host rock: Many plutonic igneous intrusions possess rhythmic layering
which is particularly well developed in some mafic intrusions. Mostly layering takes
in the form of alternating bands of mafic and felsic minerals. Minerals of economic
interest such as chromite, magnetite and ilmenite, may form discrete mineable
seams within such layered complexes. These seams are usually stratiform and
extend for kilometers as in the case of the chromite seams in the Bushveld Complex
of South Africa.
C) Metamorphic Host Rocks
We have already discussed about the irregular replacement deposits which can be of
metamorphic origin. The deposits can be generated in contact metamorphic aureoles,
e.g. wollastonite, andalusite, garnet, graphite.
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11.6 ORE MINERALS

We all know that prosperity and status of a nation depends on the mineral resources as
they are considered to be requisite for nation building. We have read the definitions of
metallic and non-metallic ores in the Section 11.3. In this section we will read about
metallic and non-metallic ore minerals.
11.6.1 Metallic Ore Minerals

Metals have always played a crucial in the evolution of our civilisation, development and
industrialisation because of their unique properties. Ore is defined as a natural material
or ore rock from which metals or minerals can be profitably extracted. Metallic minerals
as the name suggests are mineral containing metals. The most common metals which
are chemically active and commonly alloyed are called as base metals, e.g. copper,
lead and zinc. Whereas precious metals as gold, silver and platinum are also known as
rare or noble metals. They are commonly in demand in their native form. The term ore
is applied to metalliferous minerals in a rock e. g. chromite in dunite rock or magnetite in
gabbroic rock. When metallic minerals are mined they are called ores. The ores must
be processed further to extract metals. First, the ore is crushed and then, the metallic
minerals are separated from unwanted rock to form a concentrate. The metals in the
concentrate are then separated from the non-metals. In ancient times, this process
used to take place in camp fires or ovens. Today, we have smelters for this process.
The concentrate is then heated to a high temperature, which releases the metals. The
molten metal is then cooled.
The table 11.3 shows some important and common metallic ore minerals along with
their category, composition and tenor.
Table 11.3: Common metals and their ore minerals.
SN Metal Ore Mineral Category Composition Tenor
Magnetite Oxide Fe3O4 74% Fe

Iron Hematite Oxide Fe2O3 70% Fe
1 Goethite Hyd. Oxide FeO(OH) 68.5% Fe
Siderite Carbonate FeCO3 48.3% Fe
Pyrite Sulphide FeS2 46.8% Fe
Manganese Pyrolusite Oxide Mn2O3 63% Mn
Braunite Oxide MnO2H2O 64.3% Mn

2
Psilomelane Hyd. Oxide MnO2 40-60% Mn
Rhodochrosite Carbonate MnCO3 47.8% Mn
3 Chromium Chromite Oxide Fe2Cr2O4 46.4% Cr
Aluminium Bauxite AI Hydroxide Variable

4
(Mixture of)
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5 Tin Cassiterite Oxide SnO2 78.8%
Copper Native Copper Native Pure Cu Upto 100% Cu
Chalcopyrite Sulphide CuFeS2 34.5% Cu
Chalcocite Sulphide Cu2S 79.9% Cu
6 Bornite Sulphide Cu5FeS2 63.3% Cu
Covellite Sulphide CuS 66.4% Cu
Malachite Hyd. Carbonate Cu2CO3(OH) 57.4% Cu
Azurite Hyd. Carbonate Cu2CO3(OH)2 55.3% Cu
7 Load Galena Sulphide PbS 86.6% Pb
Zinc Sphalerite Sulphide ZnS 67.1% Zn

8
Smithsonite Carbonate ZnCO3 52% Zn
Nickel Pentlandite Sulphide (Fe,Ni)S

9
Nicolite Arsenide NiAs
Sulphur Arsenopyrite Sulphide FeAsS 46.0% As
10 Orpiment Sulphide As2S3 61% As
Realgar Sulphide As2S2 70.1% As
11 Gold Native gold Native Au. Ag 80-98 % Au
11.6.2 Non-Metallic Ore Minerals
You have read in the previous section that non-metallic minerals are considered as
industrial minerals rather than ores. Industrial minerals can be defined as any Earth
material of economic value which is not a metal, ore or fuel. Gypsum, clays, barite and
fluorite, magnesite, asbestos, mica, talc (Fig. 11.13) are some of the common industrial
minerals. They form important constituents of manufactured products, or they are
employed in the production of other industrial products. The non-metallic mineral
resources are mainly processed by physical methods as compared to metals. Several
metallic ore minerals such as chromite, bauxite and rutile also have industrial
applications however their bulk of production feeds metal industry. Most of the non-
metallic minerals infact are abundantly distributed throughout the world. Their value
depends less on the material itself but their proximity for usage in nearby areas. Thus
largely the cost of transportation and usage determines their economic value. Mostly
the non-metallic minerals are used in the form they are extracted. The gross value of all
non-metallic products annually greatly exceeds that of metallic ores. Table 11.4 shows
the list of common non-metallic or industrial minerals.
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Table 11.4: Common non-metallic or industrial minerals
Agate Gypsum
Andalusite Jasper
Baryte Kaolin
Asbestos Laterite
Limestone Mica
Halite Ochre
Garnet Pyrophyllite
Corundum Quartz
Diaspore Quartzite
Dolomite Glass Sands
Graphite Shale
Wollastonite Magnesite
Feldspar Slate
Fireclay Steatite / Talc / Soapstone
Industrial Diamond Phosphate
Fig. 11.13: Hand specimens of few non-metallic minerals: a) Magnesite; b) Clay;

c) Barite; d) Quartz; e) Mica; and f) Gypsum.
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In the previous sections, we have studied about the nature and morphology of ore
deposits and metallic and non-metallic minerals. Before going to the next section spend
5 minutes to check how you are progressing.
SAQ 2
a) What do you understand by concordant and discordant ore bodies?
b) Define epigenetic and syngenetic deposits.
c) Mention about important types of host rocks for ore deposits associated with the
sedimentary rocks.
d) Give names of few metallic minerals.
11.7 STRATEGIC, CRITICAL AND ESSENTIAL

MINERALS
We have been introduced to metallic and non-metallic or industrial minerals. Now we
will read about the strategic, critical and essential minerals. They are the outcome of
emergency in relation to their supply position necessary during war. The war time is
witnessed by the shooting rates of minerals, metals and other materials used for
ammunitions and destructive operations on land, sea and air. The materials or minerals
required during war can be categorised into two groups
• War minerals
• War supporting minerals

War minerals include those which are absolutely essential for warfare, armaments,
communication and transport as they provide the fighting power at the war front. On the
other hand, war supporting minerals are those which supplement the war efforts. There
is hardly a mineral which can be differentiated between those required during war and
those required during peace. All the minerals and metals that are needed for the
production of arms and ammunitions and other equipments for fighting war are also
required various machineries, plants and vehicles for usage during peace time.
However the use of a particular mineral during war is quite different than in peace. The
lack of particular mineral does not significantly affect us during the times of peace. But
during war the lack of sufficient supply of certain minerals, even though required in a
small quantity, may prove a great hazard to the security of the country.
11.7.1 Definitions
We have read about the two categories, viz. war and war supporting minerals which
can further be classified depending upon total inadequacy, deficiency and sufficiency in
resource position as:
• Strategic minerals
• Critical minerals
• Essential minerals
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Strategic minerals are those for which a country has to depend upon outside sources
as less or negligible resources available within the country, e.g. molybdenum,
chromium, graphite, boron, rare earth elements, gypsum, tungsten, gold, antimony and
platinum group materials.
Critical minerals are those for which a country is deficient in supply, but known
occurrences are such that irrespective of the cost they can be worked during war time.
The critical minerals including germanium, beryllium, rare earths (light and heavy),
rhenium, tantalum etc. are used in industries like automobiles, aerospace, cameras,
defence, laptops, smart phones, entertainment systems, medical imaging and nuclear
energy.
Essential minerals include all those for which known resources are quite large and
they are produced in sufficient quantities. It is evident that essential minerals are all
those which do not fall under the category of strategic and critical minerals.
The minerals, to be categorised under each, vary for different countries. The strength of
a nation depends upon how best it has developed capability of utilising its resources
and processing, metallurgical and fabrication industry.
11.7.2 Applications of Minerals in War

Let us list and discuss the minerals required during war.
• Iron ore and subsidiary minerals required for the production of steel are of vital
importance. Steel is the important industry as its production (takes place in millions
of tons) effects all the industries.
• Manganese ore is essential for the manufacture of steel which is used in the form of
ferromanganese.
• Tungsten is required for the manufacture of ammunitions, heavy guns and armour
plates.
• Molybdenum is a good substitute for tungsten and is most commonly used as

refractory metal as it has melting point of about 2623oC. It is one of the most
important alloying elements used in steel.
• Vanadium alloys beat the best titanium alloys and gives strength to stainless steel.
• Cobalt is one of the ferro alloy metal which improves the magnetic qualities in iron.
It is used in the electronic industry for producing permanent magnets.
• Antimony is used in the manufacture of antifriction metals and hardening of lead

required for making shrapnel (fragments of a bomb, shell, or other object thrown out
by an explosion).
• Cadmium is used in the processing of uranium and in the manufacture of special

steel. Magnesium is used for making light metal alloys for planes, automobiles and
trains.
• Zirconium alloyed with steel was used to manufacture a number of equipments

during the last world war.
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• Aluminum came into market in commercial quantity in 1939. Since then it has
caught up rapidly as light structural metal for military use. Its abundance has
replaced copper, lead, zinc, tin and also steel to great extent.
• Beryllium metal is used extensively as a moderator in atomic piles and nuclear

reactions. It has a property of slowing down neutrons without absorbing them.
Beryllium and copper alloys develop a high tensile strength and ability to withstand
repeated stress.
• Mica is very useful for its dielectric and insulating properties. It is used in the
manufacture of electronic equipment.
• Piezoelectric quartz crystals and mica have a great significance in radio,

telecommunication and electronic industry.
• Germanium metal has led to the invention of transistorised radio communication.

With the use of this metal, it has been possible to make smallest sets which can be
carried even in pockets for communicating between the army in front.
• Sulphur is used in the manufacture of so many products which help to mobilise

essentials of war.
• Phosphorous is used in manufacture of inflammable bombs, bullets, smoke

screens. Lithium and its compounds, after the Second World War, have become
important during war and peace times.
• Strontium compounds have many war time applications. Strontium oxalate finds use
in tracer bullets to control the burning rate of the trace composition.
• Uranium is known for its destructive power and also possess tremendous power for
peaceful purposes.
Now, it may be understood that all the minerals cannot be grouped into war group.
There are few number of minerals whose presence or absence may not effect the war
period. These are diaspore, pyrophyllite, garnet, ochre, chalk, wollastonite, precious
stones (excluding industrial diamond), etc. Some minerals belonging to the group of
aluminosilicate, e.g. kyanite, sillimanite and andalusite, may not attract much military
significance.
11.8 SUMMARY
In this unit we have discussed about ore, its concept, morphology of ore deposits and
metallic and non-metallic minerals. Now let us summarise about what we have learnt in
this unit:
• Economic geology covers all aspects pertaining to description and understanding of

mineral resources.
• Ore is defined as a naturally occurring mineral or aggregate of minerals from which

metal(s) could be extracted with profit. Gangue minerals comprise all non-
economic, unwanted, worthless, metallic or non-metallic materials or minerals
associated with an ore. Host rock surrounds the ore and gangue and like gangue it
has no commercial value. Ore deposits or mineral deposits are natural
concentrations of useful minerals or rocks, which can be economically exploited.
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• Industrial minerals have been defined as any rock, mineral or other naturally
occurring substance of economic value, exclusive of metallic ores, mineral fuels and
gemstones.
• Tenor is the actual metal content present in an ore. Ore grade is used in the
commercial classification of ores which takes into account the chemical and
physical properties of an ore.
• Clarke value refers to the average abundance of a particular element in the Earth’s
crust; Clarke values are synonymous with the crustal abundances. Clarke of
Concentration (KK) is the concentration of an element in a particular rock compared
with its average concentration in the Earth's crust, or of an element within a
particular mineral.
• Syngenetic deposit is the ore deposit which has formed by the same process and at
the same time as the enclosing rock. Epigenetic deposit is the ore deposit which
has formed after the formation of the host rock in which they occur.
• Discordant ore body refers to ore body which cuts across the bedding plane or
banding. They can be regularly shaped ore bodies forming tabular and tubular ore
bodies. While irregularly shaped ore bodies grouped as disseminated deposits and
irregular replacement deposits.
• Concordant ore body refers to ore body which is parallel to the lithological bedding
plane or banding. The host rock can be sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic.
• The most common metals which are chemically active and commonly alloyed are
called as base metals. Minerals can also be classified depending upon total
inadequacy, deficiency and sufficiency in resource position as strategic minerals,
critical and essential minerals.
11.9 ACTIVITY
• List the minerals and metals used in manufacture of a bulb.
• Find out the metallic and non-metallic minerals mined in your state. You can take
help of the websites of Geological Survey of India, Indian Bureau of Mines and
Directorate of Geology and Mining of your state.
11.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What is an ore? How would you explain ore or ore deposit with the help of Clarke
and Clarke of concentration values?
2. How and when the terms essential strategic and critical minerals have evolved?
What are the strategic minerals for India?
3. What are the important morphological features of sulphide ore bodies?
4. Give a list of common metals and their ores.
Audio/video material based questions

• Discuss briefly the historical classification of ore deposits.
• List the agencies responsible for formation of ore deposits.
• What are the sedimentary types of ore deposits?
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11.11 REFERENCES
• Alexander, P.O. (2009) A Handbook of Minerals, Crystals Rocks and Ores. New
India Publishing Agency, New Delhi. 656p.
• Jensen, M and Bateman, A.M. (1976) Economic Mineral Deposits. John Wiley &
Sons, New York. 553p.
• Klein, C. K. (2008) Manual of Mineral Science. 23rd Edition. John Wiley, New York.
675p.
• Krishnaswamy, S. (1979) India’s Mineral Resources. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
PVT. LTD. New Delhi. 658p.
• Lindgren, W. (1933) Concentration and circulation of the elements. Econ. Geol.,

18, pp. 419-442.
• Mason, B. H. and Moore, C. B. (1982) Geochemistry. 4th Edition. Wiley. 344p.
• Noetstaller, R. (1988) Industrial minerals: A Technical Review. The World Bank.

Washington.
• Pohl, W.L. (2011) Economic Geology Principles and Practice. Wiley-Blackwell

John Wiley & Sons, LTD, Publication, 695p.
• Ridley, J. (2013) Ore Geology. Cambridge University Press. 397p.
• Robb, L. (2015) Introduction to Ore-Forming Processes. Wiley Publications. 389p.
• Shrivastava, J.P. (2009) Rock and Ore Forming Minerals (National Science Digital
Library, CSIR, New Delhi) http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/1086, CSIR, New Delhi,
254p.
• Sinha, R.K and Sharma, N.L. (1998) Mineral Economics. Oxford & IBH Publishing
Co. PVT. LTD. New Delhi. 410p.
11.12 FURTHER/ SUGGESTED READINGS

India Publishing Agency, New Delhi. 655p.
• Evans, Anthony, M. (2015) Ore Geology and Industrial Minerals. 3rd Edition, Wiley
India Pvt. Ltd., 345p.
• Jensen, M and Bateman, A.M. (1976) Economic Mineral Deposits. John Wiley &
Sons, New York. 553p.
Co. PVT. LTD. New Delhi. 410p.
• Shrivastava, J. P. (2009) Rock and Ore Forming Minerals (National Science Digital
Library, CSIR, New Delhi) http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/1086, CSIR, New Delhi,
254p.
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11.13 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1. a) The minerals having appreciable concentration of metallic elements, viz. Fe

(iron), Mn (manganese), Cu (copper), Au (gold), Ag (silver) and Pb (lead) are
called as metallic ore minerals. The non-metallic minerals are considered as
industrial minerals rather than ores. Industrial minerals have been defined as
any rock, mineral or other naturally occurring substance of economic value,
exclusive of metallic ores, mineral fuels and gemstones.
b) Economic Geology is a sub discipline of the geology which devotes itself to the
scientific study of the Earth’s sources of mineral raw materials (used for
economic and/or industrial purpose) and to the practical application of the
acquired knowledge. It leads in the search of new mineral deposits and in their
detailed investigations.
c) Ore is defined as a naturally occurring mineral or aggregate of minerals from

which metal/metals could be extracted with profit. It usually occurs with useless
gangue mineral or mineral aggregates, substance or unwanted substance.
While the gangue minerals comprise all of non-economic, unwanted, worthless,
metallic or non-metallic materials or minerals associated with an ore.
d) Endogenous processes include magmatic concentration, sublimation, contact

metasomatism and contact metamorphism and pegmatite / pneumatolytic
processes.
e) Exogenous processes include oxidation and supergene enrichment deposits,

evaporation, residual and mechanical concentration and metamorphism
2. a) Concordant ore body is parallel to the lithological bedding plane or banding

whereas discordant ore body can defined as the ore body which cross cuts the
lithological bedding plane.
b) Syngenetic deposit is the ore deposit which has formed by the same process
and at the same time as the enclosing rock in which it occurs. Epigenetic
deposit is the ore deposit which has formed after the formation of host rock in
which they occur.
c) Limestone, argillaceous, arenaceous, rudaceous and chemical

sedimentary rocks
d) Fe (Iron), Mn (manganese), Cu (copper), Au (gold), Ag (silver), Pb (lead), Zn

(zinc), Ni (nickel), Co (cobalt), Sn (tin), W (wolframite), V (vanadium) are called
as metallic ore minerals.
Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to subsection 11.3.2 and 11.3.3.
2. Please refer to section 11.7.
3. Please refer to section 11.5.
4. Please refer to the table 11.3.

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UNIT 12
PROCESSES OF ORE
FORMATION
Structure_______________________________________________________________
12.1 Introduction 12.6 Exogenous Processes of Ore
Expected Learning Outcomes Formation
12.2 Factors Controlling Availability of Ore Sedimentation
Deposit Residual and Mechanical Concentration
12.3 Basic Terminology Oxidation and Supergene Enrichment
12.4 Introduction to Processes of Ore Evaporation

Formation Bacteriogenic Precipitation
12.5 Endogenous Processes of Ore Syn-Sedimentary Volcanogenic
Formation 12.7 Summary
Magmatic Concentration 12.8 Activity
Sublimation 12.9 Terminal Questions
Pegmatite and Pneumatolytic 12.10 References
Hydrothermal
12.11 Further/Suggested Readings
Contact Metasomatism and
12.12 Answers
Metamorphism
Metamorphism
12.1 INTRODUCTION
You have been introduced to ore and ore deposits in the previous unit. Now in this unit, you
will learn about the geological processes that have played important role in the formation of
different metallic and non-metallic deposits. Magmatic processes, heat, pressure,
chemically active fluids, chemical reactions, weathering, erosion, transport, deposition and
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biota, all have contributed in the generation of economic mineral deposit. All these
processes have worked and are working independently or in combination throughout
the geological period. There must have been several constraints which explain as to
why mineral deposits are such a rare commodity. Now we will discuss in detail about
the processes of formation of ore deposits.
Expected Learning Outcomes________________________

Outcomes
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
define the various processes of formation of ore deposits;
acquaint with the basic terminology related to ore deposits;
classify and list the ore forming processes;
explain the endogenous ore forming processes such as magmatic concentration,
sublimation, pegmatite / pneumatolytic, hydrothermal, contact metasomatism and
metamorphism and metamorphism; and
discuss the exogenous processes of ore formation such as sedimentation, residual
and mechanical concentration, oxidation and supergene enrichment , evaporation
and syn-sedimentary volcanogenic processes.
12.2 FACTORS CONTROLLING AVAILABILITY OF ORE

DEPOSIT
In this section, we will be read about the factors controlling availability of ore deposit.
Mineral concentration in the crust of the Earth is produced by the interplay of various
geological processes. However, even if rich mineral deposit is located and explored, it
may not be exploited till several vital factors are satisfied. The main factors controlling
the availability of mineral deposits (Kesler, 1994) in this sense are: geological,
engineering, environmental and economic.
Geological factors: The crustal rocks exhibit minute concentrations or quantities of all
the metals. Such crustal abundance of metals is expressed in Clarke values, which
represents a ratio of a particular element in a rock to the average amount of the
element in the Earth’s crust. Recall that we have learnt about Clarke values in the
previous unit. Different geological processes like magmatism, sedimentation, and
metamorphism concentrate such discrete metals present in crustal rocks in specific
geological settings to form a rich ore deposit. For example- Earth surface processes
like weathering and erosion, operating on a country rock bearing discrete amounts of
gold concentrate to form an economically exploitable placer deposit. Thus geological
factors play a dominant role in the concentration and availability of mineral deposits.
Ore deposits form when a useful commodity is sufficiently concentrated in an
accessible part of the Earth’s crust so that it can be profitably extracted. It is important
to consider the range of concentration and the factors that characterise the formation
of different types of ore deposit. Some of the strategically important metals, such as
Fe, Al, Mg, Ti, and Mn, are abundantly distributed in the Earth’s crust (i.e. between
about 0.5 and 10%) and only require a relatively small degree of enrichment in order to
make a workable deposit. Now it is clear to us that the economics of mining dictate that
these metals need to be concentrated by factors in the hundreds in order to form
potentially viable deposits. The degree of concentration required for the precious
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metals is even more demanding, where the required enrichment factors are in the
thousands.
Engineering factors: Engineering constraints also play a vital role in exploitation even
though a mineral deposit is identified. Economically viable ore deposit may not be
workable unless certain engineering parameters are satisfied. For example, advanced
countries do not allow deposits to be worked at depths greater than about 4 km, while
the deepest oil wells are about 8 km deep. Any resource beyond these limits is
unavailable for exploitation. For example, the Kolar gold mine (Champion Reef) was
closed down because it was not economically viable to mine at depths of 3.4 km where
a huge expense was borne for airconditioning of the mines.
Environmental factors: They also play an equally vital role in the exploitation of a
known ore deposit. A large deposit of uranium has been located and explored in recent
years in Srisailam area of Andhra Pradesh. However, this deposit has not been given
environmental clearance for mining by the Ministry of Environment and Forests
because it is located within the Rajiv Gandhi Tiger Reserve. No matter how good
known mineral resource is available for exploitation the clearance will not be given
clearance for mining if environmental degradation assessed is too high.
Economic factors: Mineral economics play the most crucial role in the exploitation of
a resource. The ore deposit should be profitably exploitable. However, exception may
be there in the case of strategic minerals. They can be mined at a time of emergency,
like, war, without considering economic factors. The price of the commodity effectively
regulates the cost of mineral production. Even for a good deposit with high grade and
reserve, if the cost of extraction, beneficiation and environmental protection is too high,
it may not be open to mining at a particular point in time when it might be cheaper for a
country to import that metal from abroad. Demand and supply is also an important
factor controlling the cost of mineral production.
12.3 BASIC TERMINOLOGY

Let us learn some basic definitions related to ore forming processes and deposits. Let
us recall the definitions of syngenetic and epigenetic ore deposit that we have read in
previous unit.
• Syngenetic deposit: It refers to ore deposits that form at the same time as their
host rocks. These are formed contemporaneously with the enclosing or host rocks.
• Epigenetic deposit: These are formed later than the rocks that enclose them.
They are deposited in openings present in the rocks, or by the process of
replacement.
• Hypogene: It refers to mineralisation caused by ascending hydrothermal solutions.
• Supergene: It refers to mineralisation caused by descending solutions. Generally it
refers to the enrichment processes accompanying the weathering and oxidation of
sulfide and oxide ores at or near the surface.
• Metallogeny: It is the study of genesis of mineral deposits, with emphasis on their
relationships in space and time to geological features of the Earth’s crust.
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• Metallotect: It refers to any geological, tectonic, lithological, or geochemical feature

that has played a role in the concentration of one or more elements in the Earth’s
crust.
• Metallogenic epoch: It refers to a unit of geologic time favourable for the
deposition of ores. In other words, it is the geological period which is characterised
by a particular assemblage of a mineral deposit.
• Metallogenic province: It is a region characterised by a particular assemblage of
mineral deposit types.
• Banded ore: It is ore composed of bands or layers. The layers may be composed
of the same minerals differing in colour, texture and proportions. They may also be
composed of different minerals (Fig. 12.1a).
• Crustification or crustified vein: The banding is produced when mineral layer of
character are deposited successively one upon another on the borders of
openings. In the comb structure, elongated prisms project approximately at right
angles to a surface, like teeth of a comb (Fig. 12.1b & c).
• Vein material: It is the matter that constitutes veins, whether ore or gangue. It can
be workable or not workable.
• Gouge: It is the soft clay-like material that occurs at some places as a selvage
between a vein and country rock. It is usually formed by the crushing of ore or
country rock or both.
(a)
(b) (c)
Fig 12.1: a) Hand specimen of banded hematite quartzite; b) Longitudinal section across
a vein showing crustified banding; (Source: Alexander, 2009) and c) Crustified
vein.
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12.4 INTRODUCTION TO PROCESSES OF ORE

FORMATION
The processes of formation of ore deposits are very complex. There are several types
of deposits, generally containing several ore and gangue minerals. No two ore deposits
are alike; they differ in mineralogy, texture, content, shape, size and other features.
They are formed by diverse processes. We can group all the ore forming processes
which fall in two broad categories:
• Primary or hypogene or endogenous (high P-T conditions)
• Secondary or exogene or exogenous (Fig. 12.2).
Fig: 12.2. Diagram illustrating the mode of deposition, deformation and enrichment of
various ore deposits. (Source: Emmons, 1940)
The endogenous and exogenous processes are listed as given below:
A) Endogenous Processes (also known as primary or hypogene)
• Magmatic Concentration
The minerals of economic importance in igneous rocks are crystallised prior or post
to rock forming minerals or silicate minerals. On the basis of this magmatic
concentration processes can be classified into two:
a) Early Magmatic
b) Late Magmatic
• Sublimation
• Pegmatite / Pneumatolytic
• Hydrothermal
• Contact Metamorphism and Metasomatism
• Metamorphism
B) Exogenous Processes (also known as secondary or exogene)
• Sedimentation
• Residual and Mechanical Concentration
• Oxidation and Supergene Enrichment
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• Evaporation
• Bacteriogenic Precipitation
• Syn-sedimentary Volcanogenic
12.5 ENDOGENOUS PROCESSES OF ORE

FORMATION
The endogenous processes extend downward from the lower levels of circulating
meteoric water to the deepest level at which rocks are formed. It is an environment of
high temperature and pressure, restricted circulation of fluids, and relatively low free
oxygen content.
Now let us discuss the endogenous processes.
12.5.1 Magmatic Concentration

Magma is the primary and ultimate source of all kinds of deposits. Magmatic deposits
result from simple crystallisation and concentration by differentiation of intrusive
igneous masses. The host rock for the formation of ore deposit ranges from ultramafic
to felsic igneous rocks. In order to understand the magmatic processes it is necessary
to understand at the physico-chemical environment which tells us about the conditions
of ore formation. The source of material (molten rock material-magma) for magmatic
concentration process is located at great depth. Temperature and pressure is
dependent on the depth:
• Pressure range: The stability field for diamond and pyrope is 150 km to 1 km depth.
• Temperature range: Formation of diamond takes place at 1500ºC and sulphide ore
at 300ºC.
Magmatic ore deposits are also called as magmatic segregation, magmatic
injection, or igneous syngenetic deposits. Magmatic ores deposited by magmatic
activity are also known as orthomagmatic ore deposits. These types of deposits
result in massive ores and in some cases they may be disseminated. Diamonds occur
as crystals in the rocks known as kimberlite (found in South Africa, Australia, India) fall
under the category of magmatic disseminated type of deposits. Diamonds are
crystallised deep within the magma chamber and are later transported upwards. There
are several modes of formation of magmatic deposits. Magmatic ore deposits originate
during different phases of magma crystallisation. Early magmatic deposits result
during early phase of crystallisation of magma. While during late phase of
crystallisation the immiscible liquids give rise to mineral deposits known as late
magmatic deposits. Let us discuss in detail about them.
A) Early Magmatic Processes: As discussed above the early magmatic deposits
result during early phase of crystallisation of magma and can be formed by:
• Dissemination or Magmatic crystallisation without concentration
• Segregation of early formed crystals during crystallisation, and
• Injection of magmatic material concentrated at some other place by
differentiation.
Dissemination: During the deep seated crystallisation granular rock is formed in which
the early formed crystals disseminate and give rise to ore body. Disseminated or
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scattered ore deposits are formed due in situ crystallisation of magma in plutonic
conditions. Example: Majhgawan (Panna, Madhya Pradesh) is famous for diamond
deposit in Kimberlite rock.
Segregation: As the magma start cooling, the ore minerals crystallise during early
stage and being denser they sink down to the magma chamber by the process of
gravity settling (Fig. 12.3a and b). In this process Early magmatic minerals crystallise
due to concentration are form important deposits due to concentration by gravitative
crystallisation and differentiation. Example: chromite deposit in India is formed in
Sukinda Complex, Singhbhum. Thus the ore and common minerals crystallise at
similar temperatures and accumulate as layers at the bottom, forming a rich deposit
called as early magmatic deposit. Bushveld intrusion in South Africa is the best
example, where a large volume of magma intruded into older sedimentary rocks
forming a saucer shaped body. Magmatic segregation is a general term which refers
to any process by which one or more minerals become locally concentrated
(segregated) during the cooling and crystallisation of magma. Mineral formed as a
result of magmatic segregation are called as magmatic cumulate (Fig. 12.3c).
(a)
(b) (c)
Fig. 12.3: a) Early formed crystals may sink and accumulate in the magma chamber as
the result of gravity settling; b) Formation of ore body by gravity settling
process; and c) Cumulate structure due to magmatic segregation, notice
parallel chromite (black) and anorthosite (white stippled).
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Injection: During crystallisation if the early formed crystals are segregated and
thereafter injected into parent rocks or country rocks, then these deposits are known as
injection deposits. The crystallisation and segregation of this category of deposits takes
place in the magma chamber, but they are found elsewhere. The relationship of this
type of deposits with the country rocks can be concordant or discordant. Example:
Kiruna magnetite deposit in Sweden.
Watch the following video to more about early magmatic processes.
• Early magmatic deposits
B) Late Magmatic Process: Ore deposits formed towards the end stages of
crystallisation of magma are termed as late magmatic deposits. They are formed
from the remaining melt towards the later phase of magmatic crystallisation. The
ore minerals crystallise after the formation of host rock as a result ore bodies cut
across the rock formation. These deposits are associated with plutonic
hypabyssal rocks. During the late phase of magmatic crystallisation when the
residual liquid become enriched in iron, titanium and volatiles and settle to the
bottom of the magma chamber, or crystallises in the interstices of early formed
crystals. The late magmatic deposits result from mechanical processes like:
• Residual Liquid Segregation
• Residual Liquid Injection
• Immiscible Liquid Segregation
• Immiscible Liquid Injection
1) Residual Liquid Segregation: Commonly the residual magma after magmatic
differentiation is rich in silica and water. After the differentiation of ultramafic
magma iron and titanium remain in residual liquid. This residual liquid is separated
from rest of the magma and crystallises in the form of mineral ore deposit. The
prerequisite for the formation of ore deposit is that during crystallisation those parts
of the Earth should not undergo disturbances. Example: titanium rich magnetite
deposits of Bushveld Complex, South Africa.
2) Residual Liquid Injection: After the process of residual liquid segregation the
residual liquid is injected in host rock or country rocks and the formation of residual
liquid injection deposits takes place. Earth disturbances play an important role in
the formation of the mineral deposits. Residual liquid is injected into areas of low
pressure due to Earth disturbances. Commonly these deposits are irregular in
shape, in the form of a wall or sill. The formation of magnetite and ilmenite takes
place by the process of residual liquid injection. Example: Adrinodack magnetite
and ilmenite deposit, USA and big magnetite deposit in Kiruna.
3) Immiscible Liquid Separation: Metals like copper and nickel play significant role
in the formation of sulphides. The differentiated rocks of gabbro family have
sulphides of nickel and copper along with metals like gold, silver, platinum. In the
ultramafic magma the sulphides of iron, copper and nickel being immiscible and
heavy accumulate at the bottom of the magma chamber. The sulphide minerals
are crystallised after the crystallisation of rock-forming silicate minerals. Commonly
this category of deposits include pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, pentlandite in which apart
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from nickel and copper ore deposits platinum, silver and other metals are found in
low concentrations.
4) Immiscible liquid injection: Immiscible liquid after differentiation is accumulated
in the magma chamber can be injected elsewhere due to Earth disturbances.
These injected sulphides after cooling form immiscible liquid injection deposits. The
shape of the deposit can be irregular or wall like and in these deposits the
fragments of previously formed rock-forming minerals and rocks are found. They
are found as discordant structure. Commonly sulphide of metals are found in these
deposits.
• Watch the following video to more about late magmatic processes.
Late magmatic deposits
The metals and minerals ores found as the result of magmatic concentration are as
follows:
• Native: Platinum, gold, silver and copper
• Oxide: Magnetite, titanium bearing magnetite, ilmenite, chromite and corundum
• Sulphide: Chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, pentlandite and bornite
• Gemstones: Diamond, garnet and peridot
These are some minerals which are found in specific rocks or group of rocks as the
result of magmatic concentration process. The intimate relation between mineral ores
and rocks is as follows:
• Diamond – Kimberlite
• Chromite – Peridotite, dunite
• Nickel – Copper deposit, norite
• Platinum – Norite, peridotite
12.5.2 Sublimation
After having learnt about processes of formation of ore deposits by magmatic
concentration let us learn about the process of sublimation.
Sublimation is a subordinate process of the formation of mineral deposits. It applies
only to compounds that are volatilised and subsequently re-deposited from vapour at
lower temperature or pressure. It involves direct transition from the solid to the
gaseous state, or vice versa, without passing through the liquid state. The process is
often associated with volcanism and fumaroles. There are many sublimates deposited
around volcanoes and fumaroles, but they are seldom in sufficient abundance to make
workable mineral deposits. Noticeable concentrations have been formed in area
around geothermal springs. Sulphur deposit originated by sublimation process has
been mined in many countries (Fig. 12.4a). Common sublimates are the sulphur,
mercury and chlorides of iron, copper, zinc, oxides of iron and copper, boric acid, and
various salts of the alkali metals and ammonium. Example-sulphur and borax deposits
cover an area of 4 km2 in the area exhibit sublimates deposited by vigorous geothermal
activity in Puga valley, Ladakh (Fig. 12.4b). Occurrence of native sulphur is also
reported from Barren Island in Andaman.
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(a)
(b)
Fig. 12.4: a) Sulphur deposits (in yellow) formed due to sublimation process. (Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Sulfur-IMG_3733_1.JPG);
and b) Geothermal activity in Puga valley, Ladakh. (Source: Shah et al. 2015)
12.5.3 Pegmatitic and Pneumatolytic

Pegmatites are very coarse-grained igneous rocks formed during the final stages of
magmatic crystallisation. They commonly form dyke like masses of few meters (Fig.
12.5a) to occasionally 1-2 km in length. Pegmatites are associated with deep seated
igneous rocks, generally with the felsic rocks, less commonly also with mafic rocks.
Economic ore deposits are associated with granitic pegmatites since felsic magmas
carry more water. Residual elements such as Li, Be, Nb, Ta, Sn and U that are not
readily accommodated in crystallising silicate phases, end-up in the volatile fraction.
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When this fraction is injected into the country rock a pegmatite is formed. The
temperatures of deposition vary from 250-750ºC. You can see graphite deposition in
pegmatite rock in (Fig. 12.5b).
a) (b)
Fig 12.5: a) Field photograph of pegmatite intruding granite (Photo credit: Dr. Suresh
Kumar); and b) Graphite (shinning greyish black) deposition in pegmatitic rock.
(Source: www.usgs.gov)
12.5.4 Hydrothermal Processes

Hot ascending aqueous solutions responsible for the formation of hydrothermal ore
deposits are termed as hydrothermal solutions. As this hot water moves into cooler
regions of the crust, the dissolved minerals are precipitated from the hydrothermal
solution. Hydrothermal solutions play the role of mineralisers. These hot fluids may be
derived from:
• Magmatic fluids are directly associated or derived from the magma. The juvenile
water which can be derived directly from magma as residual fluids towards the last
stage of magmatic crystallisation when bulk of the silicate minerals have
crystallised (Fig. 12.6a).
• Groundwater circulating deeper and gets heated up by coming in contact with a hot
igneous body.
• Groundwater circulates to great depths gets naturally heated due to high
geothermal gradient
The hydrothermal deposits result in two ways. The hydrothermal fluid can directly
deposit the ore mineral from the solution in the openings or fluid which react with the
enclosing country rock producing a deposit. Minerals are concentrated or deposited by
hot fluids flowing through fractures, cracks, joints, fault planes/zones and pore spaces
present in rocks.
Fluid inclusion research indicates most ore forming fluids range in temperature from
50ºC to 500ºC. Analysis of the fluid inclusions has shown that water is the most
important phase and salinities are often much greater than those of seawater.
Examples of hydrothermal deposits are: massive sulfide deposits, vein deposits (Fig.
12.6b), and stratabound mineral deposits. On the basis of temperature and pressure of
formation, hydrothermal deposits are classified into the following types:
• Hypothermal deposits: These deposits are formed at great depths near the
intrusion and the temperature ranges from 300ºC - 500ºC.
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• Mesothermal deposits: These are formed at a depth of 1500 to 4000 m below

the surface and the temperature ranges from 200ºC - 300ºC.
• Epithermal deposits: These are formed at shallow depths away from the
surface and the temperature ranges from 50ºC - 200ºC. You can see gold ore in
Fig. 12.6c.
• Telethermal deposits: These are formed under low pressure and temperature
conditions situated at a greater distance from parent igneous body without having
any genetic relationship.
• Xenothermal deposits: These deposits are formed by high temperature ore
forming fluids released from the giant igneous rock bodies which have intruded
into shallow depths and they are characterised by high temperature, shallow
depth of formation and high rate of cooling.
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig 12.6: a) Cartoon showing ore mineral depositing in veins as the result of
hydrothermal solutions; b) Hydrothermal deposit showing gold bearing vein;
(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Goldveins1.jpg); and c) Gold ore
from epithermal deposits. (Source: www.usgs.gov)
The causes of hydrothermal deposition are as follows:

1. Changes in temperature;
2. Changes in pressure of the system;
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3. Exchange reactions between substance in the solution;

4. Exchange reaction following mixing of solutions;
5. Exchange reaction between solution and wall rock;
6. Changes in pH of the medium
Black smokers are hot fluids issuing from mid-oceanic ridge vents and on mixing with
cold ocean water give rise to fluid rich in fine particles of black sulphide. The divergent
margins or mid oceanic ridges and convergent plate boundaries have underwater
volcanoes which produce hot springs known as hydrothermal vents. Black smoker
vents (Fig. 12.7) are hydrothermal cones or chimneys that may reach a height of about
20m. Thus, black smokers are points of discharge of hot metalliferous solutions from
the ocean floor. White Smokers are similar but precipitate metal oxides and sulphates.
Black smokers and white smokers are natural laboratories to understand hydrothermal
mineralisation.
Fig 12.7: Black smokers emanating hot hydrothermal solution through vents. (Source:
www.usgs.gov)
Watch the following video to more about black smokers and hydrothermal
mineralisation.
• Hydrothermal mineralisation
Wall Rock Alteration: A reaction of hydrothermal fluids with enclosing rocks, causes
changes the mineralogy which is distinct from the adjacent lithology. Many ore
deposits, particularly the epigenetic ones, may have a zone or zones of wall rock
alteration of the host rock which are marked by colour, textural, mineralogical or
chemical changes or any combination of these. The areal extent of the alteration can
vary from few cm to a thick halo around an ore body. Few examples of wall rock
alteration are given below:
• Advanced argillic - characterised by formation of clay minerals.
• Potassic alteration - characterised by secondary K feldspar and biotite.
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• Sericitisation- characterised by the assemblage, quartz and sericite and pyrite.

• Argillic -characterised by kaolinite and montmorillonite.
• Silicification - characterised by quartz or chert.
• Dolomitisation - addition of magnesium to limestone to form dolomite.
The hydrothermal deposits have been classified into the following types based upon
their mode of formation:
1) Cavity-filling deposits: They are found in the cavities or open spaces or
fractures. The metallic minerals which are carried by the hydrothermal solution
manage to get deposited in an epithermal condition. Cavities are of two types:
• Original Cavities include pore spaces, crystal lattices, vesicles lava drain
channel, cooling cracks and bedding plane
• Induced cavities include volcanic pipes, shear zone cavities, collapse breccia
and cavities due to folding.
2) Metasomatic replacement deposits: This type of deposits are formed when
hydrothermal fluids react with the crustal material (minerals) thereby replacing it
with the ore minerals which occur mostly under hypothermal conditions.
12.5.5 Contact Metamorphism and Contact Metasomatism

Magma, being a hot, fluid is charged with volatiles and is chemically very active. It
starts reacting with the host rock which may either be an earlier formed
igneous/metamorphic or a sedimentary rock. Contact metamorphism occurs as a result
of a high geothermal gradient produced locally around intruding magma. Thus, magma
on intrusion into a country rock will start not only baking the rocks at the contact, but
there will be exchange relationship between the igneous constituents and the
constituents of the intruded rock. This transfer of metallic constituents from the magma
to the country rock will not only produce certain ore minerals, but shall also give rise to
other characteristic mineralogy. Such types of deposits are also called as contact
metamorphic deposits. They are usually restricted to relatively shallow depths in the
Earth because it is only at shallow depths where there will be a large contrast in
temperature between the intruding magma and the surrounding country rock.
Metamorphic deposits tend to be small in size, but are rich in grade. Small igneous
intrusions such as dyke, sill, laccolith, lopolith and stocks have such deposits at their
contacts. The contact metamorphic deposits are common in intrusive rocks of
intermediate and felsic composition because they contain more water and volatiles
compared to mafic intrusive rocks. Contact metamorphic deposits are formed in
intruded rocks by fluids given off by intruding igneous magmas. The intruded rocks are
modified or metamorphosed near the contact. This zone of alteration or contact
aureole surrounding a body of igneous rock is formed by heat and volatiles given off
as the magma crystallised. The changes are brought about in mineralogy, texture, or
elemental and isotopic composition of the original enclosing (country or wall) rocks,
which progressively increase closer to the igneous contact (Fig. 12.8). The contact
aureole is the shell of metamorphosed or metasomatised rock enveloping the igneous
body. Such changes may be small, consisting merely of baking, induration, or
vitrification of the intruded rocks, or of recrystallisation of their constituent minerals. At
many places, however, the changes are extensive, and the zone of altered rock may
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extend many kilometers from the intruding mass. In general contact metamorphism is
more profound along the contacts with intermediate or acidic rocks such as diorites,
monzonites and granites than along the contacts of gabbros, diabases and
pyroxenites.
Fig. 12.8: Diagram showing relations of contact metamorphic deposits (black) to contact
metamorphic zone (stippled) and to intrusive mass.
We have discussed about contact metamorphic process now we will read about
contact metasomatic process. The alteration and replacement of the country rocks due
to invasion of magmatic emanations may lead to the development of mineral deposits
of economic importance (Fig. 12.9). The term contact metasomatism was introduced
by Barrell in 1907 which refered to a process of chemical change in the composition of
rocks adjacent to igneous intrusions, the change being brought about by migration of
elements originating from the magma or the host. The country rocks are altered by
chemical constituents of the invading intrusive magma forming new minerals under
conditions of high temperature and pressure. The deposits are result in calcareous
rocks and the temperature ranges from 400ºC to 1000ºC. The gangue minerals in
these deposits comprise an assemblage of high temperature metamorphic minerals,
called ‘skarn’. They are usually silicates of iron, magnesium, calcium and aluminium
depending upon the nature of the country rock. Thus, deep seated batholiths masses
occurring within pure or impure carbonate country rocks serve as most suitable
locations, where the process of contact metasomatism can operate efficiently and lead
to the development of mineral deposits. Thus, contact metasomatic deposits are
formed in nature. Examples-cassiterite, magnetite, graphite, etc.
Fig. 12 9: Diagram showing the process of contact metasomatism and skarn deposits.
Intrusive igneous body intruding the limestone and shale country rocks giving
rise to contact metamorphic deposits. Subsequently emanations from the
intruding magma result in formation of metasomatic (skarn) deposits.
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Watch the following video to more about contact metasomatism and contact
metamorphism.
• Contact metasomatic and contact metamorphic deposits
12.5.6 Metamorphism
You will read about metamorphism in block 4 Metamorphic Petrology of BGYCT-135
course. Metamorphic processes intensely alter the pre-existing mineral deposits and
form new ones. The chief agencies are heat, pressure, time and chemically active. The
mineral deposits or rocks are the parent materials acted upon by metamorphic
processes to form valuable mineral deposits. Thus, the metamorphic processes lead to
form either a new mineral deposit or modify the existing mineral deposit. These
processes may include deposits formed by the recrystallisation, reconstitution and
mobilisation of the ore constituents. The metamorphic mobilisation means the
movement and concentration of the ore constituents which is already present in the
pre-existing rock, as a consequence of the metamorphism. All the processes of
regional metamorphism, or contact metamorphism may give rise to the mineral
deposits. Several kinds of non-metallic mineral deposits are formed as a result of
regional metamorphism. Sedimentary rocks that had sufficient bituminous matter in
them become the host rock to develop graphite due to regional metamorphism.
Examples of ore deposits formed by metamorphism are asbestos, graphite, talc,
soapstone and pyrophyllite. Gondite are manganese oxide found in deposit of Madhya
Pradesh. It is one of the typical deposits developed during regional metamorphism.
Khondalite, a metamorphic rock of Odisha is rich in garnet and sillimanite.
In the previous sections we have studied about the endogenous processes of ore
formation. Before going to the next section spend 5 minutes to check how you are
progressing.
SAQ 1
a) Differentiate between syngenetic and epigenetic type of deposits.
b) List the ore forming processes.
c) What is magmatic segregation?
d) List the types of hydrothermal deposits based on the temperature and pressure of
formation.
12.6 EXOGENOUS PROCESSES OF ORE FORMATION

You have read about different endogenic processes in the previous sections. In this
section you will learn about the exogenous processes like sedimentation, residual and
mechanical concentration, evaporation etc.
The exogenous processes operate at the surface of the Earth for the formation of ore
deposits. These involve processes that operate at low temperatures, low pressure, free
movement of solutions, and free oxygen, water and CO2 like weathering, erosion and
sedimentation. Exogenous processes include sedimentary precipitation, residual
concentration, supergene enrichment, bacteriogenic, evaporation and syn-sedimentary
volcanogenic.
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12.6.1 Sedimentation
Now let us discuss about the ores formed by the process of sedimentation. You will
read in detail about the sedimentary rocks and process of sedimentation in course
BGYCT-135. The formation of sedimentary rocks takes place by the process of
sedimentation. Sedimentation also results in the deposition of valuable mineral
deposits of iron, manganese, copper, phosphate, coal, oil shale, carbonates, cement
rocks, clay, diatomaceous earth, magnesite and sulphur. The formation of sedimentary
deposits involves:
• sufficient source of materials to be weathered and eroded;
• accumulation of weathered and eroded materials by mechanical and chemical
processes;
• transportation of these materials to the site of accumulation; and
• deposition of transported materials in the sedimentary basin
The processes of sedimentation include physical, chemical and biological components.
The major subgroups of sediments and sedimentary rocks based on the mode of origin
are:
• Inorganic-mechanical or clastic or terrigenous sediments, and
• Organic-chemical and biogenic sediments.
Inorganic or mechanical or clastic or terrigenous sediments/materials of economic
importance are gravels, sand and certain clay. The source or provenance of the
particles comprising these rocks is transported from distant places. The metallic
deposits of this genetic group are called placers. Placers are mechanical formed
enriched in heavy and chemically resistant native metals and minerals by flowing and
agitating water. For example, gold, platinum, iron, tin, rutile, zircon, rare earth minerals,
gems and other relatively insoluble materials. We will discuss about placers in the
subsection 12.4.2 Residual and Mechanical Concentration.
Organic or chemical sediments are insitu deposits. This includes chemical precipitates
and partly biogenic substances such as carbonate (limestone, magnesite, dolomite),
evaporite (halite/rock salt, gypsum), banded iron formation, massive or oolitic
limestone, etc. Some of the ore minerals get precipitated along with other chemical
sediments due to favourable Eh-pH conditions of depositional environment. Majority of
the world’s Fe, Mn, and phosphate resources are the products of chemical
sedimentation and are hosted in chemical sediments. Iron and manganese are the
most important metals occurring as chemical precipitates in the sedimentary beds.
Sedimentary deposits possess structures like bedding, cross bedding and other
characteristic structures produced by sorting in water. They may even contain fossil
remains. Banded structure is very common (Fig. 12.10a) but it is rarely symmetrical or
crustified. Cavities or vugs are lined symmetrically with banded crusts (Fig. 12.10b).
Banded Iron Formations (BIF) of peninsular India are represented by extensive thick
sequences of Precambrian (Proterozoic) age. BIF are formed as a result of iron-rich
waters reacting with oxygen released by algae during the early stages of the evolution
of life. They are mostly laminated with fine grained hematitic layers which may be
interbedded with jasper/quartzite/chert. The economically rich mineral deposits formed
by organic processes can in cavities and fractures. They may be lined by comb
structure showing growth of crystals outward (Fig. 12.10c). The chemical sediments
may be oolitic, crystalline or amorphous (Fig. 12.10a).
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig 12.10: Depositional structures in chemical sedimentary rocks: a) Banded Haematite
Jasper is an iron ore of sedimentary origin, notice the bands in the photograph;
b) Banded structure seen as cavity filling; and (c) Comb structure.
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Mineral segregation takes place by the processes of weathering and erosion. Let us
consider an example of granite which consists of minerals like quartz, potash feldspar
and plagioclase, muscovite, biotite, magnetite and accessory minerals such as zircon,
titanite, apatite and pyrite. During the process of weathering the rock with granitic
composition tends to be converted to kaolin, and limonite; bauxite may also form.
However, the resistant minerals like quartz, titanite, zircon and apatite escape
weathering. During the process of chemical weathering the ground water which
generally contains carbon dioxide dissolves and carries away alkalis and alkaline
earths as carbonates or bicarbonates. The deposits of sedimentary origin may be
found in association with all kinds of sedimentary rocks. The deposits of mechanical
origin are likely to be found in conglomerates, sandstones and shales. Whereas
deposits of chemical origin are commonly associated with limestones, shales or fine-
grained sandstones.
12.6.2 Residual and Mechanical Concentration

In the subsection 12.6.1, we have read about ore deposits formed by the process of
sedimentation. As we have read in unit 5 of course BGYCT-131 that the combined
action of sharp temperature fluctuations, wind, water freezing in rock crevices and
plant roots penetrating into the rock mass decomposes great blocks which gradually
split into chunks and further reduced into smaller fragments. Apart from mechanical
destruction the primary minerals are subjected to chemical alteration in which water
plays a major role. The weathered products are transported by the multiple geological
agents. Under the slow and relentless attack of multiple geological agents the
weathering of rocks and enclosed mineral deposit undergo mechanical disintegration
and chemical decomposition. The transported detritus gets deposited in aqueous
medium and mechanical concentration.
The process of residual concentration can be explained as the concentration of ore
present in the residue increases due to chemical weathering. The factors such as
climate, local relief, presence of proper drainage etc. plays a vital role in the residual
concentration. The amount of residue as insitu after weathering followed by
transportation gives rise to ore deposits of economic importance. Residual deposits
are formed by the removal of non-ore material or undesired constituents of rocks from
protore (primary mineralised material too low in tenor to constitute ore) followed by
their concentration by geological agents. Residual concentration of the valuable
mineral deposit increases largely due to a decrease in volume affected removal of
undesired material by surficial chemical weathering processes. The residues may
continue to accumulate till their purity and volume make them of commercial
importance. For example, the leaching of silica and alkalis from granite may leave
behind a surface capping of hydrous aluminium oxides, i.e. bauxite.
We can define the mechanical concentration as the process of natural gravity
separation of heavier minerals from lighter ones executed by the movement of water
and wind by which the heavier minerals concentrated into deposits known as placer
deposits. When the velocity of the flowing water slows down, the minerals with a
higher density are deposited. Heavy minerals like gold, diamond, platinum and
magnetite tend to get concentrated in areas where water current velocity is low. The
lighter minerals like quartz or feldspar along with clays are carried away and get
deposited to give rise sedimentary beds. Placer minerals get concentrated by flowing
surface waters depositing high density minerals either in streams (Fig. 12.11) or along
coastlines. The placer deposits are found in any area where current velocity is slow,
such as:
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• between the ripples (Fig. 12.11a);

• on or inside the meandering streams (Fig. 12.11b);
• behind rock bars (Fig. 12.11c); and
• in the holes on the bottom of a stream (Fig. 12.11d)
Placer forming activity has been operative throughout the geological history. The
deposits are generally formed as loose sand/gravel. Gold is originally formed in
hydrothermal veins. It gets eroded out of the veins and carried in streams where it is
deposited in placer deposits. You must have heard of the famous California gold rush
in 1849. It began when someone discovered rich placer deposits of gold in streams.
According to the mode of origin placer deposits can be of following types:
• Eluvial placers: These are the accumulations of ore minerals which are at or still
near the source. For example, diamond deposits in Chhattisgarh.
• Colluvial placers: These are ore minerals accumulated at the base of gentle
slopes or hillsides mixed with any loose heterogenous and incoherent mass of rock
fragments or soil.
• Alluvial placers: Alluvial deposits are clastic, detrital minerals transported by a
stream and deposited at points along its flood plain.
• Aeolian placers: These are deposits which are result of erosion, transportation
and deposition by the wind action. Aeolian placers diamonds are found in the
Namibian desert of Africa.
• Beach placers: They are deposits of heavy minerals on contemporary or ancient
beaches or along coast line. For example-monazite deposits at Kerala coast.
• Fossil placers: These deposits are also called palaeoplacers. South Africa is not
only the world’s largest and oldest palaeo placer deposit.
Fig. 12.11: Sites for placer deposits: a) Behind ripple marks; b) At the bend of
meandering stream; c) Behind rock bars; and d) In holes present at the bottom
of the river.
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Let us learn the difference between residual concentration and mechanical

concentration.
Residual concentration is the process of accumulation and concentration of valuable
minerals when undesired constituents of rocks or mineral deposits are removed during
weathering (dominantly chemical) processes. Whereas mechanical concentration
is the separation of heavy from light minerals by means of moving water or wind as the
result of natural gravity.
12.6.3 Oxidation and Supergene Enrichment

In the previous sections, we have read about the deposition of ore resulting due to
magmatic and sedimentary processes. Sometimes the material left behind is
sufficiently concentrated by weathering processes and ground water action to form
residual deposits. Now in this section, we will learn about secondary or supergene
enrichment where leaching of rocks/minerals takes place and precipitation occurs at
the depth and produces higher concentrations.
Weathering of rocks and soil formation is considered as prerequisite for life on Earth,
may affect the origin of many important ore deposits. You have read in detail about
weathering in unit 5 of course BGYCT-131. Raw materials that are predominantly
produced from supergene mineral deposits include a diverse range of metals and
minerals such as iron, manganese, aluminium. The term ‘weathering’ integrates a
number of processes that are caused by the interaction of Earth materials with the
atmosphere and the energy flow from the Sun.
The definition from Evans (2013) states that supergene enrichment refers to leaching
of valuable elements from the upper parts of mineral deposits and their precipitation at
depth to produce higher concentrations. According to the definition from Guilbert and
Park (1986), supergene enrichment occurs when the oxidising acids dissolve metal
ions from the “protore” and redeposit it below the water table. This results in an
oxidised zone on top (gossan), a supergene zone beneath and the hypogene (protore)
zone below the supergene.
The principle of supergene ore deposit formation is the concentration of some dilute
but valuable components of the primary rock. Let us learn about two basically different
processes that may lead to concentration:
• In this process the valued component is enriched in a residuum, while much of the
rock mass is dissolved and carried away.
• In this process the valued component is dissolved, transported, concentrated and
re-precipitated.
Some of the ore deposits originate after long-distance transport dissolved in surface
and groundwater. Supergene ore deposits form in regions where weathering is
favoured by a hot humid climate that promotes the profuse growth of vegetation.
Vegetation and organic matter affect supergene alteration by two mechanisms:
• it directly influences plants and soil water;
• it affects the abundance of organic acids and microbial activity that promotes
dissolution of primary minerals.
In this environment iron and aluminium are enriched in red, clayey and sandy soils.
After a deposit has been formed, it undergoes upliftment and erosion. This may bring it
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within reach of circulating ground water, which may leach some of the metals out of
that section of the ore body above the water table. These dissolved metals may be
redeposited in that part of the ore body lying beneath the water table and this can lead
to a considerable enrichment in valued metals.
Surface waters percolating down the outcrops of sulphide ore-bodies oxidise many ore
minerals and yield solvents that dissolve other minerals. Pyrite is quite common in
sulphide deposits and it breaks down to produce insoluble iron hydroxides (limonite)
and sulphuric acid. Copper, zinc and silver sulphides are soluble and thus the upper
part of the sulphide ore body may be oxidised and generally leached of many of its
valuable elements right down to the water table. This is called the zone of oxidation.
The ferric hydroxide is left behind to form a residual deposit at the surface and this is
known as a gossan or iron hat (Fig. 12.12). People involved in mineral exploration
and prospecting, enthusiastically search for such features in the field. Gossan are
signboards pointing towards what lies beneath the surface of the Earth. Gossan is
Cornish word used to designate capping cellular mass of ‘Limonite’ and gangue
minerals overlying sulphide deposits. Gossan word refers to heavy concentration of
limonite material derived from massive sulphide minerals which have been leached
and transported downwards.
Fig. 12.12: Field photograph of gossan or iron hat at Rajpur Dariba lead zinc mine. (Photo
credit: Ganga Singh Bhartiya)
If the down trickling solutions penetrate the water table, their metallic content may be
precipitated in the form of secondary sulphides to give rise to a zone of secondary or
supergene sulphide enrichment. The lower, unaffected part of the deposit is called
the primary or hypogene zone (Fig. 12.13). This zonal arrangement is characteristic
of many mineral deposits that have undergone long continued weathering.
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Fig. 12.13: Schematic profile of a deeply weathered copper sulphide ore deposit
displaying the supergene ‘secondary’ zonation resulting from redistribution of
elements. (Source: Pohl, 2011)
Oxidation and supergene sulphide enrichment is the process that generally works on
sulphide deposits. In this process the metal bearing fluids produced by oxidation
leaving percolate downwards behind ‘hat’ or gossan of iron oxides on leached part.
While the fluids percolating downwards precipitate secondary oxide and carbonate
minerals above the water table (oxidised zone). In some cases, metal bearing fluids
penetrate below the water table (reducing environment) and get precipitated as
sulphides with the help of sulphate-reducing bacteria. Thereby enriching the already
present primary ore. Chalcocite, covellite, bornite are some of the most typical of
supergene sulphide enriched minerals.
12.6.4 Evaporation
You have read about exogenous process of ore formation like oxidation and supergene
enrichment and sedimentation. Now let us discuss about the evaporation process of
formation of ores.
Evaporites are the rocks formed by the evaporation of water, for example halite
(common salt),- gypsum and anhydrite. Most evaporites are of marine origin but
terrestrially formed deposits by the process of evaporation are also of economic
importance. Evaporation may take place on land or in the sea or shallow basins. The
formation of evaporites may occur in the supra tidal zone (sabkhas) or within a
restricted body of water, which may occupy a small or large basin (Fig. 12.14). The
eroded material and salts are carried or transported by the rivers from land surfaces to
the sea. When seawater evaporates, the salts precipitate and settle to the bottom. The
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less soluble compounds are deposited first. Calcium sulfate comprising gypsum and
anhydrite is deposited first. Next in the order of solubility is sodium chloride or halite
compound. Modern examples of evaporate forming environments are well known.
Thick and extensive Phanerozoic evaporitic deposits are also called as saline giants, of
which no modern equivalents have been found.
Fig. 12.14: Formation of halite (NaCl) by the process of evaporation in Rann of Kutch.
12.6.5 Bacteriogenic Precipitation

Microbes including various kinds of bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa are ubiquitous.
Throughout the geological history microbes have played a significant role in breaking
down rocks and minerals. Sedimentary deposits of iron, phosphorous and manganese
have resulted due to active participation of bacterial activity. Bacteria plays role
through production of H2S and sulphuric acid. They are instrumental in developing
oxidation and supergene enrichment sulphides. The bacteria play a significant role in
the precipitation of manganese nodules, formation of coal and petroleum. Bacteria are
operative upto 3000 meters below land surface and even in hotter conditions. Bacterial
activity has also been reported from cold Arctic waters to hot springs.
The bacteriogenic precipitation processes are also closely associated with submarine
exhalative volcanic process. The volcanic exhalative deposits serve as source of
metals. These metals are resolved by the transport and escape of submarine
hydrothermal fluids to the surface or near to the surface of the sea bottom. Then they
spread laterally for some distance. Their precipitation takes place as concentric growth
by bacteriogenic production of H2S that reacts effectively and reduces metal solutions
and form insoluble sulphides. The reduction of these sulphides to native sulphur is due
to bacteriogenic precipitation processes. The sulphur reducing anaerobic bacteria such
as Desulfovibrio desulfuricans and Clostridium nigrificans reduce SO42- to H2S. These
deposits are epigenetic.
12.6.6 Syn-sedimentary Volcanogenic

Sedimentary volcanogenic or exhalative deposits also known as SedEx deposits.
These ore deposits are interpreted to have been formed by release of ore-bearing
hydrothermal fluids in the ocean. This results in the precipitation of stratiform ore
deposits. Sedimentary exhalative deposits form where hydrothermal waters either blow
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out as a plume or form a thick sequence of sediments into the bottom waters of sea
and ocean. Several sulphide deposits are formed in submarine environment, where
submarine volcanism occur. The deposits may be stratabound, lenticular bodies of
massive pyritic mineralisation, contains chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena in layered
volcanic rocks. These are overlain by thin bedded siliceous and iron rich sedimentary
or volcanic rocks.
In the previous section, we have studied exogenous processes of ore formation.
Before going to the next section, spend 5 minutes to check how you are progressing.
SAQ 2
a) How are banded iron formation deposited?
b) What are residual deposits?
c) What are placer deposits?
d) List the types of placer deposits based on their origin.
e) What is gossan?
12.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about various types of ore deposits and their processes of
formation. Now let us summarise about what we have learnt in this unit:
• Endogenous Processes include magmatic concentration, sublimation,

pegmatite/pneumatolytic, hydrothermal and contact metamorphism and contact
metosomatism and metamorphism.
• Exogenous Processes include deposits formed by sedimentation, residual and

mechanical concentration, oxidation and supergene enrichment, evaporation,
bacteriogenic precipitation and syn-sedimentary volcanogenic.
• Magmatic ore deposits also known as orthomagmatic ore deposits result from
simple crystallisation and concentration by differentiation of intrusive igneous
masses.
• Sublimation is a subordinate process of the formation of mineral deposits by

compounds that are volatilised and subsequently re-deposited from vapour at lower
temperature or pressure.
• Pegmatites are very coarse-grained igneous rocks formed during the final stages of
magmatic crystallisation.
• Hot aqueous solutions that are responsible for the formation of hydrothermal ore
deposits are termed as hydrothermal solutions.
• Contact metamorphic deposits are formed in intruded rocks by fluids given off by
intruding igneous magmas. Metamorphic processes intensely alter the pre-existing
mineral deposits in the presence of heat, pressure, time and chemically active to
form valuable mineral deposits.
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• Organic or chemical sediments are insitu deposits include chemical precipitates

and partly biogenic substances such as carbonates, evaporite, banded iron
formation, massive or oolitic limestone, etc.
• The process of residual concentration can be explained as the increase in

concentration of ore present insitu after weathering.
• Mechanical concentration are the process of natural gravity separation of heavier

minerals from lighter due to movement of water, air into deposits known as placer
deposits.
• Supergene sulphide enrichment is the natural upgrading of buried sulphide

deposits by the secondary or subsequent deposition of metals.
• Evaporites are mineral deposits formed by the evaporation of water in marine origin
but terrestrially formed deposits are also of economic importance.
• Microorganisms especially bacteria are involved precipitation of ore deposits like

manganese nodules. The production of hydrogen sulphide by bacterial activity
plays a great role in precipitation of rich mineral deposits.
12.8 ACTIVITY
• Make a list of endogenous and exogenous ore deposits
• Find out the places and enlist the ore deposits that are found in your state. You can
take help of the websites of Geological Survey of India, Indian Bureau of Mines and
Directorate of Geology and Mining of your state.

1. Differentiate early and late magmatic concentration processes. Explain process of
sublimation deposits.
2. Explain the formation of contact metasomatic and contact metamorphic deposits.
3. What are hydrothermal fluids? Discuss the formation of hydrothermal ore deposits.
4. Discuss the formation of placer by mechanical concentration.

• What are syngenetic ore deposits?
• Give examples of ore deposits formed by early magmatic dissemination and
segregation.
• What is residual liquid injection?
• What are disseminated type of deposits?
• What are hydrothermal vents?
• How are black smokers formed?
• Differentiate between contact metasomatism and contact metamorphism.
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12.10 REFERENCES
• Emmons, W.H. (1940) The Principles of Economic Geology. McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York - London, 529 р.
• Evans, Anthony, M. (2013) Ore Geology and Industrial Minerals. 3rd Edition, Wiley
India Pvt. Ltd., 345p.
• Guilbert, J.M. and Park, C.F. (1986) The Geology of Ore Deposits. W.H. Freeman
and Co., 985 p.
• Kesler, Stephen E. (1994) Mineral Resources, Economics and the Environment.
Macmillan College Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 391p.
• Pohl, W.L. (2011) Economic Geology Principles and Practice. Wiley-Blackwell

John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication, 695p.
• Shah, M. et al. (2015) Geothermal energy: exploration efforts in India.

International Journal of Latest Research in Science and
Technology 4(4):61-69.
• www.usgs.gov
• https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Goldveins1.jpg
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Sulfur-
IMG_3733_1.JPG
(websites accessed on 16th January 2019)

India Publishing Agency, New Delhi, 676p.
• Deb, M. and Kaur, G. (2004) Earth Processes and Resources. Metallogeny,
NSDL, New Delhi, 50 p.
• Jensen, M. and Bateman, A.M. (1976) Economic Mineral Deposits. 3rd Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication, 604p.
• Sinha, R.K. and Sharma, N.L. (1998) Mineral Economics. Oxford & IBH Publishing
Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 394p.
12.12 ANSWERS

1 a) Syngenetic deposit refers to ore deposits that form at the same time as their
host rocks. Epigenetic deposits are formed later than the rocks that enclose
them.
b) Endogenous Processes: Magmatic concentration, sublimation, pegmatite/

pneumatolytic deposits, hydrothermal deposits, contact metamorphism and
metasomatism.
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c) Exogenous Processes: Sedimentation, residual and mechanical concentration,

oxidation and supergene enrichment, evaporation, bacteriogenic precipitation
and syn-sedimentary volcanogenic.
d) Magmatic segregation is a process by which one or more minerals become

locally concentrated or segregated during the cooling and crystallisation of
magma resulting in magmatic cumulate.
e) Hypothermal, mesothermal, epithermal, telethermal and xenothermal deposits.
2 a) Banded Iron Formation are formed as a result of iron-rich waters reacting with
oxygen released by algae in the early stages of the evolution of life. They are
mostly laminated with fine grained hematitic layers may be interbanded with
jasper/quartzite/chert.
b) Residual deposits are formed by the removal of non-ore material or undesired

constituents of rocks from protore. Residual concentration of the valuable
mineral deposit increases in their purity and volume to make them commercial
important.
c) Mechanical concentration is the process by which gravity separation of heavier

minerals from lighter ones takes place by the movement of water or air to form
deposits known as placer deposits.
d) Eluvial placers, colluvial placers, alluvial placers, aeolian placers, beach

placers, fossil placers.
e) Gossan is Cornish word used to designate capping cellular mass of ‘Limonite’

and gangue minerals overlying sulphide deposits. Gossan word refers to heavy
concentration of limonite material derived from massive sulphide minerals
which have been leached and transported downwards.
Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to subsection 12.5.1 and 12.5.2
2. Please refer to subsection 12.5.5.
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UNIT 13
METALLIC MINERALS
Structure_________________________________________
Structure__________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_________
13.1 Introduction 13.6 Aluminium
Expected Learning Outcomes Chief Ores
13.2 Iron Processes of Formation
Chief Ores Distribution in India
Processes of Formation Uses
Distribution in India 13.7 Gold
Uses Chief Ores
13.3 Manganese Processes of Formation
Distribution in India 13.8 Radioactive Metal Group
Uses Chief Ores
13.4 Copper Processes of Formation
Distribution in India 13.9 Summary

Uses 13.10 Activity
13.5 Lead and Zinc 13.11 Terminal Questions
Chief Ores 13.12 References
Processes of Formation 13.13 Further/Suggested Readings
Distribution in India 13.14 Answers
Uses
13.1 INTRODUCTION
The global demand for minerals has increased steadily since the industrial revolution
and exponentially in the latter half of the 20th century. The increasing global
population and prosperity of societies is bound to keep this demand rising. A
significant part of global economy is clearly dependant on mineral production which
is the backbone of modern industrialisation. In unit 12, we have learnt about ore
forming processes which are very complex in nature. We have also learnt that ore
deposits comprise ore and gangue minerals. These two differ in process of
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formation, mineralogy, texture, content and other features. In the previous unit we
have also studied that ore forming processes can be grouped in two broad
categories namely endogenous and exogenous processes. Now in this unit, we will
discuss in detail about metallic mineral deposits in context to their chief ores, process
of formation and distribution in India. Metals like iron, manganese, nickel and cobalt
come under the category of ferrous metals. Copper, lead and zinc are grouped as
base metals. Aluminium and magnesium are known as light metals and metals like
gold and silver come under the category of precious metals.

Outcomes_______________________
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
discuss the ores of ferrous metals like iron and manganese, their processes of
formation, distribution in India and uses;
describe the ores of base metals like copper, lead and zinc, their processes of
formation, distribution in India and uses;
identify the ores of precious metals like gold, their processes of formation,
distribution in India and uses;
learn about the ores of light metals like aluminium, processes of formation;
distribution in India and uses; and
know about the radioactive metals like uranium and thorium.
13.2 IRON
We have learnt above that metals like iron, manganese, nickel and cobalt are
grouped as ferrous metals. We will discuss about iron and manganese in this unit.
We all know that iron is the most vital metal in human use. Iron accounts for more
than 95% of all metals used by the modern society. The industrial growth of a
country apart of other criteria is measured by the amount of iron consumption and
steel production. Iron constitutes 5.05% of the Earth’s crust and holds third position
in abundance after silicon (28.2%) and aluminium (8.2%). It is rarely found in native
conditions except in meteorites and some eruptive rocks. Iron is found in rocks
mostly as silicates and oxides. The mineral containing iron must be mineable at profit
in order to be called an Iron Ore.
13.2.1 Chief Ores

You can classify iron ores (Fig. 13.1) into four categories based on the chemical
composition:
• Oxides (magnetite or hematite)

• Carbonates (siderite)
• Sulphides (Fe sulphide-FeS2)
• Silicates (Fe-olivine which is fayalite)
The chief ores of iron are its oxides, sulphides and carbonates as listed below in
Table 13.1.
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Table 13.1: Chief ores of iron.

Category Ore Composition Tenor Physical properties
Mineral (Fe%)
Hematite Fe2O3 74 Colour-steel grey to red
Streak -cherry red
Sp. Gr.- 5.17
Magnetite Fe3O4 70 Colour-black or brown
black.
Streak-black
Sp. Gr. -5.17
Goethite FeOOH 68.5 Colour-reddish to yellowish
Oxides
brown
Streak-yellowish brown
Sp. Gr.-3.3-4.3
Limonite (FeO(OH)·n(H2O) 55 Colour-yellowish brown to
brown to black
Streak-yellowish brown
Sp. Gr. -2.7-4.3 (varies with
impurities)
Sulphide Pyrite FeS2 46.8 Colour-brass yellow
Streak- greenish to
brownish black
Sp. Gr.- 4.9 to 5.2.
Carbonate Siderite FeCO3 48.3 Colour- yellowish brown,
brown, grey, yellowish grey,
greenish grey
Streak- ash grey to brown
Sp.Gr. -3.96
Fig. 13.1: Important iron ores in hand specimens: a) Hematite; b) Magnetite;

c) Pyrite; and d) Ilmenite. (Source: www.gsi.in for ilmenite)
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13.2.2 Processes of Formation
Let us discuss the process of formation of iron ores.
The ores of iron can be of magmatic, sedimentary and metamorphic origin occurring
in different geological settings. Magnetite also occurs as magmatic segregation
associated with layered mafic-ultramafic intrusions. Magnetite and micaceous
hematite are produced by contact metamorphism, as in Iron springs, Utah, USA. Iron
ores of sedimentary origin are the largest resource of the metal and are exploited
extensively all over the world. Lateritic iron ores are commonly found in tropical
humid regions over ferruginous bed rocks.
Two major groups of iron rich sedimentary rocks are commonly recognised (James,
1966):
1. Banded Iron Formations (BIF): They are represented by extensive thick
sequences of Precambrian age. They are typically laminated with fine grained
hematitic layers interbedded with chert/jasper/quartzite.
2. Ironstones: These are poorly banded, non-cherty and oolitic ores, represented
by hematite and goethite and are of Phanerozoic age.
Let us discuss in brief about the processes of formation of iron ores found in India.
• Metamorphic banded deposits: The major iron ore deposits of India fall within
this group. Indian iron ore deposits of Jharkhand Odhisa belt, Bailadila (MP) and
those of Karnataka are typical examples. Example- banded magnetite quartzite.
• Continental sedimentary deposits: These were formed in fresh water (fluvial

or lagoonal) or under brackish swamp (lacustrine) conditions. Ironstones of
Raniganj Coalfields are typical examples of this type of deposit.
• Marine sedimentary deposits, detrital, placer and mixed type: The magnetite
deposits of coastal regions of Kerala are associated with ilmenite and heavy
mineral sands.
• Volcano sedimentary deposits: These deposits are related to volcanic rocks of

subduction zone tectonic setting. They occur as significant minor pockets in the
Ladakh Himalaya.
• Liquid magmatic deposits: Iron ore deposits are formed by gravitational

differentiation during early crystallisation of mafic plutonic rocks. For example-
Mayurbhanj District of Odisha.
• Intrusive magmatic deposits: They are related to alkaline rocks of

Precambrian shields. For example-apatite-magnetite rocks of Singhbhum
region.
• Contact metasomatic deposits: These are found at the contact aureoles of

granitoid intrusions within the limestone. Examples are magnetite deposits of
Vishakhapatnam District of Andhra Pradesh and Palamau District of Jharkhand.
Watch the following video to more about the formation of iron ore deposit.
• Early magmatic deposits

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13.2.3 Distribution in India
We will study the distribution of Indian iron ore deposits based on their origin and
mineralisation into the following four groups (Deb and Kaur, 2004):
First group comprises major iron ore deposits of the country, associated with BIF of
Precambrian age. These iron ore deposits grouped into two (Radhakrishna et al.,
1986):
• They were deposited > 3000 Ma ago and occur within complexly folded BIFs in
parts of Andhra Pradesh, southern Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and
• They were formed during the period 2900 to 2600 Ma ago and restricted to the
Archean schist/greenstone belts in Odisha, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Goa,
Maharashtra and Karnataka.
Iron ore Formations are exposed in three principal belts around the Singhbhum
granite massif in south Jharkhand and northern Odisha (Fig. 13.2). They are:
• Gorumahisani and Badampahar hills of Mayurbhanj District of Odisha;
• Jamda-Koira valley deposits to the west; and
• Sukinda valley, Tumka-Daiteri and Malayagiri deposits in the south

The deposits in these regions provide the iron ore to the SAIL steel plants at
Rourkela, Bokaro, Durgapur and Kulti, besides TISCO.
Second group comprises the apatite-magnetite ores of the Singhbhum shear zone,
in Jharkhand and the titaniferous, vanadiferous magnetite deposits associated with
intrusive mafic plutons in Mayurbhanj District of Odisha (Fig. 13.2).
Third group consists of sedimentary iron-ores of limonitic or sideritic composition

and occur in Raniganj and Jharia coalfields of West Bengal and Jharkhand
respectively and Tertiary formations of Assam (Fig. 13.2).
Fourth group consists of iron ore derived from the residual concentration of iron-
bearing minerals in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. These lateritic iron
ores found extensively on the Eastern and Western Ghats (Fig. 13.2).
13.3.4 Uses
Iron found its industrial use first time in 800 BC which marks the commencement of
Iron Age. With steel gaining its importance in the 19th century the Iron Age
culminated in Steel age. The iron ore is basically used for the extraction of iron metal
in the form of cast iron, wrought iron, steel and iron alloys which have their own
particular uses. The iron metal finds its use both in home and outside. It has a major
role in building construction, farm tools, machines, rails, automobiles, ships etc.
besides domestic utensils. The other use of iron ore is coal washery. It is also used
in cement industry to make up the proportion of iron in the raw material. Iron ore is
mainly utilised for making pig iron, sponge iron and steel.
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Fig. 13.2: Map of India showing spatial distribution of iron ore deposits. (Source:
Modified after Prasad, 2011)
13.3 MANGANESE
Now let us discuss about another ferrous metal like manganese (Mn). In comparison
to iron manganese is much less abundant (0.095%) in the Earth’s crust. Hence,
manganese deposits are not as common or abundant as the iron ore deposits.
Manganese is a metal crucially required for steel production. The total reserves of
manganese in India are estimated to be 93,000,000 metric tons.
13.3.1 Chief Ores

Manganese is widely distributed in Earth’s crust in the form of oxides, carbonates
and silicates. Manganese does not occur in the native state in nature, but it may be
produced by electrolysis or by reduction of its oxides. It is pinkish grey metal very
hard and brittle melting at about 1260oC. Manganese can occur in nature as oxide,
carbonate and silicate. Pyrolusite and psilomelane are common manganese ore (Fig.
13.3).
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Table 13.2: Chief ores of manganese.

Category Ore Composition Tenor Physical properties
Mineral (Mn%)
Oxides Pyrolusite MnO2 63.2 Colour- dark grey to

black
Streak-Bluish black to
black
Hardness-2-2.5; Sp. Gr.-
4.8
Psilomelane (Ba,H2O)2Mn5O10 45-60 Colour-iron black
Streak-brownish black
Hardness-5-6; Sp gr.-3.7
to 4.7.
Carbonate Rhodochrosite MnCO3 46.86 Colour-pink
Streak-white
Hardness-3.5-4.5; Sp.
Gr. 3.45 to 3.6.
Silicate Rhodonite MnSiO3 38.29 Colour-red, pink, orange
red and brownish
Streak-colourless
Hardness-5.5-6.5; Sp.
Gr. 5.5-6.5
(a) (b)
Fig. 13.3: Manganese ores: a) psilomelane in botryoidal form; and b) pyrolusite in
massive form.

Manganese occurs in deposits of diverse genetic types occur in a large span of
terrestrial geological record. Hydrothermal activity, sedimentation processes,
continental weathering are the processes responsible for forming manganese
deposits (Roy, 1981). Most of the existing demand for manganese is met from the
sedimentary and residual deposits. Manganese also occurs as ferromanganese
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nodules (Fig. 13.4) in the deep ocean floor of Indian Ocean. The deep-sea nodules
form future resource of manganese and some other important metals such as cobalt,
nickel, copper etc. The bedded deposits are formed by the metamorphism of
manganiferous sediments. The lateritic deposits have resulted from the surface
alteration of manganiferous rocks of Dharwar Group. The Indian deposits are either
of bedded (both syngenetic and supergene) or lateritic type. Of the bedded type, the
most important manganese ore deposits occur in form of sedimentary, stratified
metamorphic deposit within the Gondite and Kodurite rocks of Proterozoic age.
Fig. 13.4: Ferromanganese nodules. (Source: www.usgs.gov)

Indian manganese ore deposits occur mainly as metamorphosed bedded
sedimentary deposits associated with Gondite Series of Madhya Pradesh in
Balaghat, Chhindwara and Jhabua Districts, Maharashtra in Bhandara and Nagpur
Districts, Gujarat in Panchmahal District, Odisha in Sundergarh District and with
Kodurite Series of Odisha in Ganjam and Koraput Districts and Andhra Pradesh in
Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam Districts. Manganese ore production in Indian states
for the year 2016-17 is shown in Fig. 13.5. The distribution of manganese ore in India
is shown in Fig. 13.6.
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Fig. 13.5: Manganese ore production in Indian states for the year 2016-17. (Source:
Indian Bureau of Mines in 2018)
Fig. 13.7: Map of India showing spatial distribution of manganese ore deposits.
(Source: Modified after Prasad, 2011)
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13.3.4 Uses
The manganese ore attracted the attention of industry for the first time as raw
materials for medicines and paints at the end of the 18th century. With the growth of
steel industry and the introduction of new techniques, the demand of manganese ore
increased and current world production exceeds 26.4 million tonnes. Mn Ore is an
important raw material in iron and steel metallurgy where it is used in the form of
ferromanganese. It improves the strength, toughness, hardness and workability of
the steel. Mn ore is also used for manufacturing dry cell batteries and chemicals.
Manganese dioxide is used for manufacturing glass.
13.4 COPPER
We have learnt about ferrous minerals like iron and manganese. Now in this section
and the next section we will discuss about ore, processes of formation and
distribution of non-ferrous or base metals like copper, lead and zinc. The base
metals tarnish, corrode or oxidise on exposure to air, moisture or heat. Copper is the
most useful base metal. Due to its electrical conductivity and ductility, it is widely
used in the manufacture of wires, plates and rods for use in electrical industry and
domestic utility.
13.4.1 Chief Ores

The copper ores (Fig. 13.8 and 13.10) are divided into four groups based on
chemical composition: native metal, sulphides, oxides and complexes. The native
copper occur as an individual mineral with 100% Cu is commonly found in oxidised
zones. The chief ores of copper along with their chemical composition, copper
percentage and physical properties are mentioned below in the Table 13.3.
Table 13.3: Chief ores of copper. (Source: Alexander, 2009)
Category Ore mineral Composition Tenor Physical Properties
(Cu %)
Chalocopyrite CuFeS2 34.5 Colour-brassy yellow

Streak- greenish black
Hardness: 3.5-4; Sp. Gr.-4.2
Bornite Cu5FeS4 63.3 Colour-reddish brown or brownish
(peacock ore) red on fresh surface. Iridescent
blue and black on tarnished
surface
Streak-dark grey to black
Sulphides Hardness: 3; Sp. Gr.-5.05
Chalcocite Cu2S 79.8 Colour- blue black, grey, black,
steel grey
Streak- greyish black
Hardness: 2.5; Sp. Gr.- 5.65
Covellite CuS 66.4 Colour-Indigo blue
Streak- black grey
Hardness: 1.5-2;Sp. Gr.- 4.6 -
4.76
Cuprite Cu2O 88.8 Colour- shades of red
Oxides Streak- shining brownish
Hardness: 3.5-4; Sp. Gr.- 6.1
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Tenorite CuO 79.8 Colour- grey, black

Streak- black
Hardness: 3-4; Sp. Gr.- 6.25
Malachite CuCO3. 57.3 Colour-bright green encrustations
Cu(OH)2 Streak- light green
Hardness: 3.5-4; Sp. Gr.- 3.6 -
4.05
Carbonate
Azurite Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2 55.1 Colour- azure blue, blue, light &
dark
Streak- light blue
Hardness: 2-4; Sp. Gr.- 3.83
Chrysocolla CuSiO3.2H2O 36 Colour-bluish green or sky blue
Silicate Streak- light green
Native Cu 100 Colour- copper red on a fresh
Copper surface, dull brown on tarnished
Element surface
Streak- Metallic copper red
Fig. 13.8: Photographs of copper ores in hand specimen: a) Chalcopyrite; b) Malachite;

c) Cuprite (reddish brown copper red colour) associated with chalcopyrite
(golden yellow); and d) Native copper.

Copper deposits have originated by diverse processes like magmatic segregations,
hydrothermal activity, submarine exhalations, bacteriogenic precipitation and
oxidation and supergene enrichment. Copper ores also occur in clastic sedimentary
rocks. Copper may also be associated with zinc, lead, gold and silver minerals.
Porphyry copper deposits are closely associated with intrusions of monzonite, quartz
monzonite or quartz porphyry. Most copper deposits are the result of oxidation and
some supergene enrichment with rich grades at the upper levels just below the water
table. Contact metasomatism also accounts for some deposits of copper in
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carbonate rocks. Copper occurs as magmatic segregations and contact metamorphic
deposits. In India copper lodes occur mostly in veins, stringers, patches,
disseminated forms, fracture and cleavage fillings, associated with different rocks.
Other metals, such as lead, zinc, gold, silver, platinum, palladium, bismuth, etc are
associated with copper ores.
Watch the following video to more about the copper deposit formed by contact
metasomatism.


The major copper deposits in India are located in the states of Jharkhand, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. Minor occurrences of copper in polymetallic
association are found in Sikkim, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh (Fig. 13.9).
The Singhbhum Thrust Belt is a 128 km long arcuate structural zone in the southern
part of Jharkhand state. It hosts several mineral occurrences of economic
importance. It is perhaps the oldest copper mining region in the country where
mining began around 2000 BC. This belt hosts several copper, uranium and apatite-
magnetite deposits.
Khetri copper belt in Jhunjhunu District of Rajasthan is about 80 Km long. The

mineralisation of chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite and pyrite has taken place along favourable
structural zone like shear zone and cleavage plane.
Hindustan Copper Ltd’s Malanjkhand mine is the biggest open pit base metal mine in
India located in Balaghat District of Madhya Pradesh state. Lode-type copper
mineralisation occurs within calc-alkaline tonalite-granodiorite plutonic rocks.
Chalcopyrite is main ore mineral (Fig. 13.10). In Karnataka, Chitradurga Copper
Company mined a small pyritic copper deposit within Chitradurga Group volcanic
rocks at Ingaldhal, a few km away from the town of Chitradurga.
13.4.4 Uses
Copper is one the most essential of all non ferrous metals being used by man since
before the Bronze Age. Various uses due to specific properties of copper are given
below in the Table 13.4.
Table 13.4: Summary of uses and specific properties of copper.
SN Uses Properties
1. Ornaments, vessels Ductile, malleable, soft metal, can
be easily shaped
2. Electrical industry as conductors, windings and High electrical conductivity
other components of chemical machines
3. Steam engine automobiles and other machines Unique properties not found in
other metals
4. Used in alloys like bronze, duralumin, gun metal Readily mixes with certain metals
5. Chloride is used as disinfectant and in chemical Properties of salts of copper
operations; sulphate is employed in printing and
dyeing textiles.
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Fig. 13.9: Distribution of copper deposits in India. (modified after Deb and Kaur, 2004)
Fig. 13.10: Sample of chalcopyrite from Malanjkhand copper mine.
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SAQ 1
a) List four ore minerals of iron with oxide composition.
b) What is BIF?
c) List ores of manganese.
d) What are ferromanganese nodules?
e) What are base metals?
f) List five ores of copper.
13.5 LEAD AND ZINC

After having discussed about copper let us learn about lead and zinc which are also
base metals.
Lead and zinc always go together because of their strong geochemical affinity. Zinc
is vital for galvanising industry while battery sector is known for being the major
consumer of lead.
13.5.1 Chief Ores

The most common lead ore mineral is galena (Fig. 13.11a). Other ore minerals
containing lead are cerussite and anglesite. The metal zinc generally occurs most
commonly with lead apart from combination with other elements. The most common
zinc ore mineral is sphalerite or zinc blende. Other important minerals of zinc are
smithsonite and zincite (Fig. 13.11b).
(a) (b)
Fig. 13.11: Hand specimens of Pb-Zn ores from Zawar mines: a) Ore of lead-galena;
and b) Ore of zinc-zincite.
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The chief ores of lead with their physical properties are given in Table 13.5.
Table 13.5: Chief ores of lead.
Ores Composition Tenor Physical properties
(Pb %)
Galena PbS 86.6 Colour- light lead grey, dark lead grey
Streak- greyish black
Hardness-2.5;
Sp. Gr.- 7.5
Cersussite PbCO3 77.5 Colour- colourless, white, grey
Streak- white
Hardness-3-3.5
Sp. Gr.- 6.55
Anglesite PbSO4 68.3 Colour- blue, colorless, green, grey,
yellow
Streak- white
Hardness-2.3-3;
Sp. Gr.-6.4
The metal zinc generally occurs in combination with other elements, most commonly
with lead. The chief ores of zinc with their physical properties are given 3 in Table
13.6.
Table 13.6 Chief ores of zinc.
Ore mineral Composition Tenor Physical properties
(Zn %)
Sphalerite ZnS 67.1 Colour-yellow, light to dark brown,
black, light blue
Streak- pale yellow to brown.
Hardness-3.5-4; Sp. Gr.- 3.9 - 4.2
Smithsonite ZnCO3 52 Colour- greyish white, dark grey,
green, blue, yellow
Streak- white
Sp. Gr.-4-4.5
Zincite ZnO Colour- yellow, dark yellow, dark red,
orange
Streak-yellowish orange
Hardness-5.5 Sp. Gr.-5.5
13.5.2 Process of Formation

Majority of the lead ore deposits of the world are also zinc producers and most zinc
ore deposits carry lead. Both lead and zinc bodies usually occur as veins and
massive or tabular lodes, and as disseminations and patches, commonly in
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limestone or dolomites and shales. Majority of lead-zinc ores in India occur in
number of ways like hydrothermal lodes or veins or disseminations, cavity and joint
fillings and metamorphic deposits. The contact metasomatic replacement deposits
are mostly hosted in limestone or dolomite. The chief modes of occurrence are as
lodes or veins, as cavity or joint fillings. Ore deposit in Zawar mine in Rajasthan state
occur in fine grained, gritty conglomeratic dolomite with subordinate interbedded
phyllite and quartzite. While in the Hesatu-Balbathan belt in Jharkhand ore deposits
occur in calcsilicate rocks. The deposits may possibly have formed by the
hydrothermal fluid of igneous origin, by descending surface water or by ascending
artesian meteoric waters.

Important deposits of lead and zinc are confined to Rajasthan, Jharkhand,
Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh (Fig. 13.12). They are distributed widely in India,
with the major part of the resources~ over 80% are confined to Rajasthan. Other
states with minor lead-zinc resources occur in Odisha, Gujarat, Sikkim, Uttarakhand,
and Jammu & Kashmir.
Fig. 13.12: Distribution of lead-zinc deposits in India. (modified after Deb and Kaur, 2004)
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The most important zinc-lead deposits of economic value in India are as follows:
• Rampura-Agucha in Rajasthan is a zinc-lead sulphide deposit located in the
Bhilwara belt which is mostly metamorphosed dolomite.
• Rajpura-Dariba and Zawar deposits are found in Bhilwara, Rajsamand and
Udaipur Districts of Rajasthan respectively. The main sulphide minerals are
sphalerite, pyrite and galena.
• Sargipalli mine in Odisha state mined ores like galena, chalcopyrite, sphalerite,
cerussite, azurite, malachite and covelite. Sargipalli mine has been closed since
2001-02.
• Agnigundala belt is in Guntur District in the Nallamalai hill range of Andhra
Pradesh. The mineralisation is in the form of veins and stringers of galena
associated with sphalerite, chalcopyrite and pyrite. The host rock is brecciated
dolomite, dolomitic limestone and calcareous quartzites.
• Hesatu-Belbathan belt in Jharkhand is a multi metal belt with mineralisation of
Pb-Zn-Cu ores.
• Ambamata deposits hosts polymetallic Zn-Pb-Cu ore lenses are found around
Ambaji in the Sirohi District of Rajasthan. These ores occur in metamorphosed
basalt-rhyolite bimodal volcanic suite.
13.5.4 Uses
Now let us discuss the uses of lead and zinc which are enormous and rank next to
copper as essential non-ferrous metals in the modern industry (Table 13.7).
Table 13.7: Uses of lead and zinc.
SN Uses of lead Uses of zinc
1. Used in car batteries, pigments, Used as coating and galvanising iron and steel
ammunition, cable sheathing, weights products to prevent rusting. Galvanised steel is used
for lifting, weight belts for diving, lead for car bodies, street lamp posts, safety barriers and
crystal glass, radiation protection suspension bridges
2. It is corrosion-resistant therefore used Used to produce die-castings, which are important in
in water pipes, chemical plants, the automobile, electrical and hardware industries.
ammunitions and nuclear shield in
atomic plants
3. Used in manufacture of insecticides, As component in alloys like brass, bronze, nickel
hair dyes and as an anti-knocking silver and aluminium solder and German silver
additive for petrol
4. Often used to store corrosive liquids. It Used to precipitate gold from cyanide solutions in the
is also sometimes used in architecture, treatment of gold ores
for roofing and in stained glass
windows.
5. Pigments, glass, flux and rubber Zinc oxide is widely used in the manufacture of many
industries products such as paints, rubber, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, plastics, inks, soaps, batteries,
textiles, electrical equipment, luminous paints,
fluorescent lights and X-ray screens
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Watch the following video to more about the formation of zinc ore such as sphalerite
by hydrothermal process
• Hydrothermal mineralisation
13.6 ALUMINIUM
We have learnt about chief ores, processes of formation, distribution in India and
uses of iron, manganese, copper, lead and zinc in the previous section. Now in this
section let us discuss about aluminium. India is endowed with rich bauxite resources.
India has flourishing aluminium industry next to Japan.
13.6.1 Chief Ores

Aluminium is extracted from bauxite ore (Fig. 13.13a and b) which may contain one
or more of the aluminous minerals. Other ores are gibbsite, boehmite or diaspore
(Table 13.8).
Table 13.8: Chief ores of aluminium
Ore Composition Tenor Physical properties
mineral (Al %)
Diaspore Al2O3.H2O 85 Colour- white, greenish grey,
greyish brown, colorless, yellow
Streak- white
Hardness-nearly 7; Sp. Gr.-3.5
Bohemite Al2O3.H2O 84.98 Colour- white, light yellow,
yellowish green
Streak- white
Sp. Gr.- 3.03
Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O 73.9 Colour-white, grey, sometimes
stained yellow, orange, red, pink,
or brown by iron
Streak- Usually white, but iron
stain can discolor
Sp. Gr.- 2 to 2.5
Gibbsite Al2O3.3H2O 65.4 Colour- White, light grey, light
green, reddish white
Streak-white
Hardness-2.5-3.5 Sp.Gr.-2.38-
2.42
Bauxite ore frequently shows pisolitic and oolitic structure. Pisolite is an accretionary
body in a sedimentary rock resembling a pea in size and shape (Fig. 13.13).
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(a) (b)
Fig. 13.13: Bauxite ore showing a) Pisolitic structure; and b) Granular structure.

Bauxites are formed by the laterisation of igneous (excepting ultramafic),
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Any rock can act as the protolith for bauxite
deposit provided it contains substantial amount of Al2O3. As rule, the older bauxites
are bohemite and diaspore rich while the younger ones are gibbsitic. The process of
bauxitisation is primarily related to processes of mechanical disintegration,
chemical weathering, and leaching under favourable hot and humid climate. Heavy
rainfall and good drainage accelerate the process. The bauxite deposits may be
produced by chemical sedimentation, by solution and redeposition, chemical
replacement of pre-existing rocks, subaerial weathering in situ or detrital deposition,
from high altitude to low lying areas. Bauxite occurs as:
1) blanket deposit
2) interlayered deposit
3) pocket deposit, and
4) detrital or transported deposits.
Blanket or upland deposits occur as caps in plateau areas in tropical and subtropical
regions for example in Eastern and Western Ghats. Interstratified deposits occur as
beds or lenses in stratigraphic sequences. Pocket deposits are also known as karst
bauxites. They are restricted to calcareous rocks and occur as isolated pockets.
Transported deposits are removed from the place where they are originated. When
the original deposits are reworked, transported and redeposited then the transported
bauxite deposits are formed.

Large resources of low-grade bauxite ores have been explored by Government
agencies on known aluminous laterite occurrences (Krishnan, 1935). Bauxite occur
in the Eastern Ghat belt from East Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh to Sambalpur
and Bolangir Districts of Odisha covering an area of almost 25,000 sq.km (Fig.
13.14). The bedrocks of granulite comprising an interlayered sequence of
khondalites and leptynites of Precambrian age have given rise to blanket-type
bauxite deposits with large aerial extent and appreciable thickness. The well-known
aluminous laterite occurrences in the East Coast Bauxite Province are at Anantagiri
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area in Vishakhapatnam District of Andhra Pradesh where bauxite cappings at
altitudes of 1090 to 1445 m are found at Galikonda, Raktakonda, Katuki and
Chittamgondi. In Odisha, aluminous laterite deposits occur at Pottangi,
Panchpatmalli and Baphlimalli hills in the Koraput District, around Kashipur in
Kalahandi District and on the Gandhamardan plateau of Bolangir District. A rough
estimate of the bauxite resources in the East Coast bauxite province is of the order
of one billion tonnes of aluminous laterites with about 40% Al2O3.
Fig. 13.14: Distribution of aluminum deposits in India. (modified after Deb and Kaur,
2004)
Bauxite belt of Central India about 400 km long and 50 km is sub-parallel to the
south of the Son-Narmada lineament, extending from Madhya Pradesh through
Chhattisgarh to Jharkhand. Bauxite deposits occur at Balaghat, Amarkantak,
Putkapahar and Mainpat, Jamirpat, Bagru-Manduapat-Neturhat. They have high
grade bauxites with Al2O3 content varying between 49.7 and 60%. There are three
main bauxite-producing areas in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. These are:
• Sarguja-Raigarh-Bilaspur Districts,
• Ranchi, Palamau, Shahdol, Durg, Mandla and Balaghat Districts, and
• Katni-Newer-Jabalpur areas of Jabalpur Districts.
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Rich bauxite deposits with high alumina, high silica and iron occur on bedrocks of
Deccan traps in Belgaum District in Karnataka. The bauxite occurs as thick, uniform
capping on Deccan basalts on the plateau. The uniform thickness of the capping
well-defined scarps, and marginal nudges give a distinctive feature to the
topography.
13.6.4 Uses
Metallic aluminium is light weight and has 60% of the electrical conductivity of
copper. It is used for making alloys with copper, zinc, magnesium and manganese.
This markedly improves its mechanical properties and renders it light weight and
strength. It is very important in the construction of aeroplanes and other forms of
transport.
Aluminium is used for making aluminium foils and beverage cans, kitchen utensils
and window frames. It is also used to produce ‘cement fondu’, aluminous cement
characterised by rapid hardening qualities. The non-toxic nature of aluminium makes
it safe to use to make cooking tools such as spatulas and whisks.
Aluminum forms a highly reflective coating for both light and heat when evaporated
in a vacuum. It does not deteriorate, like a silver coating. The aluminum coatings
have many uses such as in telescope mirrors, decorative paper, packages and toys.
13.7 GOLD
We have discussed about aluminium in the previous section. Now let us learn about
a precious metal like gold. Gold has the yellow radiant colour and high reflectance. It
is also highly malleable and ductile and has high specific gravity. The usage of gold
use has been traced back to more than 6000 years ago.
13.7.1 Chief Ores

Gold occurs principally as a native metal. Native gold can occur as sizeable nuggets,
as fine grains or flakes in the alluvial deposits. Ores in which gold occurs in chemical
composition with other elements are comparatively rare.
Fig. 13.15: Native gold. (source: www.usgs.gov)

The primary and secondary processes produce gold concentrations in nature. Fluids
play a key role in concentrating gold in both these environments. In early Archean
times, Mg-Fe-rich or ultramafic lavas reacted with sea water creating primary
greenstones and concentrating gold along with nickel, copper and iron. The
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subsidence and tectonism caused partial melting and differentiation of the primary
greenstones and gave rise to silica-rich plutonic rocks. They had more gold
abundance than their precursors. This was followed by hydrothermal activity which
leached the metal and concentrated it in lodes to produce the gold-quartz veins.
While primary mineralisation served as the principal source of gold for several
centuries, of late, gold concentrations associated with low temperature processes in
supergene environment have been located in laterites in South America, South
Africa, Western Australia, Madagascar and Southern India. Gold eroded from
primary ore deposits also commonly accumulates as detrital particles and form
placer deposit. The origin of this large gold resource however, is debatable in recent
years with two strong opposing views: sedimentary (diagenetic) and hydrothermal.

Most known primary auriferous zones in India are the vein type deposits located in
the eroded remnants of ancient volcano-sedimentary rocks. They are known as
schist belts or greenstone belts of late Archaean age in the Dharwar Craton, South
India (Fig. 13.16) such as Kolar, Hutti, Gadag. Thus, the largest cluster of gold
occurrences is located in the states of Karnataka and Kerala. Gold is also known to
have high potential in South Jharkhand, parts of Madhya Pradesh and in South
Rajasthan.
Fig. 13.16: Distribution of primary gold deposits in India. (modified after Deb and Kaur,
2004)
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Gold occurs in a variety of geological settings. The following modes of occurrences

are recorded in India (Radhakrishna and Curtis, 1999):
1. Lode Gold (quartz–carbonate vein type) deposits
2. Gold in banded iron formation
3. Gold in granulite terrain
4. Disseminated gold (Fig. 13.17)
5. Gold associated with Palaeoproterozoic volcanic or sediment-hosted
polymetallic sulphide deposits
6. Gold in quartz pebble conglomerates and quartzites (ancient placers)
7. Greywacke or turbidite-hosted deposits
8. Carbonate-hosted gold deposits
9. Gold in coal
10. Epithermal bonanza type deposits of Tertiary age
11. Placer and alluvial gold
12. Gold in laterite, soil and weathering profiles
Fig. 13.17: Disseminated gold occurrence in quartz. (Source: www.gsi.gov.in)
13.7.4 Uses
Most of the gold produced goes into the monetary reserve and forms a monetary
base for currency. Gold is extensively used in jewellery and also finds its utilisation in
textile industry for Zari work. God is also used in chemical industry, medicine,
dentistry, laboratory equipments, electrical components and crockery. Gold is also
used for therapeutic purposes, in dentistry and specialised equipments.
13.8 RADIOACTIVE METAL GROUP

After having discussed about the ferrous, base, light and precious metals in previous
sections let us discuss about radioactive metals like uranium and thorium.
Uranium and thorium are the members of the actinide (Ac) series. In the Periodic
Table, U is the first member of Group VI B and Th is the last element in Group IV B.
Both Th and U are markedly oxyphilic which means close affinity to oxygen, amongst
anions. They are also biophilic due to this they concentrate in organic compounds
like humus, coal, petroleum and bitumen.
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13.8.1 Chief Ores
The chief ores of uranium are given mentioned in Table 13.9.
Table 13.9: Chief ores of uranium.
Ore mineral Composition Colour
Pitchblende 2UO3.UO2 Black, brownish-black
Torbernite CU(UO2)P2O8 12H2O Green, grass green, leek green, apple
green,
Autunite Ca(UO2)2.P2O8.8H2O Yellow, pale yellow, lemon yellow,
greenish yellow, pale green.
Carnotite K2O.2U2O3 V2O5.2H2O Bright yellow
Uraninite UO2 Brownish black, grey, greyish black,
black.
Thorium is grey heavy, hard to fuse, and emits radiations. Like uranium it is not
found in native state in nature because of their highly active nature. The chief ore
minerals of thorium are given below in the Table 13.10.
Table 13.10: Chief ores of thorium.
Ore mineral Composition Colour
Monazite (Ce,La,Nd,Th)PO4 Brown, colorless, greenish, grey white,
yellow
Thorite (Th,U)SiO4 Black, but also brownish black, orange,
yellowish-orange and dark green
Thorianite ThO2.U3O8 Brownish black, green, green black,
grey green, yellow
13.8.2 Process of Formation

Uranium and thorium are widely disseminated in the Earth’s crust but rarely form
huge deposits of rich ores. Upper layers of the Earth’s crust contain 100,000,000
million tonnes of uranium. They appear as primary constituents of igneous rocks,
granites and pegmatites or in high temperature veins associated with tin, copper and
lead minerals or accumulate in ores of hydrothermal deposits. Uranium and thorium
also occur as secondary products associated with other minerals (Fig. 13.18).
Primary uranium and thorium minerals in veins and igneous rock masses are
converted in the surface oxidation zone into secondary minerals. They are easily
soluble and are carried by rivers into seas and lakes.
Fig. 13.18: Secondary uranium associated with black shale. (Source: www.gsi.gov.in)
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The occurrence of uranium deposits in India may be classified as:
• Disseminated type
• Vein type
• Infillings in fault breccia

They all occur in the Precambrian rocks of Dharwar Craton in southern part of India.
Uranium is also associated with copper mineralisation but not all copper carry
uranium. Geographically, uranium ores are known to occur in several localities along
the Singhbhum copper belt and the Aravalli rocks in Udaipur District. Thorium along
with uranium occurs in the cerium rich monazite mineral. This mineral is a constituent
of the heavy black sands on the sea coasts of India, from Narmada estuary to Kerala
coast and Odisha coast. The uranium mine in Jaduguda village in the Singhbhum
District of Jharkhand was the first uranium mine in India.
13.8.4 Uses
These minerals are used as raw material in nuclear plants. The chemical industry
uses nuclear reaction products to speed up chemical process and to obtain new
compounds such as plastics. The disintegration of uranium and thorium minerals
gives rise to radium which is important in the treatment of cancer, in certain X-ray
apparatus and for luminous paint. These two minerals are used in research, industry,
agriculture and medicine.
In the previous sections we have discussed in details about metals like iron,
manganese, copper, lead, zinc, aluminium and gold. Before reading about
radioactive metals in the next section spend 5 minutes to check how you are
progressing.
SAQ 2
a) List chief ores of lead and zinc.
b) List uses of lead and zinc.

c) Mention chief ores of uranium and thorium.
d) List the mode of occurrence of uranium deposits in India.
e) List uses of radioactive metals.
13.9 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about various types of metallic ore deposits, their
processes of formation, distribution in India and uses. Now let us summarise about
what we have learnt in this unit:
• Iron ores can be grouped into oxide, hydroxide, carbonate, silicate based on the
chemical composition. Iron ore deposits can form by magmatic, sedimentary and
metamorphic processes. The distribution of Indian iron ore deposits can be
grouped into four categories based on their origin and mineralisation.
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• Manganese occurs in the form of oxides, carbonates and silicates occur in
diverse geological settings and form by processes like hydrothermal activity,
sedimentation, metamorphism and continental weathering.
• Indian manganese ore deposits occur mainly as metamorphosed bedded
sedimentary deposits associated with Gondite Series of Madhya Pradesh and
Kodurite Series of Odisha.
• Copper deposits have originated by diverse processes like magmatic
segregation, hydrothermal activity, submarine exhalations, bacteriogenic
precipitation and oxidation and supergene enrichment.
• Rich copper deposits are found in Singhbhum thrust belt and Khetri copper belt
in Jhunjhunu District. Malanjkhand mine is the biggest open pit base metal mine
in India located in Balaghat District of Chhattisgarh state
• The chief ores of lead are galena and cerussite and zinc are sphalerite, zincite
and smithsonite. Majority of lead-zinc ores in India occur in number of ways like
hydrothermal lodes or veins or dissemination, cavity and joint fillings and
metamorphic deposits. Important deposits of lead and zinc are confined to
Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.
• Aluminium is extracted from bauxite ore which may contain one or more of the
aluminous minerals like gibbsite, boehmite or diaspore. The process of
bauxitisation is primarily related to processes of mechanical disintegration,
chemical weathering, and leaching under favourable hot and humid climate. Rich
bauxite deposits occur on bedrocks of Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats and
Deccan traps.
• Gold occurs principally as a native metal. The primary and secondary processes
produce gold concentration in nature. Largest cluster of gold occurrences is
located in the states of Karnataka and Kerala.
• Th and U are markedly oxyphile, they have also biophile tendency. Due to this,
they concentrate in organic compounds like humus, coal, petroleum and bitumen.
13.10 ACTIVITY
• Make a list of ferrous, base, light and precious metals
• Find out the places and list the metallic ore deposits that are found in your state.
You can take help of the websites of Geological Survey of India, Indian Bureau of
Mines and Directorate of Geology and Mining of your state.
• Find out the places in India where Uranium and Thorium deposits occurs.

1. Discuss the processes of formation of iron ore deposits.
2. List the common uses of iron and manganese.
3. Discuss the processes of formation of copper deposits and their distribution in
India.
4. Discuss the processes of formation of lead and zinc deposits and their
distribution in India.
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5. Explain the process of formation of aluminum ores.

6. List different geological settings reported for the occurrence of gold in India.

• What are the metallic ore deposits formed due to contact metasomatism?
• Explain copper ore deposits are formed by contact metasomatism.
• Mention about the magmatic concentration processes responsible for formation of
titaniferous magnetite deposits.
• Which magmatic concentration process forms the chromite deposit?
13.12 REFERENCES
India Publishing Agency, New Delhi. 655p
• Deb, M and Kaur, G. (2004) Earth Processes and Resources. Metallogeny,

• Indian Minerals Yearbook (2018) (Part- III: Mineral Reviews) 55th Edition,
Manganese Ore (Advance Release) Government of India, Ministry of Mines,
Indian Bureau of Mines, Nagpur, 25 p.
• James, H.L. (1966) Chemistry of iron-rich sedimentary rocks. U.S.G.S

Professional Paper 440W, 60p.
• Krishnan, M.S. (1935). Lateritisation of Khondalites. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, v.68,
Pt.4, p.392-399.
• Radhakrishna, B.P. and Curtis, L.C. (1999) Gold in India. Geol. Society of India,
Bangalore, p.307.
• Radhakrishna, B.P., Devaraju, T.C., Mahabaleswar, B. (1986) Banded Iron-

Formation in India. Jour. Geol. Soc, India, Bangalore, v.28, p.71-91.
• Roy, S. (1981) Manganese deposits. Academic Press, London. 458p.
• www.gsi.gov.in
• www.usgs.gov

• Deb, M and Kaur, G. (2004) Earth Processes and Resources. Metallogeny,

• Dhana Raju, R. (2005) Introduction to Energy Resources. Atomic Minerals and

Fossil Fuels, Geological Survey of India.
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• Jensen, M and Bateman, A.M. (1976) Economic Mineral Deposits. 3rd Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Pub., 604p.
• Prasad U. (2011) Economic Geology: Economic Mineral Deposits. 2nd Edition,

CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
• Shrivastava, J.P. and Rani, N. (2012) Introduction to Ore Microscopy. Prentice

Hall India Limited, Eastern Economy Edition, New Delhi.
• Sinha, R.K and Sharma, N.L. (1998) Mineral Economics. Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 394p.
13.14 ANSWERS

1 a) Limonite, magnetite, goethite, hematite.
b) BIF are extensive thick sequences of Precambrian age. They are laminated
with fine grained hematitic layers interbedded with chert/jasper/quartzite.
c) Pyrolusite, psilomelane, rhodochrosite and rhodonite.
d) Ferromanganese nodules are found in the deep ocean floor of Indian Ocean.
The deep sea nodules form future resource of manganese and some other
important metals such as cobalt, nickel, copper etc.
e) Copper, lead and zinc.
f) Please refer Table 13.3.
2 a) Lead-cerussite and anglesite. Zinc-sphalerite or zinc blende, smithsonite and

zincite.
b) Please refer Table 13.5.4.
c) Please refer subsection13.8.4
d) Uranium-Pitchblende, Torbernite, Autunite, Carnotite, Uraninite
e) Thorium-Thorianite, Thorite, Monazite
f) Disseminated type, vein type, infillings in fault breccia.
g) Please refer subsection 13.8.4.
Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to the subsection 13.2.2. Hint: Discuss about metamorphic banded
deposits, continental sedimentary deposits, marine sedimentary deposits,
detrital, placer and mixed type, volcano sedimentary deposits, liquid magmatic
deposits, contact metasomatic deposits, intrusive magmatic deposits, contact
metasomatic deposits.
2. Please refer to the subsection 13.2.4 and 13.3.4.
5. Please refer to the subsection 13.6.2.

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6. Lode Gold (quartz–carbonate vein type) deposits; Gold in banded iron formation;
Gold in granulite terrain; Disseminated gold; Gold associated with
Palaeoproterozoic volcanic or sediment-hosted polymetallic sulphide deposits;
Gold in quartz pebble conglomerates and quartzites (ancient placers);
Greywacke or turbidite-hosted deposits; Carbonate-hosted gold deposits; Gold in
coal; Epithermal bonanza type deposits of Tertiary age; Placer and alluvial gold;
and Gold in laterite, soil and weathering profiles
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UNIT 14
NON-METALLIC MINERALS
Structure_______________________________________
Structure____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_________
14.1 Introduction 14.4 Usage of Minerals in Industry
Expected Learning Outcomes Refractory Industry
14.2 Industrial Minerals Fertiliser Industry
Mica Ceramic and Glass Industry
Gypsum Chemical and Pigment Industry
Magnesite Abrasive Industry
14.3 Building Materials Gemstone Industry
Granite 14.5 Summary

Marble 14.6 Activity
Limestone 14.7 Terminal Questions
Quartzite and Sandstone 14.8 References
Slate 14.9 Further/Suggested Readings
Lime, Sand and Clay 14.10 Answers
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units of this block we have discussed about ore and ore deposits, and
processes of ore formation. Ore minerals have been divided into metallic and non-metallic
groups. In Unit 13 we have discussed various kinds of metallic minerals such as ferrous,
base, light, precious and radioactive metals, with respect to their ores, processes of formation
and distribution in India. The non-metallic minerals (rock salt/halite, soapstone, asbestos,
barite, mica, cement, feldspar, gemstones, gypsum) lack the properties of the metallic
minerals such as a bright metallic luster, hardness, density, and good conduction of heat and
electricity. Non-metallic minerals, including industrial minerals and rocks and building stones
form the major part of natural resources used by modern societies. Non-metallic minerals
form the back bone of several industries such as chemical, ceramic, fertiliser, refractory, etc.
India is endowed with some of the largest deposits of these industrial minerals. Now in this
unit we will discuss about the non-metallic minerals used as industrial minerals and building
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materials. We will also discuss minerals used in refractory, fertiliser, ceramic and glass
manufacturing, chemical and paints, abrasive and gemstone industries (Fig. 14.1).

Outcomes_____________________
After reading this unit you should be able to;
discuss about industrial minerals like mica, gypsum and magnesite;
describe building and construction materials like granite, marble, limestone etc.;
explain about minerals used in refractory, ceramic and glass manufacturing
industries;
discuss minerals used in fertiliser, chemical and paint, and abrasive industries; and
list the minerals used as gemstones
Fig. 14.1: Diversified uses of non-metallic minerals in various industries.
14.2 INDUSTRIAL MINERALS

Man has exploited industrial minerals for many thousands of years which have
contributed to several most important cultural developments. Prehistoric man used hard
stones for lightening the fire, grinding and cutting. With the advancement of technology
industrial materials are being used for various applications. We have read in the
previous units that practically all industrial minerals contain metallic elements and they
are often confused with non-metallic. It must now be noted that many ‘metallic ores’,
such as bauxite, ilmenite, chromite and manganese minerals are also important raw
materials for industrial mineral. Many definitions have been given for industrial minerals
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for example Bates (1994) defines them as “an industrial mineral is any rock, mineral, or
any other naturally occurring substance of economic value, exclusive of metallic ores,
mineral fuels and gemstones; one of the non-metallics”. In fact industrial minerals have
been used in the past as a synonym to non-metallic materials (Harben and Bates,
1990). However, there are two shortcomings in this definition, firstly there are several
metallic ores such as bauxite, ilmenite, pyrite and Fe-oxides which come in the category
of industrial minerals. Secondly the term industrial minerals can be used also for
manufactured materials such as cement, refractories or abrasives. The definition is
given by Scott (2009) takes care of these aspects. According to him “industrial minerals
are a loose grouping of products made from Earth materials that are not a source of a
metal or energy”.
According to a definition “industrial minerals and rocks are utilised because of their
important physical and chemical properties either as raw materials or after processing.
These properties remain essentially unchanged in the end use after processing” (Bates,
1969).
A number of industrial rocks and minerals are utilised for industrial purposes. Important
among them are mica, asbestos, barites/talc/soapstone, asbestos, barite, calcium
carbonate, diatomite, feldspar, gypsum, kaolinite, silica, talc.
Let us discuss some industrial minerals like mica, magnesite and gypsum.
14.2.1 Mica
India is endowed with huge deposits of mica which enable us to dominate the demand
of world’s market in the field of electrical industry. Most of the countries in world are
dependent upon India for quality mica sheets and splitting. We have read about the
mica minerals in block 2 of this course. Let us recall the minerals of mica group (Fig
14.2 and Table 14.1).
Table 14.1 Chief Minerals of Mica group.
S.N. Minerals Commercial Composition
name
1. Muscovite Potassium KAl2(AlSi3O10)
mica/white
mica/ruby mica
2. Paragonite Sodium mica NaAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH)2
3. Phlogopite Magnesium H2KMg3 Al (SiO4)3 with
mica/amber flourine
mica
4. Biotite Magnesium iron K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH)2
mica/black mica
5. Lepidolite Lithium mica (OH,F)2KLiAl3 (AlSi3)O
6. Zinwaldite Lithium-iron Li, Fe, K, F in addition to
mica Al and SiO2
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Fig. 14.2: Mica minerals: a) Muscovite; b) Biotite; c) Phlogopite; d) Lepidolite; and e)

Paragonite.
Mode of occurrence and origin: Mica forms from late magmatic solutions in the
pegmatites. Pegmatites are composed normally of plagioclase feldspar and quartz,
though in some places minerals like tourmaline, garnet, apatite and rarely beryl may
occur. Muscovite occurs in silicic pegmatite, in association with granitic intrusive.
Phlogopite comes from quartz-free pegmatites. Biotite is obtained from metamorphic
rocks-biotite schists. Lepidolite and zinwaldite are confined to granitic pegmatites. The
micas occur as a constituent of pegmatites and veins which penetrate the mica schists.
Commercial mica occur as zonally distributed ‘books’ in the pegmatites. The origin of
phlogopite mica is different from that of muscovite where the former forms under the
action of gases, vapours and aqueous solutions of granitic magma on magnesium rich
host rocks, dolomitised limestone and dolomite.
Distribution in India: In India best quality mica and the workable deposits have been
recorded mainly from Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan. Occurrences of less
importance mica is reported from Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, west Bengal, Madhya
Pradesh and Odisha. There are three mica belts namely:
• Rajasthan mica-belt: This belt extends for about 320 Km from Jaipur to Udaipur
District through Ajmer, Bhilwara, Tonk and Pali Districts with average width of 96
Km. The mica pegmatites occur as intrusive in the gneisses and schists of Archaean
age.
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• Bihar mica-belt: Its potential areas are around Koderma, Giridih and Chakai. This
belt has average width of 20 Km and extends from Gaya through Hazaribagh and
Munger Districts to Bhagalpur District. The country rock is mica schist of Archaean
age.
• Mica schist belt of Andhra Pradesh: This belt has average width of 16 Km
extending about 96 Km with main deposits at Kalichedu, Thalpur, Gudur and
Sangam in Nellore District.
Uses: The flaky nature and splitting property of mica combined with its flexibility,
elasticity, toughness, resilience, low heat conductivity and high dielectric strength make
the mica excellent electrical insulators. High quality natural sheet mica is used in helium
neon laser as retardation plates. Sheet mica are also used in electrical and electronic
industries as insulating materials, such as capacitors, communicator segments, and
high-pressure steam boilers. Mica powder is used in wall paper, automobile tyres,
moulded insulators, as filler in rubber goods and drill mud. Phlogopite is good for
manufacture of sparks plugs of aeroplane and washers for electrodes. Biotite serves as
ground mica in ayurveda medicine as ‘abhrakha bashma’.
14.2.2 Gypsum
Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is a hydrated calcium sulphate. It is widely used in industry

because of its special property of losing three-fourth of the combined water of
crystallisation when moderately heated (calcined) to about 130oC. Gypsum when finely
ground and made plastic with water on cooling can be spread out, cast or moulded to
any desired surface or form. On drying, it sets into a hard rock-like form. Gypsum has
specific gravity of 2.3. It has hardness 2 and can be scratched with finger nail. Indian
gypsum is mostly of gypsite type (Fig. 14.3).
Gypsum is required for cement and fertiliser industry. It is categorised into following five
types:
1. Rock gypsum,
2. Gypsite, a mixed porous type with sand and clay,
3. Alabaster, a fine grained, massive and light coloured,
4. Satin spar, silky and fibrous form,
5. Selenite, crystalline, colourless, transparent silky form
Mode of occurrence and origin: Gypsum occurs as evaporite deposit and is a

common mineral widely distributed in sedimentary rocks, often as thick beds. It
frequently occurs interstratified with limestones and shales and is usually found as a
layer underlying beds of rock salt. More rarely it may crystallise in veins, forming satin
spar. It is also found as tabular bodies or scattered crystals in clays and shales. It
occurs in volcanic regions, especially where limestones have been acted upon by
sulphur vapours. Also found commonly as a gangue mineral in metallic veins. Usually
the deposits have very little or no overburden and the material being very soft and
friable are very easy to mine.
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Fig. 14.3: Hand specimen of gypsum.
Distribution in India: Gypsum deposits occur in several parts of India. Besides, it is

obtained as by product from sea water during processing of common salt and from
several chemical plants such as phosphoric acid, hydrofluoric acid, borax and boric
acid. Selenite occurs in Nellore and Guntur and Prakasham Districts of Andhra
Pradesh. Selenite occurs in Jamnagar, Surendranagar, Bhavnagar, Jamnagar and
Kutch Districts of Gujarat. Gypsum occurs in Sirmur and Chamba, of Himachal
Pradesh. In Baramula and Doda, Jammu & Kashmir gypsum deposits are associated
with marine clays, phyllite and schists. High-grade gypsum is mostly mined in Rajasthan
in Nagaur, Bikaner, Barmer, Churu, Jaisalmer and Pali. Gypsum also occurs in
Gulbarga District of Karnataka, Shahdol District of Madhya Pradesh and Tiruchirapalli
District of Tamil Nadu. Gypsum occurs interbedded with limestone or dolomite in Tehri
Garhwal, Dehradun and Nainital Districts of Uttar Pradesh.
Uses: Gypsum is utilised in three important industries like cement, fertiliser (ammonium
sulphate) and Plaster of Paris. Gypsum of less purity in crushed form is utilised in
Portland cement manufacturing for controlling the setting time of portland cement. Less
pure form of gypsum may be utilised as retardant to control the setting time in the
manufacture of cement. Gypsum is also used in manufacturing ammonium sulphate
fertiliser, pottery, pharmaceuticals, textiles, asbestos products, paints etc. High-purity
gypsum may be utilised for manufacturing of ammonium sulphate fertiliser. Ground pure
white gypsum is also used as filler in paper, paints and textile goods. Ground low grade
gypsum is used in mine dusting, manufacture of black board chalks and as filler in
insecticides. Besides, gypsum is also used pharmaceutical, textile industries and also in
asbestos products. Selenite, a crystalline variety is used to a limited extent for gypsum
plate for petrological microscopes, known as Sensitive Tint. It is also used in the
ceramic Industry for making moulds, to manufacture surgical grade Plaster of Paris and
also for producing white cement. Plaster of Paris industry requires high purity gypsum.
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14.2.3 Magnesite
We have read about mica and gypsum now let us discuss about magnesite.
Magnesite (MgCO3) is a carbonate of magnesium (Fig. 14.4). Commercially the term
'magnesite' refers not only to the mineral, but also to many products, obtained by
calcining the natural carbonate, e.g., caustic magnesite (magnesia obtained by
calcining crude magnesite at comparatively low temperatures, 700 to 1000oC) and
refractory magnesite (magnesia obtained by calcining magnesite at high temperatures,
1500 to 1800oC). Pure magnesite is calcined at still higher temperatures (1600-1800oC)
to expel carbon dioxide completely which is known as 'periclase' (MgO) in the trade.
Fig. 14.4: Hand specimen of magnesite.
Mode of occurrence and origin: Magnesite is usually found as secondary deposits

formed due to alteration product of ultramafic rocks and other magnesium-rich rock
types. It is also formed by replacement of carbonate and dolomitic limestone. It can
occur as bedded sedimentary deposits and as irregular veins. Vein type magnesite
deposits is hosted by ultramafic rocks in the Chalk hills of Salem, Tamil Nadu.
Magnesite deposits in India generally occur as crystalline mass, amorphous and
massive. Most common impurities found in magnesite are calcium and silica along with
Fe2O3 and Al2O3. The magnesite deposits generally occur in three forms. They are
cryptocrystalline, fibrous and nodular types. Magnesite can also be formed by
metasomatism in skarn deposits, in dolomitic limestones, associated with wollastonite,
periclase, and talc.
Distribution in India: In India economically rich magnesite deposits are found in

Almora and Pithoragarh Districts of Uttar Pradesh. Magnesite deposits are reported in
two tehsils, namely, Brahmani and Pangi in Himachal Pradesh. In Jammu and Kashmir
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occurrences of magnesite deposits are reported from Kargil, Ladakh and Udhampur
Districts. In Karnataka, they are located in the Districts of Coorg and Mysore. Magnesite
deposits are reported from Arcot, Dharmapuri, Nilgiris, Periyar, Coimbatore, Tirunelveli,
Tiruchirapalli and Salem Districts of Tamil Nadu. The magnesite deposits are mostly
associated with ultramafic bodies such as peridotite, dunite and pyroxenite. Massive
mining activity is going on the Chalk Hills in Salem. Occurrences of magnesite in Tamil
Nadu are low in lime and high in silica, whereas those of Uttarakhand are high in lime
and low in silica.
Uses: Magnesite is used as abrasive for soft polishing of metal and mineral surfaces.
The refractory industry is the major consumer of magnesite. It is important mineral for
the manufacture of basic refractories, which could be largely used in the steel industry.
The refractory magnesite and fused magnesia are used in refractory industry to
manufacture various refractory products. Fused magnesia finds application as insulating
material in tubular heating elements in electrical Industry and refractory brick linings in
steel furnaces. Magnesite is used as raw material in mosaic tiles, electrodes and
manufacture of magnesium metal. It is also used in fertilisers and food processing
industry. The caustic magnesia is used as animal feed stuff and in the manufacture of
oxychloride cement. Magnesite is also used in chemical industry as source material for
manufacture of magnesium compounds like magnesium sulphate (Epsom salt) and
other salts used in paper and pharmaceutical industries. It is also used in textile, rubber,
glass and ceramic.
14.3 BUILDING MATERIALS

India is gifted with huge resources of various types of building and monumental stones.
Granite and marble are important due their aesthetic values and unique features. Apart
from these other rocks are quartzite, sandstone, limestone, slate etc. Rock-based
materials have been used in a variety of ways in the building industry for building
construction, structural works and for making road and pavement. Building materials are
hard, resistant, and tough that can withstand weathering and abrasion. The workability
of building materials depends on their hardness and durability. In this subsection we will
briefly discuss few building stones.
14.3.1 Granite
Granite is a plutonic felsic rock with quartz and feldspar as essential minerals. Granite
in the form of building structural and ornamental stones has acquired important position
in the field of modern architecture (Fig. 14.5). The word granite has been derived from
Latin work ‘Granum’ meaning grain. Besides hard and compact nature the texture of
granite readily takes up good polish which gives it beautiful appearance. Colour varies
from pink, grey, red and black with different textures. This has made it most opted
building stone. Apart from ‘true granite’ commercially, available granite includes many
types of igneous and metamorphic rocks namely dolerite, basalt, porphyry, syenite,
diorite, gabbro, charnockite, khondalite, schist and gneiss. Highly priced black granite is
actually gabbro or dolerite. The granite used in ornamentation and structural purposes
must possess hardness and compactness apart from its pleasing appearance. The
quality and use of granite depend upon its granularity, colour, presence of structural
elements, inclusions, brittleness, chemical and mineralogical compositions,
physicochemical properties and shape and size of blocks.
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Fig. 14.5: Polished slab of granite.
Distribution: Granite occurs in almost all parts of India such as Anantpur, Chitoor,
Guntur, Hyderabad, Warangal Districts in Andhra Pradesh; Bangalore, Bellary, Tumkur
Districts in Karnataka; Ajmer, Alwar, Barmer, Bhilwara Districts in Rajasthan;
Coimbatore, Dharampuri, Salem Districts in Tamil Nadu; Deogarh, Banka, Godda,
Gumla, Hazaribag, Palamu, Ranchi and Singhbhum Districts in Jharkhand.
Uses: Granite is mainly used as construction material and road metal. The use of
processed or polished granite is however, restricted and is employed in decorative
purpose like exterior, interior wall panelling flooring wall, platforms for kitchen, sinks,
table tops, monuments, name plates, flower vases.
14.3.2 Marble
Marble is a calcareous metamorphic rock. Marble is considered as one of the oldest
building material used in monuments, decoration and building construction. The word
‘marble’ has been derived from Latin word ‘Marmaros’ which means shining stone. Any
stone capable of taking polish without any regard to its chemical composition was
designated as marble in early days. Marble is a crystalline rock exhibiting sugary
(saccharoidal) texture (Fig. 14.6) consisting mainly of calcite or more rarely dolomite.
Marble is white in colour although due to impurities colour may vary. Often the individual
grains are so small that they are not visible with naked eyes. Marble can also be coarse
grained. The white Makrana marble commercial variety, referred to locally as ‘Sang-
eMarmar’ (meaning pure white/ivory stone), contains ~ 100% white calcite grains. The
crystalline granoblastic, interlocking and compact texture of marble makes it less porous
which enhances its durability and resistance. These qualities have made the marble an
ideal material for monuments and buildings from historical times. Marble is
metamorphosed limestone.
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Fig.14.6: Marble exhibiting crystalline sugary (saccharoidal) texture.
Uses: Marble is one of the best building materials used for flooring exterior and interiors
of walls, monuments, architecture and other construction applications. Makrana marble
is one of the most preferred ornamental and masonry stones from north-west India. It
has been used in several spectacular heritage buildings and monuments within the
country and abroad. Famous monuments like Taj Mahal of Agra (one of the Seven
Wonders of the World and a UNESCO world heritage site), Lotus temple of Delhi,
Victoria Memorial of Kolkata and are constructed of marble. White marble has been
used in various structures within Red Fort (both in Delhi and in Agra), Humayun’s Tomb
and Akbar’s Tomb. In abroad, Makrana marble has been used in Sheikh Zayed
Mosque, Abu Dhabi, UAE, and Moti Masjid, Lahore, Pakistan.
Watch the following video to more about the formation of marble, skarn deposits and
other industrial minerals.

14.3.3 Limestone
Limestone is a calcareous rock formed both organically and inorganically. India has
plentiful deposits of limestone and is extensively used for building and construction
purposes. It is a carbonate of lime or calcium. When magnesium replaces the calcium in
part, it forms dolomitic limestone. It can be crystalline, pisolitic, oolitic or earthy. The
impure limestone may be argillaceous, siliceous, ferruginous, bituminous or dolomitic in
nature (Fig. 14.7). Nomenclature of limestone may vary based upon its colour,
structure, locality and formation in which it occurs and its genesis etc. Limestone is a
sedimentary rock having both marine and fresh water origin. Limestone occurs in the
form of extensive beds, bands and pockets. Silica, iron, aluminium phosphorous,
sulphur, manganese and carbonaceous matter are present as impurities. The content of
calcium is product of weathering of rocks and is transported to the sedimentary basins
in the form of bicarbonates, carbonates and sulphates. The calcium carbonate is
deposited by inorganic, organic and mechanical processes. Carbon dioxide plays vital
role in inorganic process.
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Fig. 14.7: Dolomitic limestone of Sonbhadra District in Uttar Pradesh.
Distribution Limestone is widely distributed in many places such as Adilabad,

Cuddapah, Guntur, Hyderabad, Karimnagar, Kurnool, West Godavari Districts in
Andhra Pradesh; Belgaum, Chitradurga, Shimoga, Tumkur Districts in Karnataka; Karbi-
Anglong, Lakhimpur, Nagaon Districts in Assam; Hazaribag, Palamau, Dhanbad
Districts in Jharkhand; North Eastern part of Goa, Diu town, Malala and Nagao Districts
in Goa; Amreli, Banaskantha, Bhavnagar, Bharauch Districts in Gujarat; Ambala,
Bhiwani and Mahendragarh Districts in Haryana; Bilaspur, Chamba, Kangra, Shimla
Districts in Himachal Pradesh; Sonbhadra District in Uttar Pradesh; Ajmer, Alwar,
Banswara Chittaurgarh, Jaipur, Jaiselmer Districts in Rajasthan; Almora, Pithoragarh,
Dehradun Districts in Uttarakhand; Anantnag, Baramula, Doda, Kathua Districts in
Jammu & Kashmir. Limestone and dolomite deposits are located in Raigarh, Janjir-
Champa, Bilaspur, Raipur, Durg and Rajnandgaon Districts.
Uses: Limestone is mined in India on very large scale. It is extensively used in cement
industries, iron and steel, chemical, sugar and paper industries. Limestone is also used
in fertiliser, ferro-alloys, glass manufacture, lime manufacture, foundry, refractories,
textile, electrode, ceramic, sponge iron. Hard, siliceous, dolomitic and argillaceous
limestone is used as dimension stone. Flaggy limestone of varying colours and fine
texture is suitable for paving and flooring.
14.3.4 Quartzite and Sandstone

Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized (0.0625 to 2 mm)
mineral particles or rock fragments (Fig. 14.8a). It contains the framework grains
dominantly quartz or feldspar because they are the most resistant minerals to
weathering processes at the Earth's surface. The framework grains are bound by matrix
and cement. You will read about matrix and cement in block 3 of BGYCT-135 course.
Quartzite is a metamorphic rock formed by metamorphism of sandstone. Pure quartzite
is usually white to grey (Fig. 14.8b). It occurs in various shades of brown, pink and red
due to varying amounts of iron oxide (Fe2O3). The presence of impurities gives yellow,
green, blue or orange colour to quartzite. Quartzite and sandstone serve as building
and road material.
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(a)
(b)
Fig. 14.8: a) Sandstone in Sonbhadra District in Uttar Pradesh; Hand specimens of pure
quartzite from IGNOU Headquarters, New Delhi.
Distribution: These are most common sedimentary rocks extensively distributed in

different parts of the country. Their occurrences are mainly found in Kota, Bundi,
Udaipur, Tonk, Ajmer Districts in Rajasthan; Hoshangabad District in Madhya Pradesh;
Rohtas, Munger and Gaya Districts in Bihar; Mirzapur and Sonbhadra Districts in Uttar
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Pradesh. The limestone and sandstone deposits of Vindhyan Supergroup are quarried
in Son valley in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh; Rewa and Jabalpur Districts in Madhya
Pradesh; Guntur and Bhima Districts in Andhra Pradesh. Vindhyan sandstones from
Jodhpur District, Rajasthan, yield very good flagstones particularly suitable for fine
carvings and are considered good for fabricating perforated and ventilating windows
and screens, usually found in big palaces. Vindhyan sandstones of Bhander Group of
uppermost Vindhyan age are known as excellent building stones, due to their regular
bedded formation, uniform grain-size, soothing colours, high durability and easy
workability. The stones are cream and light grey in colour with crimson and pinky tints.
The famous Sanchi Stupa and stupas of Sarnath and Barhut are built of Vindhyan
sandstones. The famous Fatehpur Sikri, built by Emperor Akbar, is entirely of pink
Vindhyan sandstones. The Delhi Secretariat and Rashtrapati Bhawan of New Delhi are
made of red sandstones. A major part of the sandstones are quarried in Rajasthan,
particularly in Bundi, Kota, Dholpur, Jaipur, Bharatpur and Bikaner and also in Mirzapur
and Sonbhadra Districts of U. P.
Watch the following video to more about sedimentary types of ore deposits.

14.3.5 Slate
Slate is a low-grade metamorphic rock of argillaceous origin. It has fine grained texture
and splits into thin layers. Slate occurs in varying colours grey to steel grey, brownish
ash colour, pink, purple etc. It is used for roofing, pavements etc.
14.3.6 Lime, Clay and Sand

It is an important constituent for building and construction work. It is mainly prepared
from limestone, dolomite and other calcareous material which when heated in kilns to
around 9000C quicklime is formed after removal of CO2. It is an essential material for
construction of buildings based upon size. Coarse sand is useful for concrete however
fine sand is best suited for plastering the walls. The source of sand is mainly rivers. It is
used in making bricks and cement. It occurs extensively in the country except in the
rocky terrain.
In the previous sections we have studied about the industrial minerals and building
materials. Before going to the next section spend 5 minutes to check how you are
progressing.
SAQ 1
a) List the chief minerals of mica group.
b) Name three mica belts in India.
c) List four building materials.
d) Give five categories of gypsum.
e) Give three uses of limestone.
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14.4 USAGE OF MINERALS IN INDUSTRIES

Now we will learn about minerals used in different industries in following sections.
Minerals are used in industries like refractory, fertiliser, ceramic and glass, chemical
and pigments, abrasive and gemstone.
14.4.1 Refractory Industry

Refractory mineral is a heat-resistant material or in other words minerals which can
withstand high temperature and are resistant to decomposition by heat, pressure, or
chemical attack. Refractory minerals can sustain high temperature for example 15000C
and above and can be moulded into bricks. They are used for various purposes, the
most important use being in the linings of furnaces for smelting and refining metals.
They are also used for lining incinerators, kilns in ceramic industry and in glass and
cement manufacture, for coke. They are used in gas or electric plants. They also find
use in spark plugs for automobiles. In India in recent years the use and geology of
refractories has acquired special significance with the tremendous growth in
metallurgical plants. Refractory minerals include fireclay, graphite, dolomite, magnesite,
chromite, bauxite, sillimanite, kyanite group of minerals, quartzite and quartz-schist,
diaspore and zircon etc.
Let us discuss few minerals considered as refractory mineral.
Asbestos is amphibole of fibrous nature, consisting of long, fine flexible, soft and silky
fibers. These fibres can be spun readily into threads and woven into cloth. The utility of
asbestos relies upon its property of being spun into yarn and its resistance to heat due
to its fibrous tendency. Asbestos is an excellent non-conductor of heat and electricity.
Asbestos is utilised in break-lining and clutch facings, gaskets, boilers covering,
manufacture of cement, sheets, boards, paper, pipe, roofing tiles, fire proof paints,
insulation.
Fire Clay is high-alumina clays with some non-plastic refractory flint and moderately
refractory plastic clays. It can withstand temperature rise of 2714oF to 2984oF. Fireclays
occur mainly as underlying the coal seams. Fireclay deposits are found in Jharia and
Raniganj coal fields of Jharkhand and West Bengal, Korba coalfields of Madhya
Pradesh and Neyveli lignite field of Tamil Nadu. Fire clay is chiefly consumed in
refractory industry. Several kinds of fireclay bricks are manufactured by admixing with
calcined bauxite or kyanite in suitable proportion to meet the different insulation
requirements. Bricks are used in iron and steel, ferro alloys, cement, foundries and
glass.
Graphite is allotropic form of pure carbon, chemically similar to diamond and wood
charcoal. The word ‘graphein’ means write. It occurs in three forms, such as: 1) flakes,
2) dusts, and 3) lumps. It is mainly found in metamorphic rocks like gneisses, schist,
marble, quartzite and altered coal beds. It occurs in igneous rocks, veins and
pegmatites. The graphite deposits occur in Jharkhand and Odisha. It has a metallic
lustre and feels cold like metal, when handled. Owing to its being a good conductor of
heat. Graphite occurs in two forms: Natural graphite which includes (a) crystalline and
(b) amorphous varieties, and artificial/manufactured graphite. The inherent qualities of
graphite, for which it is so much in demand in the manufacturing industries, are its high
lubricity, refractoriness or ability to withstand high temperature, good electrical and heat
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conductivity, and resistance to reaction with ordinary chemical reagents. Thus, flaky
graphite is used in the manufacture of crucibles for melting metals. It is also used in the
manufacture of lead pencil, batteries, lubricants and brushes. It is also used in atomic
reactors. The commercial graphite is graded mainly on its carbon content.
Dolomite is known for its double carbonate of calcium and magnesium (CaCO3=
54.35% and MgCO3= 45.65 %). When magnesium of dolomite is replaced by iron or
manganese and with lesser proportion of magnesium carbonate, it is known as
dolomitic limestone. Dolomites are not known to form through epigenetic replacement of
limestone. The process of dolomitisation is related to joints and fissures through which
the solutions penetrated and thick beds of limestone may be changed to dolomite.
Dolomite is widespread in all parts of the country. The deposits are found in Anantpur
District of Andhra Pradesh; Palamau District of Jharkhand; Mahendragarh District of
Haryana. All grades dolomite are found in Balaghat, Bastar, Bilaspur, Chindwara
Districts of Madhya Pradesh; Chandrapur, Nagpur and Yeotmal Districts of
Maharashtra; Koraput, Keonjhar, Sambalpur and Sundargarh Districts of Odisha; Ajmer,
Bhilwara, Alwar Districts of Rajasthan. Dolomite finds its use in multiple fields such as a
flux, as refractory material of iron and steel industry. It is also utilised in building
materials, glass, ferro alloys, alloy steel, chemicals and soft abrasives.
14.4.2 Fertiliser Industry

Fertiliser minerals plays vital role to enhance food production. Three principal elements
are necessary for plant growth and high crop yield. These are nitrogen, phosphorous
and potassium. Natural nitrates have been widely replaced by nitrogenous fertilisers
made from atmospheric nitrogen. Phosphatic fertilisers, earlier produced from bones of
dead animals, are now processed from phosphate rocks using sulfuric acid to produce
soluble superphosphate. Potassium fertilisers are at places extracted from evaporate
deposits. The natural phosphates of importance are apatite which also a phosphate of
calcium with minor content of chlorine and fluorine and rock phosphates like
phosphorites, phosphatic limestone, guano, basic slag etc. The phosphatic rocks occur
in varied form and may be fragmental, pelletal, nodular, oolitic, pisolitic, lenticular, platy,
granular and massive in form. They may occur as marine sedimentary beds, phosphatic
marls and limestone beds reworked pebbles, residual concentration of phosphatic
materials and apatite deposits. Apart from their use in fertiliser industry the phosphates
are also used in manufacture of elemental phosphorous, chemicals, glass, sugar and
iron and steel industries. Phosphates also find its utilisation in the manufacture of safety
matches, medicines, soft drinks, baking powder, photography, cement and ceramics.
Calcium is also an important element required for plant life. It may be supplied by lime,
limestone, marl, oyster shells, or gypsum. Calcium being soluble in surface water it is
leached out and the soil becomes deficient in lime and becomes acidic. Soil is
neutralised by adding lie to it. Besides correcting the soil acidity, the lime granulates
heavy clay soil, provides plant food, promotes digestion of other fertilisers and
counteracts some soil poisons. Calcareous rocks occur in all the principal geological
formations of India, right from the Precambrian to Recent.
Potassium is essential for plants. Potassium minerals of economic importance other
than silicates occur as chlorides, sulphates and nitrates. The mineral glauconite is a
hydrous silicate of iron and potassium and forms a potential source of potash. Potash
salts are used in fertiliser industry. Other minerals used as fertilisers, include gypsum,
sulphur and borax.
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14.4.3 Ceramic and Glass Industry
Clay is the vital raw material to be used in ceramic industry. Feldspar is used both in the
body and glaze for chinaware. The constituent mineral which is less than 0.002 mm or
so and they can be identified only by the help of electron microscope, X-ray and thermal
analyses curves. Examples of clay minerals are kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite and
smectite. Clay is an aggregate of minerals and colloidal substances which become
plastic when wet and harden when subjected to high temperatures. Plasticity,
shrinkage, fusibility are important physical properties of clay upon which its various uses
are dependent. Clay has diverse uses, e.g. ceramics, cement, refractory, paper and
textile, rubber, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, insecticide, electrical and building industry.
Amongst the minerals of feldspar group, alkali feldspar is mainly utilised in the
manufacture of ceramics, glass, pottery, vitrified enamels, porclain and glasswares.
Wollastonite (CaO.SiO2) is an important ceramic mineral because of its low thermal
expansion, it finds major use in ceramic industry.
Quartz and silica-sand are chief glass manufacturing materials. They are mixed with
sodium carbonate or sodium sulphate in a prescribed proportion for easy manufacture
of glass. Calcium in the form of lime or limestone is added to give strength to glass.
Addition of borax provides transparency to glass whereas manganese dioxide, nickel
oxide, cobalt and chromium are meant for providing different colours to glass. Coal is
utilised for fire purpose. Quartz and silica sand are used in glass, foundry, ferro-silicon
alloy and cement industries besides being used in many other industries like ceramic,
fertiliser, alloy steel, abrasive, chemical, coal washery, paint, rubber, textile etc.
14.4.4 Chemical and Pigment Industry
A number of minerals are used as chemical in a raw state or in the form of ingredients
just like rock salt which compositionally is rock salt, borax, fluorspar etc. Rock salt
(NaCl) is the solid salt deposit, consisting mainly of sodium chloride with minor amounts
of calcium sulphate, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride. It is most important raw
material used in chemical industry in manufacture of minerals like caustic soda, soda
ash, chloride, hydrochloric acid and sodium metal. Rock salt is used in manufacturing
dye, emulsions, tanning, food and wood preservative, cement, glass making, water
purification, cotton and paper bleaching, refrigeration and medicines. Rock salt is also
employed in metallurgical industries for treating, smelting and refining of ores and
metals, in ceramics for glazes and in agriculture for cattle food, fertiliser and hay
preservation.
Borax is a hydrated sodium borate and is important chemical mineral. It is used as
good cleaner. It is an important component used in the manufacturing of baking powder,
food preservatives, ceramic and glass manufacturing, abrasive, refractory, paint,
rubber, sugar, pharmaceuticals cosmetics, paper and textile. Fluorite or Flurospar is
compositionally CaF2. It is vital chemical mineral because of its fluorite content
Aluminum fluoride and cryolite are the most important compounds generated from
fluorite. This mineral also holds important position because of its vast use in
metallurgical industries. Fluorite s used in fluxing agent in iron and steel, ferro alloys
industries. It is also used in foundry, electrode, glass industry and ceramics.
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Natural mineral pigments consist mainly of limonite or hematite with or without mixture
of clay and manganese oxide. Ochre is a mixture of hematite, limonite and clay with 15-
20% iron oxide and provide yellowish and brown colours. Ochre is found in various
colours like yellow, red, brown and white. It is natural pigment mineral. Pigments can be
extracted by direct treatment an roasting of minerals. Umber is brown ochre with
proportions of manganese and limonite.
14.4.5 Abrasive Industry
Abrasive minerals are used in cutting, crushing, abrading and polishing. They are of two
types, natural or mineral and artificial abrasives. The capability of the material to cut,
crush, grind, scour and polish is dependent upon its hardness. This is the essential
property of an abrasive. The industrial diamonds namely carbonado, a black, hard
diamond which is used in diamond drill bits and tools It is used in boring metals and
abrasive wheels etc whereas bort which is opaque or slightly translucent crystal
fragment is used in the manufacture of aeroplane and motor car engines for boring and
abrasion of surfaces. Corundum is aluminium mineral having composition Al2O3 and is
hardest mineral next to diamond. The corundum is used in abrasive. Garnet is used as
abrasive mineral. The almandine (Fe-Al garnet), of garnet group is mainly used as an
abrasive due its hardness, toughness. It is used as loose grains and finely ground
powder for glass and optical lens grinding and surfacing ornamental stones and in
paper cloth for rubbing hardwood, automobile bodies, copper and brass, removing
paints and varnishes, finishing hard rubber, leather, felt and silk hats.
In the previous sections we have studied about the minerals used in refractory,
abrasive, ceramic and glass manufacturing and fertiliser industries. Before going to the
next section spend 5 minutes to check how you are progressing.
SAQ 2
a) What are refractory minerals?
b) What are the uses of graphite?
c) List three minerals used in fertiliser industry.
d) List four clay minerals.
e) What is abrasive mineral?
14.4.6 Gemstone Industry
Beauty, rarity and durability are main virtues of a gemstone. They must possess certain
properties such as hardness to resist mechanical and chemical actions. The term ‘gem’
is attributed to cut stones whereas the uncut stones are termed as ‘gemstones’. The
characteristic properties of gems are shine, opalescence, iridescence and dichroism
and based upon these gemstones are grouped into:
• precious stones such as diamond, emerald, sapphire, ruby, opal and pearl
• semi-precious stones which include aquamarine, moon stone and amethyst
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Gemstones mainly occur in igneous rocks, granitic pegmatites and as detrital grains in
alluvial sediments. They occur as veins, in cavities, in volcanic pipes and in variety of
ways. Sapphire and pyrope occur in some of the diamondiferous kimberlites. Usually
potash rich or soda lithium rich pegmatites are the host rocks of many beautiful
gemstones, such as, topaz, sapphire, ruby and zircon. Gems are also found in basic
and andesitic lava flows, and granite intrusives. Although metamorphic rocks are
generally barren of gemstones, some contact metamorphic limestones may contain
lapis lazuli and ruby. Opal is deposited from magmatic fluids while amethyst develops in
vein deposits. Turquoise is a gemstone of supergene origin. Almost all gem stones are
found in stream gravels, due to their highly resistant and chemically inert character
Gemstones have very significant role in jewellery, however, semi-precious stones apart
from jewellery are used as ornamental stones for wall decoration, floors of building,
vases etc.
Let us discuss about daimond.
Diamond was found in 800 BC and is the hardest substance known. When properly
faceted, light falling on the stone undergoes total internal reflection giving it the dazzling
brilliance. Major part of diamond recovered from the rocks is of the industrial variety,
known as bort and carbonado etc. based on their physical attributes. Only a minor part
of diamond produced is of the gemstone variety. Primary sources of diamonds are
kimberlite pipes and vents, and lamproite, or peridotite dykes. Secondary source is in
conglomerate beds, alluvial gravels and sand. The kimberlites are dense, and dark
coloured ultrabasic rocks, rich in magnesium, containing olivine, enstatite-bronzite,
chrome diopside phlogopite, and pyrope garnet with minor amount of ilmenite and
perovskite. However the placer type diamond deposits are mainly derived from the
destruction and reworking of primary diamond bearing rocks by various surface
processes. Depending upon the mode of their formation these have been classified into
alluvial, sea beach, aeolian type of origin. Diamond deposits may be classified into
three types based upon their geological settings such as kimberlite, conglomerate and
alluvial gravels. Diamond bearing localities are Wajrakarur pipes, Andhra Pradesh and
Panna belt, Madhya Pradesh.
Watch the following video to more about magmatic processes responsible for formation
of diamond.
• Late magmatic deposits

14.5 SUMMARY
In this unit we had discussed about the non-metal minerals used as industrial mineral
and building material. We also learnt about non-metallic minerals utilised in refractory,
abrasive, fertiliser, chemical and paint, ceramic and glass manufacturing industries. Let
us summarise what we have learnt:
• Industrial minerals and rocks are utilised because of their important physical and
chemical properties either as raw materials or after processing. These properties
remain essentially unchanged in the end use after processing
• Chief minerals of mica are muscovite, biotite, lepidolite, phlogopite. Mica forms from
late magmatic solutions in the pegmatites.
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• Gypsum is required for cement and fertiliser industry. Magnesite is used as soft
abrasive and refractory mineral.
• Granite, marble, limestone, sandstone and quartzite are used as building materials.
• Refractory minerals include fireclay, graphite, dolomite, magnesite, chromite,

bauxite, sillimanite, kyanite group of minerals, quartzite and quartz-schist, diaspore
and zircon etc.
• Clay minerals, feldspars, quartz and silica sand are used in ceramic and glass
manufacturing industry.
• Rock salt is most important raw material used in chemical industry in manufacture of
minerals like caustic soda, soda ash, chloride, hydrochloric acid and sodium metal.
• Abrasive minerals are used in cutting, crushing, abrading and polishing and are of
two types, natural or mineral and artificial abrasives-for example garnet
• Gemstones can be grouped into precious stones (diamond, emerald, sapphire, ruby,
opal and pearl) and semi-precious stones (aquamarine, moon stone and amethyst).
14.6 ACTIVITY
Make a list of non-metallic mineral deposits occurring in the state of your residence.

1. Discuss the mode of occurrence, distribution and uses of gypsum.
2. Describe the distribution and uses of limestone and marble.

3. Give an account of refractory minerals.
4. Discuss about minerals used in fertiliser industry.
5. Write about minerals used in ceramic and glass manufacturing industries.

• List the non-metallic ore deposits formed due to contact
metasomatism.
• Mention about the processes responsible for formation of limestone

and sandstone.
• Which magmatic concentration process forms the diamond deposit?
14.8 REFERENCES
India Publishing Agency, New Delhi. 655p
• Bates, R.L. (1994) Overview of the Industrial Minerals. In Carr, D.D. (ed): Industrial
Minerals and rocks 6th edition, SMME Littleton Co.:3-5.
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• Deb, S. (1980) Industrial minerals and rocks of India. Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, 603p.
• Deb, M and Kaur, G. (2004) Earth Processes and Resources. Metallogeny, NSDL,
New Delhi, 50 p.
• Harben, P.W. and Bates, R.L. (1990): Industrial Minerals: Geology and World
Deposits. Metal Bulletin Plc, London, 312 pp.
• Indian Minerals Yearbook (2016) (Part- III: Mineral Reviews) 53rd Edition, Gypsum
(Advance Release) Government of India, Ministry of Mines, Indian Bureau of Mines,
Nagpur, 14 p.
• Indian Minerals Yearbook (2016) (Part- III: Mineral Reviews) 55th Edition,
Manganese Ore (Advance Release) Government of India, Ministry of Mines, Indian
Bureau of Mines, Nagpur, 25 p.
• James, H.L. (1966) Chemistry of iron-rich sedimentary rocks. U.S.G.S Prof. Paper
440W, 60p.
• Krishnan, M.S. (1935) Lateritisation of Khondalites. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, v.68,
Pt.4, p.392-399.
• Radhakrishna, B.P. and Curtis, L.C. (1999) Gold in India. Geol. Society of India,
p.307.
• Radhakrishna, B.P., Devaraju, T.C., Mahabaleswar, B. (1986) Banded Iron-

Formation in India. Jour. Geol. Soc, India, v.28, p.71-91.
• Roy, S. (1981) Manganese deposits. Academic Press, London. 458p.

• Scott, P.W. (2009) The geological setting for industrial mineral resources. In:
Christidis G.E. (ed): Advances in the characterization of industrial minerals. EMU
Short Notes 9p.
• www.gsi.gov.in
• www.usgs.gov
14.9 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

• Deb, M and Kaur, G. (2004) Earth Processes and Resources. Metallogeny, NSDL,
New Delhi, 50 p.
• Dhana Raju, R. (2005) Introduction to Energy Resources. Atomic Minerals and
Fossil Fuels, Geological Survey of India.
• Jensen, M and Bateman, A.M. (1976) Economic Mineral Deposits. 3rd Edition, John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Pub., 604p.
• Prasad U. (2011) Economic Geology: Economic Mineral Deposits. 2nd Edition, CBS
Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
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• Shrivastava, J.P. and Rani, N. (2012) Introduction to Ore Microscopy. Prentice Hall
India Limited, Eastern Economy Edition, New Delhi.
Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 394p.
14.10 ANSWERS
1 a) Please refer the table 14.1.
b) Andhra Pradesh mica belt, Bihar mica belt and Rajasthan mica belt.
c) Granite, marble, limestone, quartzite
d) Rock gypsum, gypsite, alabaster, satin spar and selenite.
e) Cement industries, iron and steel, chemical and paper industries.
2 a) Refractory mineral is a heat-resistant material or in other words minerals which

can withstand high temperature and are resistant to decomposition by heat,
pressure, or chemical attack.
b) Graphite is used in lead pencils, batteries, lubricants and electrical industries.
c) Phosphorites, limestone, glauconite.
d) Kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite and smectite.
e) Abrasive is the material possessing the capabilities to cut, crush, grind, scour
and polish the surface.
Terminal Questions
2. Please refer to subsection 14.3.3 and 14.3.2.
3. Please refer to subsection 14.4.
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UNIT 15
COAL AND PETROLEUM
Structure__________________________
tructure__________________________________
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15.1 Introduction 15.4 Activity
Expected Learning Outcomes 15.5 Summary
15.2 Coal 15.6 Terminal Questions
Constitution of Coal 15.7 References
Varieties and Rank of Coal 15.8 Further/Suggested Readings
Grade of Coal 15.9 Answers
Origin of Coal
Indian Occurrences
15.3 Petroleum
Chemical Composition
Origin of Petroleum
Mode of Occurrence
Formation of Oil Pool
Indian Occurrences
Uses
15.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units you have studied about concept of ore and ore deposits, gangue minerals,
processes of ore formation, important metallic minerals and industrial minerals and building
materials.
Coal and petroleum are fossil fuels which have been widely used as source of energy since the
time of industrial revolution. Although, there are many different types of fuels, among which the two
major types of fossil fuels are coal and petroleum. They were formed many hundreds of millions of
years ago. They are derived from the ancient organic remains and hence known as fossil fuels.
Coal meets a large part of our energy needs and plays a very important role in the mineral
industry. Petroleum is the key fuel of modern times and is of immense value in the development of
a country. In this unit, we will discuss about origin, occurrence and distribution of coal and
petroleum in India.
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Expected Learning Outcomes______________________

Outcomes___________________________
___________________________
After reading this unit you should be able to:
define coal and petroleum;
describe the varieties, origin, and ranks of coal;
discuss origin, formation and mode of occurrence of petroleum; and
recognise Indian occurrences of coal and petroleum.
15.2 COAL
Coal is one of the principal fossil fuels and is a primary source of energy and power.
The term coal is generally applied to a sedimentary formation of highly carbonaceous
in nature and is formed by the accumulation of previously existing plant material. Coal
cannot be defined as a mineral because it is not homogenous and is not of inorganic
origin. It is considered as rock as it is a solid substance forming one of the units of the
Earth’s crust. Coal may be defined as plant debris that has experienced significant
changes in the physical properties and chemical composition due to various
biochemical and geological processes.
Some coal varieties are very rich in volatile matter. Such high volatile coal on heating
in ambient air is converted into coke. Coke is a compact form of impure carbon
obtained by heating in total absence of air. Coke is mainly used for smelting metals,
boiler installations, etc. It is used in the manufacture of steel and in the extraction of
many metals. The quality of coal depends on its carbon and ash content, coking
properties, gas yield, crushing strength, size of particles, etc. Coal is used as a source
of heat in a variety of ways. Throughout human history, coal has been used as an
energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat. It is one of
the most essential raw materials in the extraction of metals. It is also used for industrial
purposes, such as refining metals. Thermal power stations depend upon coal. Coal is
the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide. Now, let us
discuss about constitution of coal, varieties and rank, grade, origin of coal and some
Indian occurrences.
15.2.1 Constitution of Coal

Coal is not homogenous substance; it is composed of a number of bands.
A) Macroscopic Unit of Coal
The coal bands are classified into four types, namely, vitrain, clarain, durain, and
fusain. These components of coal can be studied in naked eye.
• Vitrain is the brightest portion or band of a coal and usually it occurs as a thin
band. It is jet black in colour with a brilliant lustre and breaks with a conchoidal
fracture.
• Clarain is less bright than vitrain and it occurs in bands of variable thickness. It has
bright colour and silky lustre and does not show conchoidal fracture.
• Durain is the typically dull coal and occurs as thick bands. It is hard, grayish black
in colour and breaks with irregular surface. It shows lustureless rough irregular
fracture.
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• Fusain resembles charcoal, so it is also called as mineral of charcoal. Fusain is
black in colour, powdery in nature, occurs as patches and wedges and shows
fibrous structure. It is more friable than clarain. Fusain is distinguished by its woody
fibrous tissues when seen under microscope.
B) Microscopic Unit of Coal:
The coal constituents may be distinguished into number of units under the
microscope, which are called macerals. In the same way as inorganic rocks are
composed of minerals. For example granite rock is made up of feldspar, quartz and
mica, where as coal consist of macerals. But, a mineral is identified by a well-
defined chemical composition and its form and habit which are mostly crystalline.
Whereas, maceral of coal varies widely in its chemical composition and physical
properties and is not crystalline. All macerals are classified into three main groups:
vitrinite, exinite (or loptinite) and inertinite
• Vitrinite: This is the most frequent and, important maceral group, occurring in
bituminous coals. Vitrinites are the remains of humic plant substances, primarily
lignin and cellulose. A polished coal sample exhibits a more or less clear structure
of the woody tissues. The colour and reflectance of vitrinite changes progressively
with rank.
• Exinite (or Liptinite): They are distinguished from the vitrinite by higher hydrogen
content. Exinite are the remains of hydrogen-rich plant materials such as cutins,
resins, fats, waxes, and sporopollenin (the outer cell walls of spores and pollen).
Macerals of this group have brown red distinctive morphology and colour varies a
lot. It may be golden yellow, red, orange and even of the same colour as the
associated vitinite.
• Inertinite: In most cases consist of the same original plant material as vitrinite, but
have been oxidised prior to coalification i.e. supposed to be inert during
carbonization reaction. Inertinites can also include fungal bodies. Characteristic
optical property of inertinite macerals is their high reflectance.
C) Chemical Composition of Coal
Chemically, coal is composed of various proportions of carbon, oxygen and
hydrogen with small amounts of nitrogen and sulphur. Carbon is the major
component (Table 15.1) of coal. Besides these, coals may contain varying
proportion of mineral matter. Chemical composition of coal is determined by
proximate and ultimate or elemental analysis. By proximate analysis, the moisture,
volatile matter content, ash content (non-combustible mineral matter that remains
after burning), fixed carbon and calorific value can be determined. Ultimate or
elemental analysis includes the quantitative determination of carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen within the coal.
Table 15.1: Carbon content in coal.
Coal Types Carbon percentage (%)

Peat <40
Lignite 40-55
Bituminous 40-80
Anthracite 80-95
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15.2.2 Varieties and Ranks of Coal
According to the nature of the original plant material from which coal have been
formed, it may be divided into two types- Humic coals (woody coals) or humulites and
sapropelic coals (non-woody coals) or sapropelites. The humic coals are mainly
formed by the wood and bark of land and swampy plants. The sapropelic coals are
derived from non-woody matter like leaves, spores, cuticles etc. of plants as well as
from organic oozes, algae, fungi and other minute floating planktons.
The process of the transformation of the plant material into coal may be complete or
may be arrested at any one stage, thus giving rise to coals of varying maturity. This is
termed as rank of coal. The transformation of vegetable matter into coal is brought
about in two stages:
(i) Peat-forming (or biochemical) stage: This process is called humification process.
(ii) Geochemical stage: It is the conversion of peat into higher ranks of coal. This
process is called coalification process.
The percentage of carbon, hydrogen, volatiles and moisture contents determine the
rank of coal. Based on the rank of the coal, that defines degree of transformation of
wood into coal through the natural processes of deposition, compaction and
biochemical changes.
Coal is divided into four major classes in order of progressive maturity:
• Peat
• Lignite
• Bituminous, and
• Anthracite (Fig. 15.1)
The rank of coal from Peat to Anthracite shows a gradual increase of carbon content
and decrease in volatiles, oxygen, hydrogen and water.
(i) Peat: It is the first stage in the formation of all coal types. It is an accumulation of
partly decomposed and distinguished organic materials derived mainly from woody
parts of plants. Its colour varies from light brown to dark brown. It varies in
consistency from a fibrous, matted, porous, turf-like material to a soft, plastic mud
type coal (Fig. 15.1a).
Distribution: The important sources of peat in the country are in the Nilgiri hills of
Tamil Nadu and the Sundarbans of West Bengal.
Uses: Peat is a low value fuel in its application. It finds uses where available in
abundance as domestic fuel, gas purifier, for steam raising, in thermal power
stations and also as a soil treatment material.
(ii) Lignite: It is the next stage in the formation of coal from peat. It is an immature
coal. It is sometimes called ‘brown coal’ because of its characteristic brown colour.
It is compact and earthy in texture and contains impressions and remains of woody
matter and leaves (Fig. 15.1b).
Distribution: In India lignite occurs in Neyveli area, South Arcot District, Tamil
Nadu and at a number of places in Pondicherry, Palana area in Rajasthan, Kutch in
Gujarat and Jammu and Kashmir, etc.
Uses: Lignite is used as domestic fuel and also in industry for distillation and
gasification. This variety of coal has also been used in steam locomotives and for
producing gas.
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(iii) Bituminous: It is also known as common coal and is the important variety of
commercial coals. Bituminous coals are brittle, dense, dark in colour, well jointed
and often show well-defined bands of bright and dull materials (Fig. 15.1c). They
are compact in structure and usually break into prismatic and cubical blocks when
struck with hammer. This coal does not disintegrate when exposed to air. They
burn with a yellow smoky flame. On the basis of its carbon content, common
bituminous coals are of three types:
• sub-bituminous,
• bituminous
• semi-bituminous.
Distribution: In India, bituminous coals are found in Lower Gondwana, Raniganj
and Jharia Coalfields.
Uses: Usually they are used in the manufacture of metallurgical coke. Bituminous
coals are used as fuel in stream raising, heating and producing gas besides in
making of coke.
(iv) Anthracite: It is a coal of highest rank in which organic source has been
completely transformed into carbonaceous substance. It is very hard and jet black
in colour and compact in structure (Fig. 15.1d). Anthracite is very rare in India.
Graphite is a crystalline form of the element carbon with its atoms arranged in
hexagonal structure under high pressures and temperatures it converts to diamond
(Fig. 15.2).
Distribution: Semi anthracite is developed in some parts of the Jammu and
Kashmir and along the Northern and Eastern Himalayan region.
Uses: Anthracite is a favourite domestic fuel in regions wherever it is available. It is
also used for steam rising and other heating purposes. However, it is not suitable
for making coke due to its low volatile matter content.
Fig.15.1: a) Peat (Source: https://www.pmfias.com/coal-formation); b) Lignite; c) Bituminous;

and d) Anthracite coal.
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Fig.15.2: Graphite.
15.2.3 Grade of coal

The grade is the measure of quality of coal, and is expressed as its heating value. The
heating value depends on the ratio of carbon to the other non-combustible matters
present in the coal. Thus, the more the amount of carbon in coal the better is the
grade. Grade of the coal is calculated in an ascending order of carbon content i.e.
Lignite Sub-bituminous coal Bituminous coal Anthracite
The grade of non-coking coal is based on Useful Heat Value (UHV).The grade of the
coking coal is based on ash content. Semi coking / weakly coking coal is based on ash
plus moisture content. Based on the ash percentage, the coking coal can be divided
into various grades. Useful Heat Value (UHV) is the amount of heat released during
the combustion of a specified amount of it. These grades are (Table 15.2):
Table 15.2: Grades of Coking Coal. (Source: http://coal.nic.in/content/coal-grades)
Grade Ash Content

Steel Grade- I Not exceeding 15%
Steel Grade- II Exceeding 15% but not exceeding 18%
Washery Grade- I Exceeding 18% but not exceeding 21%
Washery Grade- II Exceeding 21% but not exceeding 24%
Washery Grade- III Exceeding 24% but not exceeding 28%
Washery Grade- IV Exceeding 28% but not exceeding 35%
15.2.4 Origin of Coal

Coal originated as a result of long burial of vegetable matter formed by decay of plant
material under a thick cover of sediments. Coal deposits have been formed both in
fresh water and in brackish water. There exist different views regarding the mode of
accumulation of plant material which ultimately gave rise to coal seams. According to
one view, the coal forming materials was deposited and transformed where it grew, this
theory is known as the insitu theory. Another view is that the plant material has been
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transported and deposited in suitable places to form coal, this theory is known as the
drift theory. Millions of years ago coals formed when the earth was covered with huge
swampy forests where plants grew. Over time as the plants grew, some of them died
and fell into the swamp waters. New plants grew up to take their place and then these
died and the process continued. Over a period of time, there formed thick layers of
dead plants decaying in the swamp. The surface and climate of the earth changed and
water and dirt washed in, stopping the decaying process. After millions of years many
plant layers had formed, one above other. The weight of the top layers and the water
and dirt packed down the lower layers of plant matter. Under heat and pressure these
plants produced chemical and physical changes in the plant layers which forced out
oxygen and rich carbon deposits are left. Over a period of time, thus the material once
had been plants became coal (Fig.15.3).
Watch the following video to know more about sedimentary ore deposits wherein coal
has been discussed.
Fig. 15.3: Schematic diagram showing formation of coal.
All the available evidences stated that the major coalfields of the world have originated
either in swamps or in brackish or fresh water basins, starting with abundant plant
material, which might have grown in-situ in swamps or have drifted into these basins.
This transport or drift might have been caused by any one or more of the natural
agents- running water and ice, wind etc.
Coal occurs as a sedimentary rock in association with the sandstone, carbonaceous
shale and occasionally fire clay in a regular succession and with repetitions. Igneous
intrusions in the forms of dykes and sills are present in coal seams. The thickness of
the coal seams varies from a fraction of inch to >100 feet.
15.2.5 Indian Occurrences

India is one of the five major producers of coal in the world. It is endowed with huge
reserves of common or bituminous coal, chiefly of non-coking types. Major coalfields of
country are situated in Damodar, Mahanadi, Godavari and Son-Narmada valleys. On
the basis of their occurrence relative to geological age, coal deposits of India are
classified into two groups: Gondwana Coals (Fig. 15.4) and Tertiary Coals (Fig. 15.6).
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(i) Gondwana Coals: About 98 percent of coal annually produced in India comes
from formations of the Lower Gondwana sequence (200 million years old) of the
Permian age. The Lower Gondwana coals are mainly of bituminous type. The
major coalfields occur in Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Maharashtra and
Madhya Pradesh. These are:
• Jharia Coalfield of Jharkhand: The coalfield is located in Dhanbad District of
Jharkhand and is regarded as the most important coalfields of India. They supply
about 50 percent of the total Indian production of coking coal. Coals are low in
moisture, sulphur and phosphorus, low volatile content and high fixed carbon and
high calorific value.
• Bokaro Coafield of Jharkhand: The coalfield spreads about 65 km from east to
west and 10 to 16 km from north to south of Bokaro District of Jharkhand. They
contain some of the thickest coal seams. Coals are of bituminous, coking coal type.
• Raniganj Coalfields of West Bengal and Jharkhand: One of the largest
coalfields of the country. Most of the coalfields are in the Raniganj area in Burdwan
district in West Bengal. They extend to adjoining areas of Jharkhand. It is situated
about 185km NW of Kolkata. These coalfields are spread over an area of
1550sq.km. Coals are of bituminous, high moisture and high volatile content.
Raniganj Coalfield is the major producer of superior quality non-coking coal.
Fig. 15.4: Map showing major Gondwana Coalfields of India. (Prepared by Rohit Kumar)
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• Singrauli Coalfield: It is one of the most important coalfields of Madhya Pradesh.
This coalfield lies partly in Madhya Pradesh and partly in Chhattisgarh mostly in the
basin of the Son River. It is spread over an area of 2002 sq. km., containing five
coal seams. The products of these seams vary from non-coking high grade coals to
moisture rich inferior grade coals. They are generally high moisture and high ash
coals.
• Talcher Coalfield of Odisha: This is the most important coalfield of Odisha and is
located in Angul District of Odisha. It is spread over an area of more than 500
sq.km (Fig. 15.5). Talcher Coalfield is subdivided into five productive areas. The
quality of coal is low-grade non-coking.
• Rajmahal Coalfield: The coalfield is located in Jharkhand. It is situated along the
western side of the Rajmahal Hills in the north to Birbhum District of West Bengal in the
south.
• Wardha Valley Coalfield is located in Wardha Valley of Maharashtra.
Fig. 15.5: Open cast mining at Lakhanpur coal field of Jharsuguda, Odisha. (Photo credit:
Premasil Patra)
(ii) Tertiary Coals: These coals are found in the states of Assam, Meghalaya,
Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Rajasthan,
Kerala and Jammu and Kashmir (Fig.15.6).Tamil Nadu and the Union Territory of
Pondicherry also have Tertiary coal reserves. Tertiary coals generally have low
carbon and high percentage of moisture and sulphur.
Tertiary coals of Assam are spread in Makum, Nazira, Mikir Hills, Dilli-Jeypore and
Lakhuni. Assam coal contains very low ash and sulphur content is high with high
coking qualities. As a result of which these coal is not suitable for metallurgical
purposes. Makum coalfield in Tinsukia district is the most developed field (Fig.
15.7). In Meghalaya, coal deposits occupy in the areas of Khasi Jaintia and Mikir
hills. Tertiary coal of Jammu and Kashmir are spread in Kalakot and surrounding
regions in Jammu, and south of Pir Panjal. In Himachal Pradesh, coal are found in
Chamba district.
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Fig. 15.6: Map showing major Tertiary Coalfields of India. (Prepared by Rohit Kumar)
Fig. 15.7: Tirap Open Cast Mine, Margherita, Assam.
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SAQ 1
a) High volatile coal on heating in ambient air is converted to _______.
b) Chemical composition of coal is determined in terms of_______ and ______
analyses.
c) Three groups of macerals are __________, __________ and _________.
d) The process of conversion of peat into higher ranks is called __________.
e) The ___________ is the measure of quality of coal, and is expressed as its heating
value.
f) Coal deposits of India are classified into two groups as___________ and
____________ coal.
15.3 PETROLEUM
We have read about constitution of coal, varieties, rank, grade and origin of coal in
previous section. Now, we will discuss about origin, mode of occurrence of petroleum
and it uses and formation of oil pool. Petroleum popularly known as liquid gold, also
called rock oil. It is a natural fuel or a mineral fuel. The word petroleum is derived from
the Latin word petra means rock or stone, and oleum means oil. Petroleum occurs
widely in the Earth as gas, liquid, semisolid, or solid, or in more than one of these
states at a single place. It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and some other
compounds that occur in a liquid form, entrapped within the rocks of the surface of the
earth. It is the most important source of energy today and is used mostly for producing
fuel and gasoline. Due to its high energy density, easy transportability and relative
abundance, it has become the world’s most important source of energy since the mid
1950s E.L. Drake drilled the first well for oil in Pennsylvania in 1859.
15.3.1 Chemical Composition

Chemically petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbon (i.e hydrogen and carbon)
compounds, with minor amount of nitrogen, oxygen, and sulphur as impurities. Liquid
petroleum is called crude oil. It consists chiefly of the liquid hydrocarbons, with variable
amount of dissolved gases, bitumen, and impurities. Bitumen are black viscous mixture
of hydrocarbons, obtained naturally or as a residue from petroleum distillation. In some
cases, traces of metallic elements like vanadium and nickel are also found in crude oil.
Crude oil (Fig. 15.8) is brownish black in colour with a greenish tinge. It is immiscible
with water and floats on it. But it is soluble in naphtha, carbon disulphide, ether, and
benzene. It has a characteristic odour typically petrol-like smell or rotten egg odour.
Petroleum gas is commonly called natural gas. It is often associated with the petroleum
deposits. Petroleum gas consists of lighter paraffin hydrocarbons, of which the most
abundant is the methane gas (CH4). The solid and semi-solid forms of petroleum
consist of heavy hydrocarbons and bitumen. Depending upon their individual
characteristics, they are called asphalt, tar, pitch, albertite, gilsonite, or grahamite.
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Fig. 15.8: Crude oil sample.
15.3.2 Origin of Petroleum

Petroleum and natural gas originate from organic material buried in marine muds. It
involves the reaction of carbides within the Earth to form acetylene and subsequently
produce natural hydrocarbons. Organic material buried in marine sediments underwent
chemical changes due to increased pressure and temperature generated by overlying
sediments to produce natural hydrocarbon. Such hydrocarbons subsequently moved
into porous sedimentary rocks known as reservoir rocks such as sandstone, coarse
sands, porous limestones, conglomerates, dolomites and other argillaceous rocks.
They accumulate to form oil pool. The source rock for petroleum are usually the fine-
grained muddy sediments or marl (a mixture of mud and carbonate clay). They are rich
in organic matter derived from alteration of algae, bacteria or plant debris for their
oxygen free decomposition or conversion into petroleum. Slow oxygen free
decomposition of remains of plants and animals of microscopic nature is considered to
be the original source of petroleum. Conversion of organic matter into petroleum
hydrocarbons is mainly due to bacteria which flourish in the upper mud of the sea floor.
15.3.3 Mode of Occurrence

Petroleum deposits are classified based on mode of occurrences. On this basis,
petroleum occurrences may be broadly divided into two main divisions:
(a) Surface
(b) Subsurface
Petroleum occurs at the surface of the ground in a variety of ways. Some surface
occurrences may be thought of as currently active, such as those that form seepages
(Fig. 15.9), exudations of bitumen, those associated with the springs, mud volcanoes
and mud flows. Petroleum, gas, or liquid asphalt that exudes in the form of springs and
seepages may reach the surface along fractures, fault planes, joints, unconformities, or
through any of the connected porous openings of the rocks. Some of the common
types of seepage are shown diagrammatically in the (Fig. 15.10).
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Fig. 15.9: Photograph of oil seepage, Namdang river, Assam.
Fig. 15.10: Sections showing the position of typical seepages inrelation to the underlying
structure. Seepages are marked X, and oil and gas pools are cross-hatched:a)
Seepages at the outcrop of the pool and at the outcrop of an unconformity;b)
Seepage is along the outcrop of a normal fault;c) Seepages overlie a faulted
anticline;d) Seepage is along the outcrop of a thrust fault; e) Seepages are
associated with diapir folding (an anticline in which a mobile core, has
ruptured the more brittle overlying rock; andf) Seepages overlie a salt plug
and are associated with the faults that occur above this intrusion.
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Subsurface or underground petroleum occurrences are broadly divided according to
their size as minor shows of oil and gas; and oil and gas pools, fields and provinces.
Some natural gas and crude oil are found in most wells drilled in sedimentary rocks.
Nearly every exploratory well finds some indication of gas or oil, even if it may be so
minor that the well is abandoned as a dry hole. These are called minor showings.
Exploratory well is a test hole drilled on land or in sea to ascertain the scope of
recoverable gas and/or oil in a probable, but, yet-unproved location. It is the drilling for
oil or gas in new areas, seeking to find new wells. Commercial petroleum deposits are
classified as pools, fields and provinces. The simplest unit of commercial occurrence is
the pool. When several pools are related to a single geologic feature, the group of
pools is termed as field. A petroleum province is a region in which a number of oil and
gas pools and fields occur in a similar or related geologic environment
15.3.4 Formation of Oil Pool

Oil pools are accumulation of oil in large quantities in porous sedimentary rocks. For
the formation of oil pool certain conditions are necessary. They are as follows:
• Migration and accumulation,
• Suitable reservoir rocks,
• Suitable traps and
• Retention.
As petroleum is lighter (less dense), it tends to occupy larger space than available.
This results in the development of great pressure (fluid potential) gradient which forces
petroleum to migrate out of the site of its origin. The forces help in migration of
petroleum due to compaction of muds, gravity, capillary action, currents and buoyancy.
The most important factors that control the accumulation of oil and formation of oil
reservoirs are lithology and structural features of the rocks. Accumulation takes place
in porous and permeable rocks. The most suitable reservoir rocks are loose,
unconsolidated sands and porous sandstones. Igneous, metamorphic and impervious
sedimentary rocks do not form good reservoir rocks.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig.15.11: Schematic illustration of different types of Traps of petroleum accumulation:
a) and b) Structural; and c) Stratigraphic.
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There are two types of traps (Fig.15.11a and b) which hold the oil accumulation from
getting away from the place of accumulation. They are:
i) structural traps
ii) stratigraphic traps and
The combination of these two types of traps may also occur.
Structural traps are the result of changes in the structure of the reservoir rock and are
formed chiefly as a result of folding and faulting. Some of the most important structural
traps are anticline, dome, monocline, faults, fissures and salt domes. Stratigraphic
traps are the result of a lateral variation in the lithology of the reservoir rock, or a break
in its continuity. Some of the important stratigraphic traps are, unconformities, buried
coral reefs, over laps etc.
15.3.5 Indian Occurrences
Like many other countries, India is oil deficient country and imports huge amount of oil
to meet its demand. In India basically 26 sedimentary basins have been found which
are petrolifeous in nature. Some of the important oil reserves are found in Assam,
Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. In Assam, oil is extracted from oil fields of Digboi,
Naharkatiya, Moran, Rudrasagar and Lakwa. Some of the well-known oil fields of
Western India are Ankleshwar oilfield in Gujarat, Mumbai High (Arabian Sea offshore)
in Maharashtra, the Cambay oilfield, the Kalol oilfield. There are some good potential
oilfields that are also found in Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, Nagaland, Andhra Pradesh
and West Bengal (Fig. 15.12). Some of the important oilfields are:
• Digboi Oilfield: The oilfield is situated in a part of the Naga Hills in the north-
eastern part of India. The oil field occupies 13sq km area of Tinsukia District and
occurs in an anticlinal trap.
• Cambay Oilfield: It is situated in Gujarat and in the Cambay-Kalol area north of
the Gulf of Cambay and lies about 8km north-west of Cambay city. The oil deposits
are found in the rocks of Oligocene age. The occurrence of oil is recorded in the
off-shore region in the Arabian Sea.
• Ankleshwar Oilfield: The oilfield is situated about 81km SSW of Baroda, South of
the Narmada river. The oil producing sands are of the Eocene age. The oilfield is
situated on an elongated doubly plunging anticline and dome.
Coastal Oilfield: The oil bearing marine sediments of the Cretaceous and Tertiary age
is the source of oil found along the East Coast of the Peninsular India which includes
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Orissa Coastal areas.
15.3.6 Uses
Petroleum is the key fuel of modern times and is of immense value in the development
of a country. Crude oil is refined and distilled in petroleum refineries to separate a
number of petroleum compounds such as petrol, diesel, kerosene, propane, butane
etc. Petroleum is used as a primary source of heat and energy, as a basic raw material
in the petro-chemical industries, automobiles and engine fuels, used to generate
electricity used in the manufacture of fertilisers, insecticides, explosives, perfumes,
chemicals, toilet products, synthetic rubber, resins, textiles, medicines etc. Crude oil is
condensed and fractionated to fluids, such as gasoline, kerosene, benzene etc.
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Fig.15.12: Distribution of major oilfields in India. (Prepared by Rohit Kumar)
SAQ 2
a) What is crude oil?
b) Name two types of petroleum traps.
c) Name productive off shore oil basins of India.
d) List some important structural traps.
15.4 ACTIVITY
• Plot the distribution of important coalfields and oilfields of India in map of India.
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15.5 SUMMARY
Let us sum up what we have studied in this unit.
• Coal is one of the principal fossil fuels and is a primary source of energy and
power. Chemically, it is composed of various proportions of carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen with small amounts of nitrogen, sulphur and carbon being the major
components.
• The coal bands are classified into four types, namely, vitrain, clarain, durain, and
fusain.
• The constituents of coal may be distinguished into number of units under the
microscope, which are called macerals and are classified in three groups: vitrinite,
exinite (or loptinite) and inertinite.
• Theories of origin of coal are the in-situ theory, i.e. the coal forming materials was
deposited and transformed where it grew, and the other is the drift theory i.e. the
plant material has been transported and deposited in suitable places to form coal.
• Based on the rank of the coal is divided into four major classes: Peat, Lignite,
Bituminous and Anthracite in order of progressive maturity.
• The grade is the measure of quality of coal, and is expressed as its heating value.
The more the amount of carbon in coal, better is the grade.
• Coal deposits of India are classified into two groups: Gondwana Coals and Tertiary
Coals.
• Coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of
electricity and heat. They are used in the manufacture of metallurgical coke as fuel
in stream raising, heating and producing gas besides in making of coke.
• Petroleum occurs widely in the Earth as gas, liquid, semisolid, or solid, or in more
than one of these states at a single place. It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons
and some other compounds that occur in a liquid form entrapped within the rocks of
the surface of the Earth.
• Petroleum and natural gas originates from organic materials buried in marine muds
which involve the reaction of carbides within the Earth to form acetylene and
subsequently produce natural hydrocarbons.
• Petroleum occurrences may be broadly divided into two main divisions i.e. surface
and subsurface occurrences. Migration and accumulation, suitable reservoir rocks,
suitable traps and retention are the conditions necessary for the formation of oil
pool.
• The two types of traps which hold the oil accumulation from getting away from the
place of accumulation are structural traps and stratigraphic traps.
• Some of the important oil reserves are found in Assam, Gujarat, Maharashtra and
Rajasthan.
• Petroleum is used as a primary source of heat and energy. As a basic raw material
in the petro-chemical industries, automobiles and engine fuels, used to generate
electricity, used in the manufacture of fertilisers, insecticides, explosives, perfumes,
chemicals, toilet products, synthetic rubber, resins, textiles, medicines etc.
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1. Discuss the macroscopic unit of coal?
2. Give a brief account of the geographical distribution of coal deposits of India.
3. Discuss briefly the origin of coal and petroleum.
4. Describe mode of occurrence of petroleum deposits in India.
5. Draw neat, labelled sketches to illustrate important types of oil traps.

• List the sedimentary ore deposits.
• What are hydrocarbon deposits?
• What is bituminous sedimentary process?
15.7 REFERENCES
• Levorsen, A.I. (1985) Geology of Petroleum, CBS Publishers and Distributors,
Shahdara, Delhi 110032, India, 3-51p.
• Prasad, U. (1996) Economic Geology, CBS Publishers and Distributors, Delhi
110032, India, 164-177p.
• http://coal.nic.in/content/coal-grades
• https://www.pmfias.com/coal-formation
• Thomas, L. (2012) Coal Geology, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd, 101-112p.
(websites accessed between 10th and 15th August 2019)
15.8 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

• Levorsen, A.I. (1985) Geology of Petroleum, CBS Publishers and Distributors,
Shahdara, Delhi 110032, India, 724p.
• Sharma, N.L. and Ram, K.S.V. (1966) Introduction to Geology of Coal and Indian
Coalfields.
15.9 ANSWERS

1 a) Coke.
b) Proximate and ultimate or elemental analyses.
c) Vitrinite, Exinite and Inertinite.
d) Coalification.
e) Grade.
f) Gondwana and Tertiary.
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2 a) Liquid petroleum is called crude oil and consists chiefly of the liquid
hydrocarbons, with variable amounts of dissolved gases, bitumens, and
impurities. Crude oil is brownish black in colour with a greenish tinge,
immiscible with water and floats on it, but is soluble in napththa, carbon
disulphide, ether, and benzene. It has a characteristic odour typically petrol-like
smell.
b) Structural and stratigraphic traps.
c) Bombay High.
d) Some of the most important structural traps are anticline, dome, monocline,
faults, fissures and salt domes.
Terminal Questions
1. The bands of the coal are vitrain, clarain, durain, and fusain. Vitrain is the brightest
portion or band of a coal. Usually, it occurs as a thin band. Clarain is less bright
than the vitrain. It occurs in bands of variable thickness. It is bright in colour and
shows silky lustre. It does not show conchoidal fractures. Durain is typically dull
coal and occurs as thick bands. It is hard, greyish black in colour and breaks with
irregular surface. Fusain resembles charcoal. It is black in colour, powdery in
nature. It occurs as patches and wedges and shows fibrous structure.
3. Please refer to subsections 15.2.5.
5. Draw the structural and stratigraphic traps as shown in Fig. 15.12.
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GLOSSARY
Acid rocks : These are rocks consisting of silica rich minerals
like quartz, alkali feldspar and muscovite in large
amount. They comprise more than 65% silica.
Alluvial ore-deposit : This is a type of ore deposit in which deposition of
mineral grain takes place by flowing water.
Alteration : This involves the process of physical or chemical
change in the rocks or minerals after their
formation.
Amorphous : This term is used for those rocks, minerals and
materials which have no form and definite crystal
structure.
Anhydrite : This mineral is composed of anhydrous CaSO4
and crystallises in orthorhombic system. It’s
colour is white sometimes with greyish, bluish
and reddish tinge.
Arenaceous : This is the term used for rocks which are sandy or
have sandy texture.
Argillaceous : This is the term used for clayey rocks which
comprise clay.
Assimilation : This is a complex process in which invaded
country rocks by invading magma are partially or
completely melted at the contact zone and
incorporated at deeper levels.
Aureole : Geologically this term is used for the zone
enclosing the intrusive igneous rocks in which
country rock undergoes contact metamorphism.
This is known as contact zone.
Auriferous : This word is used for gold rich deposits and ores.
Autometasomatism : In a newly crystallised magma this is the
alteration done by late water rich liquid fraction
released by it.
Autometamorphism : Metamorphism of igneous rocks by its
evaporation of its own liquid fractions such as
formation of spilite from basalt.
Banded structure : This is the term used for prominent layering or
banding in veins or nodules. These types of
structures are formed due to successive
deposition or replacement of pre-existing rocks
such as granite gneiss.
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Basic rock : This is the igneous rock in which the minerals
with less silica and sufficient alkali, like
amphibole, pyroxene, biotite and olivine are
comparably abundantly present.
Blanket deposit : It is a flattened ore deposit whose length and
width is more than its thickness. Traditionally this
term is used by miners and has no real scientific
meaning.
Building stone : This term encompasses those rocks which are
commonly used for construction of buildings,
decoration, roofing and flooring.
Calcareous : This term is used for those rocks which are
composed of calcium carbonate.
Calcification : Repalcement of hard parts of an animal or a plant
by calcium carbonate.
China clay : The clay composed of feldspar which is used for
making glazed pottery and porcelain.
Clastic rock : Broken rock material derived from pre-existing
rock, example-sandstone, conglomerate etc.
Coalification : The process by which vegetable material is
transformed into high quality coal and anthracite
is its end product.
Coal measures : Beds with layers of coal especially of
Carboniferous age.
Coal seam : Bed or layer of coal.
Coke : Bituminous coal in which volatile components
have been removed by heating. This is commonly
artificial product however natural coke also occur.
Comb structure : Comb like structure in of crystal aggregates in
mineral veins.
Conchoidal : This term is used to describe nature of the
fracture.
Conglomerate : This rock is composed of relatively eroded and
rounded rock pieces or cobbles formed due to
action of water.
Contact deposit : This term is mainly used for mineral deposit
occurring between the two dissimilar rocks. This
type of ore body occur at the contact of
sedimentary and igneous rocks.
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Crude oil : Natural petroleum; Crude petroleum extracted
from inside the Earth.
Crustification : Formation of mineral or ore deposit in the form of
layers or crust.
Deposit : This is the material accumulated by some
agents.This term was initially used for materials
(suspended) brought by flowing water. But now
this also includes accumulated mineral materials
whether they are deposited by chemical agent or
precipitated by other agents such as ore in veins.
Detrital : Derived or related to detritus.
Dissemination In the beginning of crystallising magma. Ore
minerals are present in scattered form.
Dolomite : It is a mineral composed of calcium magnesium
carbonate varying from white to pink colour. Its
crystals are rhomboherdral in shape.
Evaporite : This is type of sediment which is deposited due to
complete evaporation hydrous solutions from
solvents.
Extrusion : Emission of magmatic material on the Earth’s
crust.
Fayalite : It is a mineral of olivine group with composition
Fe2SiO4
Felsic : It is the term used for rocks containing one or
more minerals with sufficient silica like feldspar,
feldspathoid and silica.
Ferriferous : Consisting of iron or with iron.
Filling deposit : Deposits which fill the cavities.
Fissure : It is a crack or fracture in a rock by which its wall
is clearly separated. Fissure can be filled with
mineral material.
Fissure vein : Fissure vein is the flattened ore body which is
surrounded by one or more fissure. Its two
dimensions are bigger than the third dimension.
Fissure veins are important than all the cavity
fillings and are found in many ranges. In which
more than one metal or mineral can be found. It is
of six types-simple, mixed, serial, blanket, or
crustified.
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Flint : It is a lusterless, and coloured fine grained
microcrystalline silica displaying conchoidal
fracture.
Flux : Material to reduce the melting point of a mixture.
Geothermal : Concerned with heat of the interior of the Earth
Gondite : Metamorphic rock comprising spessartine variety
of garnet.
Halite : Common or rock salt found as amorphous,
crystalline or granular. On crystallizing it is found
as cube.
Heavy minerals : Minerals with relatively more density than
bromoform (Sp. gr. 2-9).
Intermediate rock : It is the term used for those igneous rocks
between basic and felsic rock groups. They
consist of silica between 52 and 65%.
Intrusive rock : These are the igneous rocks which solidified
below the Earth’s crust. Intrusive rocks are found
as dyke, sill, stock and batholith.
Jasper : It is commonly red or brown coloured
microcrystalline quartz.
Kaolin : It is white or nearly white coloured clayey rock
formed due to decomposition of feldspar containg
rocks. It is used to make porcelain rich paste.
Kimberlite : An alkalic peridotite containing abundant
phenocrysts of olivine (commonly altered to
serpentine or carbonate) and phlogopite
(commonly chloritised), in a fine-grained
groundmass of calcite, second-generation olivine
and phlogopite with accessory ilmenite,
serpentine, chlorite, magnetite and perovskite.
The name is derived from Kimberley, South Africa
where rock contains diamond.
Khondalite : Khondalite is quartz–manganese-rich garnet–
rhodonite schist. It may also contain sillimanite
and graphite. It is found in the Eastern
Ghats between Vijayawada and Cuttack in India.
Lode : Commonly this word is used for late formed ore
deposits whose thickness is less than depth and
length. It is synonym to vein.
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Mafic : Term used for rock rich in iron magnesium
minerals.
Mineral deposit : Metallic or non-metallic mineral materials or local
accumulation of any mineral having economic
values or futuristic economic value.
Oil shale : The shale containing hydrocarbon in the ration
that mineral oil can be derived from mild
distillation.
Oolite : Rock commonly consisting of small spheroidal or
ellipsoidal grains less than 2mm. They have been
derived from inorganic precipitation.
Lamellar layer : The direction in anisotropic crystals in which
double refraction does not take place.
Peat : It is a brown or black coloured residue formed
due to partial disintegration or decomposition of
mosses or other plants in Kutch or similar places
with other names.
Porosity : It is the ratio of the aggregate volume of
interstitial spaces present in rock or soil total
volume of rock or soil. It is expressed in
percentage.
Refractory : Especially resistant to melting on heating and
commonly resistant to chemical reaction.
Ribbon structure : Structure commonly found in quartz veins which
is separated by thin back bands of quartz
consisting of narrow layers of altered wall rock.
Wall rock : The rock forming the walls of a vein, lode or
igneous intrusion.
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BGYCT - 133

Block Preparation Team

Block 1 Basic Concepts of Crystallography

Block 3 Optical Mineralogy

Block 4 Economic Geology

Wishing you success in this endeavour!

ORE AND ORE DEPOSITS

11.4 Processes of Formation of Ore 11.10 Terminal Questions

Expected Learning Outcomes______________________

list processes of ore formation;

discuss the morphology and nature of ore deposits; and

11.2 SCOPE OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

11.3 CONCEPT OF ORE AND ORE DEPOSITS

11.3.1 Basic Terminology

Fig. 11.2: Panoramic view of Malanjkhand copper deposits.

Gangue: It is the commercially worthless material that surrounds or is closely mixed

Fig. 11.4: Phosphorite/rock phosphate deposit at Jhamarkotra in Rajasthan. (Photo credit:

11.3.2 Clarke and Clarke of Concentration

Let us study an example to understand these definitions. Clarke (abundance of that

Table 11.1: Concentrations of some economically important metals in average upper

Metal Clarke=average Grade in Clarke of

• Introduction to ore deposits

• Classification of ore deposits

11.4 PROCESSES OF FORMATION OF ORE DEPOSITS

Table 11.2: Endogenic and exogenic processes.

Endogenous processes Exogenous processes

Magmatic concentration / segregation Sedimentation

Sublimation Residual and Mechanical concentration

Pegmatite / Pneumatolytic Oxidation and Supergene enrichment

Contact metasomatism and contact Bacteriogenic precipitation

Metamorphism Syn-sedimentary volcanogenic

11.5 NATURE AND MORPHOLOGY OF ORE BODIES

11.5.1 Discordant Ore Bodies

Let us read about them.

A) Regularly Shaped Ore Bodies

B) Irregular Shaped Ore Bodies

11.5.2 Concordant Ore Bodies

A) Sedimentary Host Rocks

B Igneous Host Rocks

C) Metamorphic Host Rocks

11.6 ORE MINERALS

11.6.1 Metallic Ore Minerals

Table 11.3: Common metals and their ore minerals.

SN Metal Ore Mineral Category Composition Tenor

Magnetite Oxide Fe3O4 74% Fe

1 Goethite Hyd. Oxide FeO(OH) 68.5% Fe

Siderite Carbonate FeCO3 48.3% Fe

Pyrite Sulphide FeS2 46.8% Fe

Manganese Pyrolusite Oxide Mn2O3 63% Mn

Braunite Oxide MnO2H2O 64.3% Mn

Rhodochrosite Carbonate MnCO3 47.8% Mn

3 Chromium Chromite Oxide Fe2Cr2O4 46.4% Cr

Aluminium Bauxite AI Hydroxide Variable

5 Tin Cassiterite Oxide SnO2 78.8%

Copper Native Copper Native Pure Cu Upto 100% Cu

Chalcopyrite Sulphide CuFeS2 34.5% Cu

Chalcocite Sulphide Cu2S 79.9% Cu

6 Bornite Sulphide Cu5FeS2 63.3% Cu

Covellite Sulphide CuS 66.4% Cu