MEV-012 - Earth Processes

MEV-12
EARTH PROCESSES
SCHOOL OF INTER-DISCIPLINARY AND TRANS-DISCIPLINARY

STUDIES (SOITS)
INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
MAIDAN GARHI, NEW DELHI-110 068
PROGRAMME DESIGN AND EXPERT COMMITTEE
Dr. Himanshu Pathak Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapoor
Director, ICAR-National Rice Research SOITS, IGNOU
Institute Cuttack, Odisha
Prof. Shachi Shah
Prof. P.A. Azeez Director, SOITS, IGNOU
Director, SACON, Coimbatore
Prof. B. Rupini
Prof. I.S. Thakur SOITS, IGNOU
School of Environmental Sciences, JNU,
Dr. Surendra Singh Suthar
New Delhi
School of Environment & Natural
Prof. Uma Melkania Resources, Doon University, Dehradun
Dean, College of Basic Sciences and
Dr. Vijay Kumar Baraik
Humanities, GBPUAT, Pantnagar
SOS, IGNOU
Prof. Nidhi Rai
Dr. Tanushree Bhattacharya
University College of Science, M.L.
Department of Civil and Environmental
Sukhadia University, Udaipur
Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology,
Prof. Jitendra Pandey Mesra, Ranchi
Centre of Advanced Study in Botany,
Dr. Pulak Das
BHU
School of Human Ecology, Ambedkar
Prof. R. Baskar University, Delhi
Department of Environmental Science &
Dr. Shubhangi Vaidya
Engineering, Guru Jambheshwar
SOITS, IGNOU
University of Science & Technology,
Hisar, Haryana Dr. Sadananda Sahoo
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. Jaswant Sokhi
SOS, IGNOU Dr. Sushmitha Baskar
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. Neera Kapoor
SOS, IGNOU Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. P.K. Biswas
STRIDE, IGNOU Dr. Deeksha Dave
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. S.K.Yadav
SOA, IGNOU Dr. Y.S.C. Khuman
SOITS, IGNOU
PROGRAMME COORDINATORS
Prof. Shachi Shah, Director, SOITS, IGNOU, Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan, SOITS, IGNOU,
Dr. Deeksha Dave, SOITS, IGNOU
BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

Unit 1 Unit 3
Dr. Gurmeet Kaur, Dr. Gurmeet Kaur,
Department of Geology, Department of Geology,
Panjab University, Chandigarh Punjab University, Chandigarh
Unit 2 Unit 4
Prof. A. R. Chaudhri, Prof. Meenal Mishra,
Department of Geology, Geology, School of Sciences,
Kurukshetra University, Indira Gandhi National Open University,
Kurukshetra, Haryana New Delhi
COURSE COORDINATOR
Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and
Transdisciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
CONTENT EDITOR
Prof. R. Baskar, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guru
Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, Hisar, Haryana
FORMAT EDITOR
Secretarial/Technical Assistance:
Ms. Sonali, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi; Mr. Vikram, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi
PRINT PRODUCTION
Mr. Y. N. Sharma, Mr. Sudhir Kumar
Assistant Registrar (Publication) Section Officer (Publication)
MPDD, IGNOU MPDD, IGNOU
March, 2021
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021
ISBN: 978-93-90773-70-1
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or any other means, without permission in writing from the Copyright holder.
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COURSE INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the M.Sc. Environmental Science programme of IGNOU. The curriculum
prepared for this programme is relevant and significant for your study and in the present-
day scenario. This course focusses on Earth processes. The course has four blocks,
and each block comprises of 4 units. So, there are 16 units in the entire course. The
details of each block is explained in the following paragraphs.
Block 1 deals with the origin and formation of the earth. The block discusses on the
origin of our planet, the formation of the Solar system and planetary differentiation,
formation of the Earth, and its composition and structure. Details on plate tectonics
and the formation of oceans and continents have also been discussed. The earth surface
processes for example erosional, and depositional aspects of rivers, winds, glaciers,
and coastal processes have also been detailed. Finally, the block discusses on the
various types of minerals and rocks, their classification and importance.
Block 2 deals with climatology and meteorology. The block introduces learners to the
concepts of climatology, climate controls, the Earth’s radiation balance, temperature,
global pressure and wind belts, humidity, cloud formation and precipitation, water
balance, spatial and temporal patterns of climate parameters. The weather phenomena
have been explained with suitable diagrams for easy understanding. Then the block
also gives an account on meteorology. The learner will get to know the thermal structure
of the atmosphere and its composition, atmospheric variables, radiation, greenhouse
effect, net radiation budget, atmospheric stability diagrams, thermodynamic diagrams,
and so on. The block finally explains the various aspects related to hydrometeorology
and climate.
Block 3 deals with hydrology. This section focusses on the physiography of oceans,
the origin and evolution of ocean basins. Further the block explains the shelf and
deep-sea sedimentation, the physico-chemical and biological aspects of sea water.
Then finally details on ocean currents, hydrology and hydrogeology have been explained.
Block 4 deals with natural hazards. The learner will get a thorough understanding of
hazard and disaster and its various types. Each section discusses elaborately the various
types of geological, hydrological, and man-made hazards and disasters and its impacts
on life and property. Sufficient case studies have been given both in the national as well
as international context.
Overall, this core course for M.Sc. Environmental Science will equip you well with
knowledge on the various earth processes.
Course Contents
Introduction Pages
BLOCK 1 EARTH PROCESSES

Unit 1 Origin and Formation of the Earth 13
Unit 2 Plate Tectonics 28
Unit 3 Earth Surface Processes 44
Unit 4 Rocks And Minerals 54
BLOCK 2 CLIMATOLOGY AND METEOROLOGY

Unit 5 Elements of Climate 99
Unit 6 Weather Phenomenon 113
Unit 7 Meteorology 129
Unit 8 Hydrometeorology And Climate 152
BLOCK 3 HYDROLOGY
Unit 9 Introduction to Oceanography 201
Unit 10 Ocean Currents 218
Unit 11 Hydrology 241
Unit 12 Hydrogeology 263
BLOCK 4 NATURAL HAZARDS

Unit 13 Introduction to Natural Hazards 293
Unit 14 Geological Hazards 310
Unit 15 Hydrological Hazards 328
Unit 16 Man Made Hazards 344
Block 1
EARTH PROCESSES
BLOCK 1: INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the M.Sc. Environmental Science programme of IGNOU. This is the first
block in the course on Earth processes. The block has four units, and the details of
each unit is explained in the following paragraphs.
Unit 1 deals with the origin and formation of the Earth. The formation of our Solar
system and planetary differentiation have been explained with suitable diagrams and
references. The unit also discusses on the composition of the core, mantle, crust,
atmosphere, and hydrosphere of the Earth. Also, the internal structure of Earth, the
thermal, magnetic, and gravitational fields of the earth are explained. The learners will
also get an understanding of the Geological time scale.
Unit 2 deals with plate tectonics. A thorough explanation on the movement of lithospheric
plates, mantle convection and plate tectonics are detailed. The major plates, plate
boundaries, and hot spots are also explained with suitable diagrams. Finally, the sea
floor spreading phenomena and the formation of continents and oceans basins have
been discussed.
Unit 3 deals with earth surface processes. Detailed explanations have been given on
erosional, transportation and depositional aspects of rivers, winds, glaciers, and the
coastal processes.
Unit 4 deals with rocks and minerals. In this unit the important mineral and rock
forming groups and their classification have been detailed. The learner will also
understand the various types of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. The
concepts of weathering and its types have been given with suitable diagrams. Finally,
the unit explains the concepts of major, trace and rare earth elements, the classification
of trace elements and the mobility of trace elements.
Overall, this block in the core course Earth processes will equip you well with knowledge
on the various earth processes.
Earth Processes
12
Origin and Formation
UNIT 1 ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE EARTH of the Earth
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Solar System Formation and Planetary Differentiation
1.3 Formation of the Earth and its Internal Structure (Core, Mantle and Crust)
1.4 Composition of Crust, Mantle and Core
1.5 Thermal Field, Magnetic Field and Gravitational Field of Earth
1.5.1 Thermal Field of Earth
1.5.2 Magnetic Field of Earth
1.5.3 Gravitational Field of Earth
1.6 Atmosphere and Hydrosphere of Earth
1.7 Geological Time Scale
1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Keywords
1.10 References and Suggested Further Readings
1.11 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Our Universe which is almost 13.8 billion years old is an outcome of commonly accepted
Big Bang theory. The Universe broadly comprises galaxies and stars. Our Solar
system is part of the galaxy ‘Milky Way’. The Milky Way galaxy probably comprises
tens of billions of other solar systems identical to ours!!! Our Solar system comprises
Sun (the star at the centre) and its planets i.e. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune which revolve around it. Pluto was earlier considered
the ninth planet of the solar system but has been lately in the year 2006 deprived of the
fame by the International Astronomical Union! The erstwhile ninth planet Pluto is no
longer considered a planet. The eight planets are further divided into the inner set of
planets and outer set of planets. The inner set of planets comprises the first four planets
nearer to Sun i.e. Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Our earth is one of the inner four
planets. These inner planets are also known as terrestrial planets. The four planets
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are designated as outer planets (Figure 1.1).
Besides these planets the solar system has dwarf planets, asteroid belt, comets and
other smaller celestial bodies.
Figure 1.1 Solar system with sun and its planets.

(Source: commons.wikimedia.org) 13
Earth Processes
1.1 OBJECTIVES
Recollect your school days when you were taught about the solar system. Our Solar
System, minor part of Universe, consists of Sun and its planets. The Solar System
started forming some 4.6 billion years ago. It is important to know about the solar
system and how it came into being. It is also important to understand the formation of
the planets. In this unit we will learn about the Solar System and its components. To be
precise about earth and its attributes i.e. the structure and composition of earth, thermal,
magnetic and gravitational fields of earth, atmosphere and hydrosphere of earth. We
will also learn about the geological time scale which is scale devised to record the
activities taking place on earth since its inception, i.e. approximately 4.6 billion years!
After reading this unit you will be able to:
• explain the formation of Solar system;
• describe the concept of inner and outer planets;
• explain the formation of Earth;
• discuss the internal structure of Earth; the atmosphere and hydrosphere of Earth;
• describe the gravitational, thermal and magnetic fields of Earth; and
• Outline the concept and significance of geological time scale.
1.2. SOLAR SYSTEM FORMATION AND PLANETARY

DIFFERENTIATION
The nebulae hypothesis is the most commonly accepted hypothesis to explain the
formation of our solar system. The nebulae (gaseous material) were composed
predominantly of hydrogen and helium gases besides dust sized material chemically
identical to materials found on earth. The nebula was supposedly rotating slowly under
the influence of gravity. This slow rotation of the dispersed nebulae led to its contraction
because of the influence of gravity. The contraction further led to faster rotation of the
material and finally flattening of the nebulae into a disk shape. Gravity resulted in the
accumulation of matter of the nebulae at the centre giving rise to a proto-Sun, the
predecessor of present Sun. The matter in the proto-Sun condensed, and its temperature
also rose higher to millions of degrees. This led to nuclear fusion where hydrogen
atoms combined to form helium. Partial mass of the proto-Sun converted into energy
released in the form of sunshine.
In 1755, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant proposed nebular hypothesis
for the origin of the solar system.
The proto-Sun concentrated most of the matter from the initial homogeneous nebulae.
The subordinate, minor, leftover material from the nebulae formed solar nebula
comprising a disk of gases and dust surrounding the proto-Sun. The solar nebula
flattened into a disk with condensed, higher temperatures in the inner region and less
dense outer regions. Gravitational attraction led to accretion of fine dust materials into
planetesimals, i.e. few kms in size. The planetesimals collided and combined to form
larger bodies i.e. the size of moon. This continued with more collisions under the effect
14
of gravity, finally giving rise to the planets. The process of planet formation was Origin and Formation
completed approximately in a time span of 10 million years after the condensation of of the Earth
the nebula. The inner four planets are known as terrestrial planets owing to their being
like earth. The volatile materials from these planets were boiled away because of their
nearness to sun and also blown away by the solar winds far off from the sun forming
the cold, gaseous outer planets. The inner planets comprise rock-forming silicates and
metals like iron and nickel. The outer giant planets are probably formed of rocky
(silica- and iron-rich cores) rimmed by liquid hydrogen and helium. Pluto after losing
its glory as a planet is given the status of a dwarf planet composed of a frozen mixture
of gases, ice, and rock. The solar system has an asteroid belt between Mars and
Jupiter which hosts the planetesimals/asteroids. The asteroid belt has over 10,000
asteroids (size of the asteroids varies between > 10 km and dŠ 930 km). The largest
asteroid is Ceres with a diameter of 930 km. The tiny broken pieces from asteroids
strike earth and are called meteorites. Comets are aggregates of dust and ice. There
are probably many millions of comets present beyond the outer planets. At times, a
comet enters the inner solar system identified as a bright object with a tail of gases.
1.3. FORMATION OF THE EARTH AND ITS

INTERNAL STRUCTURE (CORE, MANTLE AND
CRUST)
In this section we will learn about the birth of our planet ‘Earth’. Earth is composed of
three layers i.e. Core (inner most part); Mantle (the middle layer between the core
and the crust); Crust (the outermost layer). Was earth from its inception at about 4.56
billion years, a differentiated body (comprising layers) or was homogenous. Did the
structure of earth change with passaging time? When did the oceans and water bodies
formed on the earth? How did the atmosphere on the earth formed or changed from
the initial atmosphere, which became conducive to survival of various life forms. When
did life originate on this blue planet? Are all the continents at the present time stationed
at the same location during the past 4.5 billion years time span, or have they occupied
different positions? We will try to understand the forces operational within earth which
led to the differentiation of earth’s internal structure. The internal and external geological
processes will be briefly discussed which shaped the earth from its inception to the
present state. We will try to answer the above questions.
The oldest rocks (3.7-3.8 billion years) have been found in western Greenland.
Rocks from southern Africa, western Australia, and the Great Lakes region of
North America are also dated at 3.4-3.6 billion years. The oldest dated minerals
viz. tiny zircons crystals at 4.0-4.2 billion years are found in sedimentary rocks in
western Australia.
The earth no doubt probably formed by accretion of planetesimals and other materials
from solar nebula. The earth was hot and molten at its time of inception/early stages.
The gravitational differentiation (formation of different layers of earth) started
around 4.4 billion years ago. The innermost layer is the Core, followed by the
intermediate layer Mantle and the outermost layer Crust (Figure 1.2). The three
layers are different in terms of physical and chemical properties. The Earth’s internal
structure is proposed based on seismic waves which behave differently in different
layers depending on the composition and physical nature of these layers. The two
15
Earth Processes types of seismic waves i.e. P (compression) and S (shear) waves travel at different
speeds and are also reflected and refracted from the boundaries marked between
different layers through the Earth.
Iron-nickel segregated into the innermost core part, whereas the lighter material i.e.
silicates formed in the uppermost layer of crust. The intermediate layer had both light
and heavy materials which formed the mantle. The lighter material also dissipated heat
from the interior to the surface, thus cooling the earth. This heat transferred from
interior of earth to surface is also defined as primordial heat. This source of heat along
with radiogenic heat is responsible for melting of mantle rocks and is identified as
potential cause of plutonism and volcanism on earth till date. The differentiation process
also led to formation of oceans and atmosphere. The internal and external geological
processes were also set and the face of the earth formed and to date it is changing. All
this make us believe that earth is a dynamic planet!
The earth’s core is composed of iron and nickel predominantly. This part of earth is
under extreme pressures up to 330-360 GPa. The core which is confined between
2890 Km to 6370 Km is further divided into inner core and outer core. It was possible
to study the nature of the core with the help of seismic waves. The inner solid core
extends from 5150 Km to 6370 Km, whereas the outer core which is molten extends
from 2890 Km to 5150 Km. The mantle is the intermediate layer sandwiched between
the core and the crust. This layer extends from the base of crust (which varies from the
average depth of 60-80 Km in case of continental crust and 5-10 Km in case of
oceanic crust to 2850 Km. The mantle is an important link between the core and
crust. The heat from the interior of the earth is transferred by convection in the mantle
to shallower depths. It comprises material intermediate in density between the materials
of the core and crust. This all information has been possible through seismic wave data
retrieved from different depths. Earth’s crust is the top most layer, which is the least
dense compared to the mantle and core. It is further divided into oceanic crust and
continental crust. The oceanic crust is thinner (avg. 5-10 Km) and denser compared
to continental crust which varies in thickness from 30-100 Km and is less dense
(Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2: Structure of the Earth.

16 (Source: https://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/print_images.asp)
Check Your Progress 1 Origin and Formation
of the Earth
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
Short question-answer
1. Name the different layers of earth.
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2. What is the average thickness of oceanic crust.
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Descriptive Question-Answer
3. Briefly discuss the formation of earth.
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4. Briefly discuss the components of solar system.
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1.4 COMPOSITION OF CRUST, MANTLE

AND CORE
The enormous pressures and very high temperatures inside the earth make it impossible
for us to venture inside earth even up to a few meters. The underground mining has at
the most been carried out up to 10 km in rare cases. Thus, the nature of the lower
crust, mantle and core materials is assessed by indirect geophysical data’s. The nature
of lower crust and upper mantle can be partially assessed by magmas which originate
at these depths. It is through rocks like kimberlites and lamproites and some types of
basalts (source magmas originate in mantle depths) which are enriched in xenoliths
(from lower crust and upper mantle) that we have direct access to these deeper rocks.
Otherwise to assess the physical nature (temperature, density etc) we have to rely on
the indirect geophysical methods such as seismic wave data. The seismic wave data
from different depths have been instrumental in deciphering the structure and composition
of earth to a satisfactory level. Once information on the pressure, temperature,
17
Earth Processes gravitational, magnetic fields and composition of the different layers are assessed, the
same conditions are replicated in the high pressure-temperature laboratories where
stability range of different minerals are assessed and thus we get a fair idea of what
material the deeper earth is made up of. The velocities of P and S waves vary in
different layers of earth depending on the density of the rocks which make up these
layers. The P-wave velocities are higher for denser rocks (Table 1).
Table 1.1: Seismic wave velocities through different rock types
Rock type Typical rocks of Velocity of P waves Density
Granite Upper continental crust 6 Km/sec 2.6 g/cm3
Gabbro Oceanic crust 7 Km/sec 2.9 g/cm3,
Peridotite Upper mantle 8 Km/sec 3.3 g/cm3
Since the P-wave velocities in upper continental crust matches well with granitic rocks,
we conclude the continental crust comprises average granodiorite composition (member
of granitic clan rock). The oceanic crust based on matches with P-wave velocity
shows that it comprises basaltic/gabbroic material (through ocean floor dredging we
also know that ocean floor has basalts!).
The seismic waves also helped in identification of Mohorovic¡ic´ discontinuity which
is commonly addressed as Moho, which divides the crust and mantle. At the Moho
the wave velocity is 8 Km/sec. This shows the rocks beneath i.e. mantle are denser
compared to the crustal rocks. The mantle is 2850 km thick and extends from the
base of the crust to 2890 Km. The P-wave velocity of 8 Km/sec shows that the
upper mantle rocks are composed of peridotites (Table 1). The peridotites are ultra-
mafic rocks (silica deficient and enriched in magnesium and iron).
The upper mantle comprises minerals such as olivine and pyroxene with Mg rich garnet
pyrope. The upper mantle extends up to 410 km from the Moho. Lithosphere is the
rigid, brittle layer and encompasses the upper 100 kms comprising the crust and upper
part of mantle. The base of the lithosphere is marked by a low-velocity zone (LVZ).
It is the zone where low percent partial melting takes place. This zone is identified
based on S-waves which decrease in speed owing to melts present in this zone (S-
waves cannot pass through liquids). The low-velocity zone also marks the beginning
of Asthenosphere, which is a ductile layer. The LVZ extends up to 200 to 250 km
below oceanic crust whereas it is poorly constrained beneath the stable continental
cratons. From depth 410 km to 670 km, commonly known as transition zone,
mineral phases change to high pressure polymorphs because of continuous increase in
pressure (Note: the phase change takes place in terms of structure and not composition).
The mineral phases which forms are denser with more closely packed crystal structures.
The lower mantle beyond 670 km (i.e. the transition zone) is relatively homogeneous
up to 2890 Km. At the core-mantle boundary i.e. 2890 Km, a drastic change in the
velocity of P waves is encountered i.e. a drop from 13 Km/sec to 8 Km/sec. The S-
waves do not pass through the area beneath this boundary indicating it to be of liquid
nature. Seismic wave data indicates that the outer core is liquid in contrast to the
metallic solid inner core. The core of the earth is made up of iron and nickel making the
inner core the densest part of the earth. The other two elements speculated to be the
parts of core are oxygen and sulphur.
18
1.5 THERMAL FIELD, MAGNETIC FIELD AND of the Earth
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD OF EARTH
1.5.1. Thermal Field of Earth
The earth has an internal heat engine which is evident through volcanism at places on
earth such as mid-oceanic ridges, along ring of fire etc, to name a few. Also at many
places hot springs and geysers are as well surface manifestations of earth’s internal
heat. The two principal sources of heat responsible for earth’s internal heat engine are:
Primordial heat and heat generated through decay of radioactive elements such as U,
Th, K etc. The most important source is the primordial heat, which is the heat given
out since the inception and differentiation of earth. The other important source of
internal heat is the heat given out by radioactive elements concentrated in the earth
(especially in the crust). Convection is the most important process by which heat from
the deep earth is convected to shallower depths. The heat transfer in lithosphere is by
a process called conduction. It has been possible to measure temperatures at depths
up to 10 km (inside mines and boreholes). The geothermal gradient is measurement of
change in temperature/increase of temperature with depth inside earth. The geothermal
gradient varies from place to place inside earth. The average geothermal gradient is
25-30oC / km in the crust. The geothermal gradients at depth have been inferred
through measurements made on lavas and rocks which solidified from these lavas. The
figure 1.3 fairly indicates geothermal gradient inside earth. The geothermal gradient is
very steep near Earth’s surface. If we try to extrapolate the temperatures inside earth
based on the geothermal gradient, it will lead to very high temperatures i.e. tens of
thousands of degrees in the core which is actually not the case (Figure 1.3). The
geothermal gradient can be as low as 10oC/Km in subduction environments where
cold oceanic crust is subducted. The geothermal gradients can be as high as 80o-
100oC / km at mid ocean ridges where lavas are erupted continuously.
Figure 1.3: The geothermal gradient inside earth.

(Source: commons.wikimedia.org)
19
Earth Processes 1.5.2. Magnetic Field of Earth
We learnt in the preceding section about the structure and composition of different
layers of the Earth. The outer core is the molten layer of earth which comprises iron
and nickel. The Earth’s magnetic field is attributed to this molten outer core. The
convective currents in the molten outer core which is composed of iron-nickel produces
electric field and thus a large Geodynamo is created which produces a magnetic field
which has its affect not only inside the earth or its surface but extends up to earth’s
atmosphere and also far into outer space. Around 400 years back it was believed that
the Earth had a bar magnet at its centre inclined about 11° from this rotational axis
responsible for the earth’s magnetism. This contention was put to rest since earth’s
core has very high temperature and it has been proved through experiments that a
permanent magnet will get destroyed at temperatures beyond 500oC. Thus the earth’s
magnetism is being continuously produced and maintained by the electric field generated
due to the convecting outer liquid core. Earth’s magnetic field keeps changing and the
same has been observed in the past (many magnetic reversals have been recorded in
the ocean floor in the geologic past; Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4: Schematic illustration of the invisible magnetic field lines generated by the
Earth, represented as a dipole magnet field.
(Source: https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/news/gallery/060410.html).
1.5.3. Gravitational Field of Earth

The gravitational field of earth can be said as a force between the object (with mass)
and the centre of the earth. Earth’s gravity is because of its mass. The gravity of Sun is
responsible for keeping the planets of our Solar system in orbit.
The gravity of earth is responsible for the moon in its orbit. Earth’s gravity is responsible
for our atmosphere. Earth’s gravity is responsible for our feet on earth! Earth’s gravity
is responsible for our existence on this blue planet! Let us also remind ourselves that it
is not simple to define the gravitational field of earth as it sounds. It depends on many
factors and is experienced differently at different locations on earth. For example an
area on earth will have strong gravity if it has more mass in the subsurface compared to
an area with less subsurface mass. The GRACE (Gravity Recovery And Climate
Experiment) mission of NASA uses spacecrafts to measure the variation in earth’s
gravity.
Gravity is a natural force in which things with mass are brought towards each other.
20 The more the mass an object possesses, the more the gravity it exerts on the surrounding
objects. The reason everything is pulled towards the earth is the mass of the earth Origin and Formation
compared to the objects on it. Gravity was a major force in the evolution of the early of the Earth
Universe and its components. It was responsible for the formation of first stars, galaxies,
planets, etc. It was the reason earth formed and differentiated into three layers viz:
Crust, Mantle and Core.
Check Your Progress 2
1. Give compositions of different layers of earth.
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2. What is a Geodynamo?
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3. Discuss the gravitational field of earth.
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4. Briefly discuss the geothermal gradient of earth.
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1.6 ATMOSPHERE AND HYDROSPHERE OF EARTH

The total water present on, above and under earth comprises the hydrosphere, whereas
the atmosphere is defined as the outer gaseous layer of the earth held intact by gravity.
21
Earth Processes The atmosphere and hydrosphere are an integral part of earth and evolved with time
since the birth of earth, i.e. around 4.56 billion years ago. The earth aggregated from
smaller bodies like planetesimals which contained volatile components such as H2O,
carbon, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Some minerals making up rocks had volatiles
locked up in them. These volatiles got released during various geological processes
which segregated earth into different layers. The volatiles were continuously released
through volcanic activity/volcanism on earth’s surface, which started since the inception
of earth. The present volcanoes at the various plate margins emanate volatiles such as
water, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, carbon monoxide and nitrogen. The water and other
volatiles on earth would have also been added through extra terrestrial bodies that
kept hitting the earth when it formed. The initial earth’s atmosphere and oceans were
impacted more by voluminous bombardment of extraterrestrial bodies with the early
hot earth thus contributing to the various volatiles.
Earth’s atmosphere is a consequence of Earth’s gravity. The Earth’s atmosphere is
divided into five main layers: 1. the exosphere (farthest layer from earth’s surface);
2. the thermosphere; 3. the mesosphere; 4. the stratosphere and 5. the troposphere
(nearest layer to the earth’s surface). It comprises gases enveloping the Earth. The
two major components of the Earth’s atmosphere comprise Nitrogen (78.1%) and
Oxygen (20.9%). It has trace amounts of Argon (0.9%), Carbon Dioxide (~
0.035%), Water Vapor, and other gases (neon, helium, methane, krypton and
hydrogen). Atmosphere also has solid particulate matter viz. ash, dust, volcanic ash,
etc. The Earth’s atmosphere is a protective layer which absorbs harmful ultraviolet
rays emitted from the Sun. The earth’s atmosphere merges with outer space at an
imaginary line known as Karman line at approximately 100 kms from the earth’s
surface. The troposphere, closest layer to the Earth’s surface is 7 to 20 km thick
and contains half of Earth’s atmosphere. It contains almost all the water vapor and
dust in the atmosphere. The clouds are formed in this layer. The stratosphere starts
from where troposphere ends and is about 50 km above earth’s surface. This layer
with abundant ozone absorbs harmful radiation from the sun. The jet aircraft and
weather balloons fly in this layer. The mesosphere begins at 50 km and extends up
to 85 km. This layer is not well studied and according to scientists, meteors burn up
in this layer. The thermosphere starts from about 85-90 km to between 500-
1,000 km. The space shuttles fly in this zone and the International Space
Station orbits Earth in this layer. The exosphere, the farthest layer from the earth’s
surface, is very thin with hydrogen and helium and it merges into outer space.
1.7 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

The geological time scale has been devised to understand the geological evolution of
earth regarding time. The International Geological Time Scale is prepared and
regularly updated by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) under
the aegis of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). The
International Geological Time Scale starts at 4.56 billion years when the earth formed
to the present time. It records the evolution of earth vis-à-vis geological events, life
(which includes all life forms from cyanobacteria, unicellular organisms to the present-
day humans), hydrosphere and atmosphere. The most important basis of formulation
of this scale is rocks, fossil record and stratigraphic units. The International Geological
Time Scale has been divided into Eons, Eras, Periods and Epochs. The broadest
division of the Geological time scale is into four Eons viz: Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic
22
and Phanerozoic (Figure 1.5).
Hadean, Archean and Proterozoic are together referred to as Precambrian i.e. time Origin and Formation
before the Cambrian which is the oldest Period of Phanerozoic Eon. The Precambrian of the Earth
encompasses the major part of the Geological time scale almost 4000 Ma. Hadean
eon is the earliest Eon which started at ~4.6 Ga and ended at about 3.9 Ga ago. This
was the time when earth was forming by cooling and records of felsic crust during
Hadean can be ascertained based on zircon dates at 4.4 billion years. Archean eon
began at 3.9 Ga and continued up to 2.5 Ga ago. Archean is further divided into Eo-
archean, Paleo-archean, Meso-archean and Neo-archean eras. During Archean the
continents came into existence and plate tectonic was an important geological
phenomenon. First signs of life in the form of fossils of uni-celled microorganisms have
been reported from Archean Era. Proterozoic eon began at 2.5 Ga and lasted until
0.542 Ga ago. The Proterozoic Eon is also further divided into Paleo-proterozoic,
Meso-proterozoic and Neo-proterozoic eras. This Eon was marked by fully functional
plate tectonics and well developed climate systems. During Proterozoic Eon the oxygen
in Earth’s atmosphere gradually increased. Phanerozoic Eon began at 0.542 Ga ago
and is continuing to the present. The Phaanerozoic Eon has been further divided into
three Eras viz: i. the oldest Paleozoic; ii. Mesozoic and iii. Cenozoic. The Paleozoic is
further divided into six Periods namely, Cambrian (541-485 Ma), Ordovician (485-
444 Ma), Silurian (444-419 Ma), Devonian (419-359 Ma), Carboniferous (359-
299 Ma) and Permian (299-252 Ma). The Mesozoic Era has been divided into three
Periods namely, Triassic (252-201 Ma), Jurassic (201-145 Ma) and Cretaceous (145-
66 Ma). The Cenozoic Era has been divided into three Periods namely, Paleogene
(66-23 Ma), Neogene (23-2.58 Ma) and Quaternary (2.58 Ma to the Present).
Different life forms proliferated with the onset of the Phanerozoic eon. The Stage
Meghalayan from India has been a recent addition to the Quaternary Period of the
International Chronostartigraphic Scale, which started at 0.0042 Ma. So we are living
in the Meghalayan age!
The boundaries between different time Periods were carefully marked based on
stratigraphic and fossil break and appearance of index fossils. The Precambrian and
Paleozoic boundary marks the first appearance of animals with the hard parts. The
major boundaries also mark mass extinctions. The most significant mass extinctions
which wiped about 95% of the living forms were recorded at the Paleozoic-Mesozoic
boundary i.e. Permain-Triassic boundary also known as P-T boundary. The second
significant mass extinction was recorded at Mesozoic-Cenozoic boundary i.e.
Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary when 75% of the life forms thriving in the Cretaceous
period perished.
Figure 1.5: The International Geological Time Scale.

(Source: http://www.stratigraphy.org) 23
Earth Processes Check Your Progress 3
1. Name the components of atmosphere.
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2. Why is hydrosphere important?
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3. Discuss the Proterozoic.
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4. Which major extinctions took place at different geological times?
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1.8 LET US SUM UP

The Unit on Origin and Formation of Earth deals with various aspects of earth since its
inception from the gaseous state to its present form. Earth is the only habitable planet
of Solar system. It is a planet which was born almost 4.6 billion years ago. The initial
structure and composition differed from its present form and composition. The earth
has been broadly divided into three prominent layers viz. Core, Mantle and Crust. The
Crust which is the most explored layer of earth is divided into: Continental and Oceanic
crust. The Continental crust differs from oceanic crust in terms of its thickness,
composition, and nature. The earth’s oceanic crust is capped by water. The hydrosphere
of earth comprises the total of water present on, above and under earth’s surface.
Earth has its atmosphere which developed over the last 4600 billion years. Earth has
a unique thermal, magnetic and gravitational field, put together these made earth a
viable and unique planet for the sustenance of life! The geologists have recorded the
events of evolution of rocks and life on earth devised in the form a Geological Time
24 Scale which encompasses the journey of earth from its inception to the present time.
1.9 KEYWORDS of the Earth
Eons : Eons are the largest intervals of geologic time and

are hundreds of millions of years in duration.
Eras : Eons are divided into smaller time intervals known
as eras. For example Cenozoic, Mesozoic and
Paleozoic eras of Phanerozoic Eon.
1.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
Grotzinger, J.P. and Jordan, T. H. (2014). Understanding earth. W. H. Freeman and
company, New York. 672p.
Wegener, Alfred (1966). The origin of continents and oceans. New York: Dover
Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-61708-4.
Buffett, Bruce A. (2010). “Tidal dissipation and the strength of the Earth’s internal
magnetic field”. Nature. 468 (7326). 952–
94. Bibcode:2010Natur.468..952B. doi:10.1038/nature09643. PMID 21164483.
Herndon, J.M. (2005). ”Scientific basis of knowledge on Earth’s
composition” (PDF). Current Science. 88 (7): 1034–37.
Herndon, J.M. (1980). “The chemical composition of the interior shells of the
Earth”. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A372 (1748): 149-54. Bibcode:1980RSPSA.372.149H.
Montagner, Jean-Paul (2011). “Earth’s structure, global”. In Gupta, Harsh
(ed.). Encyclopedia of solid earth geophysics. Springer Science & Business Media.
pp. 134–154. ISBN 9789048187010. https://www.nasa.gov/ https://www.usgs.gov/
1.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress 1
1. Crust, mantle and core
2. 5-10 Km
3. The solar nebula flattened into a disk with condensed, higher temperatures in the
inner region and less dense outer regions. Gravitational attraction led to accretion
of fine dust materials into planetesimals i.e. few kms in size. The planetesimals
collided and combined to form larger bodies i.e. the size of moon. This continued
with more collisions under the effect of gravity, finally giving rise to the planets.
The process of planet formation was completed approximately in a time span of
10 million years after the condensation of the nebula. The inner four planets are
known as terrestrial planets owing to their being like earth. The volatile materials
from these planets were boiled away because of their nearness to sun and also
blown away by the solar winds far off from the sun forming the cold, gaseous 25
Earth Processes outer planets. The inner planets comprise rock-forming silicates and metals like
iron and nickel. The outer giant planets are probably formed of rocky (silica- and
iron-rich cores) rimmed by liquid hydrogen and helium.
4. Briefly discuss the three layers of earth.
The earth’s core is composed of iron and nickel predominantly. It is the part of
earth is under extreme pressures up to 330-360 GPa. The core which is confined
between 2890 Km to 6370 Km is further divided into inner core and outer core.
It was possible to study the nature of the core with the help of seismic waves. The
inner solid core extends from 5150 Km to 6370 Km, whereas the outer core
which is molten extends from 2890 Km to 5150 Km. The mantle is the intermediate
layer sandwiched between the core and the crust. This layer extends from the
base of crust (which varies from the average depth of 60-80 Km in case of
continental crust and 5-10 Km in case of oceanic crust to 2850 Km. The mantle
is an important link between the core and crust. The heat from the interior of the
earth is transferred by convection in the mantle to shallower depths. It comprises
material intermediate in density between the materials of the core and crust. This
all information has been possible through seismic wave data retrieved from different
depths. Earth’s crust is the top most layer which is the least dense compared to the
mantle and core. It is further divided into oceanic crust and continental crust. The
oceanic crust is thinner (avg. 5-10 Km) and denser compared to continental crust
which varies in thickness from 30 to 100 Km and is less dense.
1. The nature of the mantle and core materials is assessed by indirect geophysical
data’s.
2. The Earth’s magnetic field is attributed to this molten outer core. The convective
currents in the molten outer core which is composed of iron-nickel produces an
electric field and thus a large Geodynamo is created which produces a magnetic
field which has its affect not only inside the earth or its surface but extends up to
earth’s atmosphere and also far into outer space.
3. The gravitational field of earth can be said as a force between the object (with
mass) and the centre of the earth. Earth’s gravity is because of its mass. The
gravity of Sun keeps the planets of our Solar system in orbit. The gravity of earth
is responsible for the moon in its orbit. Earth’s gravity is responsible for our
atmosphere. Earth’s gravity is responsible for our feet on earth. Earth’s gravity is
responsible for our existence on this blue planet. Let us also remind ourselves that
it is not as simple to define gravitational field of earth as it sounds. It depends on
many factors and is experienced differently at different locations on earth. For
example an area on earth will have strong gravity if it has more mass in the subsurface
compared to an area with less subsurface mass. The GRACE (Gravity Recovery
And Climate Experiment) mission of NASA uses spacecrafts to measure the
variation in earth’s gravity.
26
Answers to Check Your Progress 3 Origin and Formation
of the Earth
1. The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into five main layers: 1. the exosphere (farthest
layer from earth’s surface); 2. the thermosphere; 3. the mesosphere; 4. the
stratosphere and 5. the troposphere (nearest layer to the earth’s surface). It
comprises gases enveloping the Earth. The two major components of the Earth’s
atmosphere comprise Nitrogen (78.1%) and Oxygen (20.9%). It has trace amounts
of Argon (0.9%), Carbon Dioxide (~ 0.035%), Water Vapor, and other gases
(neon, helium, methane, krypton and hydrogen). Atmosphere also has solid
particulate matter viz. ash, dust, volcanic ash, etc.
2. Proterozoic eon began at 2.5 Ga and lasted until 0.542 Ga ago. The Proterozoic
Eon is also further divided into Paleo-proterozoic, Meso-proterozoic and Neo-
proterozoic eras. This Eon was marked by fully functional plate tectonics and well
developed climate systems. During Proterozoic Eon the oxygen in Earth’s
atmosphere gradually increased. Phanerozoic Eon began at 0.542 Ga ago and is
continuing to the present.
3. The Phanerozoic Eon has been further divided into three Eras viz: i. the oldest
Paleozoic; ii. Mesozoic and iii. Cenozoic. The Paleozoic is further divided into six
Periods namely, Cambrian (541-485 Ma), Ordovician (485- 444 Ma), Silurian
(444-419 Ma), Devonian (419-359 Ma), Carboniferous (359-299 Ma) and
Permian (299-252 Ma). The Mesozoic Era has been divided into three Periods
namely, Triassic (252-201 Ma), Jurassic (201-145 Ma) and Cretaceous (145-66
Ma). The Cenozoic Era has been divided into three Periods namely, Paleogene
(66-23 Ma), Neogene (23-2.58 Ma) and Quaternary (2.58 Ma to the Present).
Different life forms proliferated with the onset of the Phanerozoic eon (Figure
1.7). The Stage Meghalayan from India has been a recent addition to the Quaternary
Period of the International Chronostartigraphic Scale which started at 0.0042
Ma. So we are living in the Meghalayan age!
4. The boundaries between different time Periods were carefully marked based on
stratigraphic and fossil break and appearance of index fossils. The Precambrian
and Paleozoic boundary marks the first appearance of animals with the hard parts.
The major boundaries also mark mass extinctions. The most significant mass
extinctions which wiped about 95% of the living forms were recorded at the
Paleozoic-Mesozoic boundary i.e. Permain-Triassic boundary also known as P-
T boundary. The second significant mass extinction was recorded at Mesozoic-
Cenozoic boundary i.e. Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary when 75% of the life
forms thriving in the Cretaceous period perished.
27
Earth Processes
UNIT 2 PLATE TECTONICS
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Formation of Continents and Ocean Basins
2.2.1 Introduction
2.2.2 Continents
2.2.3 Oceans
2.3 Sea Floor Spreading

2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Evidences and Mechanism
2.4 Plate Tectonics

2.4.1 Introduction
2.4.2 Major Plates
2.4.3 Movement of Lithospheric Plates
2.4.4 Mantle Convection and Plate Tectonics
2.4.5 Plate Boundaries and Hot Spots
2.5 Let Us Sum Up

2.6 Keywords
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The surface of earth that we see today is divided into regions submerged under water
and elevated above the mean sea level. We call these vast tracts of earth as oceans
and continents. A curious intellect is eager to know about their origin, antiquity,
permanence and evolution. Historians, geographers, philosophers, and geologists have
divided the earth into differently named units. The ideas about origin of earth and its
supposed early history and evolution are still evolving as new information received
from experimental petrology, geochronology, geochemistry, and space probes pour
in. The mechanism through which the earth’s surface evolves is being closely monitored.
The theory of continental drift advocated by Alfred Wegner suggested that the surface
of earth is dynamic. Sea floor spreading theory gave an evidence of the mechanism
which causes the surface of the earth to move. The more expressive surface
phenomenon like earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes are best understood by learning
the present-day theory of plate tectonics. The quest for comprehending the forces
governing the distributions of continents, oceans, mountains, plateaus, earth resources,
volcanoes, earthquakes, river shifting, natural hazards are best understood by analyzing
the processes of plate tectonics.
28
Plate Tectonics
2.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• Describe the mechanism of formation of continents and oceans;
• Explain the theory of sea floor spreading;
• Enumerate the major plates;
• Explain the different types of plate boundaries;
• Describe mantle convection in relation to plate tectonics; and
• Explain hotspots.
2.2 FORMATION OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS

BASINS
2.2.1 Introduction
The appearance of our race on this planet is a very recent phenomenon in the 4.5
billion years old history of earth. We are eager like kindergarten students to understand
the processes which shaped our present-day landscape as also the permanence of
these geographic entities which we term as continents and oceans. As a layman, we all
understand that the portions of earth that are above sea water level are termed as
continents and those which are submerged under sea water are termed as sea or
oceans. In this unit we will try to understand the geological characteristics and the
endogenetic processes of earth that created these two ever evolving dynamic landforms.
2.2.2 Continents
Majority of us believe that continents comprise a fundamental, permanent and rather
characteristic feature of Earth. Satellite images of earth vividly depict it as a blue planet.
The pictures tell us that majority of the earth’s surface is covered with water and a few
patches of land pop up. Approximately 71% of the earth surface is covered with
water and the remaining 29% is land. Thus, continents are scattered masses on a
planet, that is largely covered by water. Interestingly, these isolated masses, which
comprise a small fraction of the total earth, are the places which support terrestrial life,
including the human population.
Our general understanding is that continents are the large, discreet, and rather continuous
masses of land jetting above the sea water. In geology, continents include the submerged
continental shelf as also the islands on the shelf which have a similar crustal makeup. If
we view continents as a cultural identity, then perhaps the nearby islands, which do not
share the same geological features are also grouped together, like Greenland with
Europe or Madagascar with Africa. There are three broad continental grouping models,
the four-continent model, six continent model and the seven continent model. The
modern day seven continent model recognises North America, South America, Europe,
Africa, Asia, Australia and Antarctica as the seven distinct continents.
The questions that have always generated curiosity and discussion amongst scientists
and public for a long time are ‘Have the continents been there since the earth originated,
are these the result of some chance factor or natural luck which favoured human
evolution? Which forces sculptured the crust with its immense variations? Do the 29
Earth Processes other planets in our solar system also have a similar distribution of land and sea, as also
similar crustal structure? Our present day understanding of the earth processes and
knowledge gathered through satellites and space probes reveals that perhaps our
planet is unique.
To comprehend the earth history, planetary scientists focussed on planets similar to
earth in terms of size and their distance from sun. In this context, they narrowed down
on Earth and Venus, which have approximately the same size and distance from the
sun and could be termed as twin planets. The radar beams of the Magellan space
probe orbiting Venus gave stunning pictures of its surface in the 1990’s. These revealed
that the surface of Venus is covered with dark fine-grained rocks of basaltic composition,
like the ones that cover the ocean basins on earth. The light coloured continental
granitic crust was rarely observed. Miniscule amount of lava is erupting on Venus.
These suggest that plate tectonics (crust recycling) does not operate on Venus. This
and data from other planetary and extraterrestrial material suggest that there are three
fundamental types of crust, the primary crust, the secondary crust and the tertiary
crust. The primary crust emerged during the earliest phases in planetary formation
when huge fragments of primordial material crashed into a newly formed planet triggering
large scale melting. Secondary crusts form from basaltic lavas which generate due to
mantle melting caused by heat generated from the decay of radioactive elements within
a planetary body. The surfaces of Mars, Venus and Earth’s ocean floors are covered
by secondary crusts created in this way. The tertiary crust form when surface layers
are returned into the mantle of a geologically active planet like Earth. The process of
crust formation is quite slow and proceeds at different rates. Moon generated its white
feldspar rich primary crust (9 % of lunar volume) in a few million years while its
secondary basalt maria crust (1 % of lunar volume) formed in billions of years. Similarly,
the secondary crust of basaltic ocean floors of earth (one tenth of 1 % of earth mass)
was created in about 200 million years. The tertiary crust, of which the continents
(one half of one per cent mass of earth) are made up of, take several billion years to
form.
The comprehension of the overall elemental composition of crust is a necessary starting
point for any investigation about its origin and evolution. Since analysing crustal rock
types at all locations and depths is too time consuming and financially prohibitive, the
eroded material of these rocks, in terms of sediments, gives a good approximation of
the average composition of continental crustal rocks. The soluble minerals, namely
sodium and calcium, are leached away but the fourteen rare earth elements, which are
concentrated in late forming granitic products, are useful in deciphering the crustal
composition. The investigations reveal that the REE patterns found in a variety of
sediments are similar. The REE pattern reveal that the composition of the upper part
of the continental crust is similar to that of granodiorite (low density quartz and feldspar
with miniscule dark colored mafic minerals). At a depth of about 10-14 km dense
basaltic rocks are more probable.
The low density of continental rocks is the primary reason for their elevation above the
sea level. The continents, which dominantly comprise the continental crust, on an average
rise about 125 meters above mean sea level. Further, approximately 15 percent of the
continental area rises over two kilometers the sea level. The highest point of continental
crust, the Mt. Everest, rises 8,848 m. These significant heights contrast markedly with
the depths of ocean floors, which average about four kilometers below sea level—a
direct consequence of their being lined by dense oceanic crust, composed mostly of
30 basalt and a thin veneer of sediment.
The formation of continental crust has been a continuous process throughout the Earth Plate Tectonics
history. At the Archean and Proterozoic boundary, around 2.5 billion years ago, a
distinct change in the rock record occurs. The composition of the upper crust before
this break comprises a mixture of basalt and sodium-rich granites. These rocks comprise
the tonalite-trondjemite-granodiorite, or TTG, suite. This composition strikingly differs
from the present-day upper crust, which is dominated by K rich granites.
This profound change in crustal composition appears to be linked to changes in the
Earth’s tectonic regime. Probably, before 2.5 billion years, higher levels of radioactive
decay produced more heat in the oceanic crust and it was hotter, thicker and more
buoyant and could not subduct. As a result, denser crust melted and resulted in the
production of the sodium-rich igneous rocks of the TTG suite. Plate tectonics, as we
comprehend today, began operating after the late Archean, when the oceanic crust
became cooler, lost its buoyancy and could thus sink back into the mantle. From this
time, the relative height of ocean basins and continental platforms has remained relatively
static. At the beginning of the Proterozoic eon about 2.5 billion years ago, the crust
had already gained much of its present setup.
At a convergent boundary, the oceanic lithosphere sinks back into the mantle. The
descending oceanic lithosphere carries with it wet marine sediments. At a depth of
about 80 kilometers along the benioff zone, the heat drives water, and other volatile
components from the subducted sediments into the overlying mantle. These substances
then act as a flux and start melting of the surrounding material. The magma fractionates
(change in composition), to produce andesite, the bulk material of continents. The
magma generated eventually reaches the surface in the form of arc volcanism. This
process, on an average, adds about two cubic km. of lava and ash to the continents
every year.
The process of addition of continental crust has been continuous, but some spurts in
this activity have been recorded. Significant additions to the continental crust occurred
between 2.0 to 1.7, from 1.3 to 1.1 and from 0.5 to 0.3 billion years ago. The reasons
for this are better understood in the plate tectonic theory. During the Permian period
(250 million years ago), the major continents of Earth came together to create one
enormous landmass called Pangaea. This arrangement was not unique. In the earth’s
history, the formation of such “supercontinents” appears to recur at an interval of
about 600 million years. Major tectonic cycles driving the continents apart and together
have been documented as far back as the Early Proterozoic. It is believed that the first
supercontinent might have formed during the Archean itself. These tectonic cycles
help us to model the rate of crustal growth. When a supercontinent breaks itself apart,
the oceanic crust is at its oldest and hence most likely to form new continental crust
after it subducts. As the individual continents re-converge, volcanic arcs collide with
continental platforms and new crust is added to the margins of the continents. Taylor
and McLennan (2005) suggest that our planet has been fortuitous to maintain the plate
tectonic activity which helped in generation of `sizable patches of stable continental
crust that we find so convenient to live on’.
2.2.3 Oceans
Earth is a blue planet. In fact, it is the only known planet with seas of liquid water on its
surface. The total amount of water on earth has been estimated to be around 1,335
million cubic kilometres. Out of this water, oceans contain about 97.2 percent, ice
31
Earth Processes caps keep 2.15 percent while 0.65 percent is the available fresh water. Oceans and
seas cover over 70 percent of the earth surface.
There are two aspects of origin of oceans, first the origin of ocean floor and second
the origin of ocean water. The oceanic crust is dominantly different from the continental
crust.
The process of formation of ocean floors occurs at mid-ocean ridges. Throughout the
center of major oceans, runs an interconnected ridge system which has been termed
as the mid-oceanic ridge. A crack like valley runs along the crest of this ridge system.
Seismic investigations along the ridge axis suggest that the two sides of the ridge are
moving away from each other. As the crack widens, hot molten rock material from
below pours out and solidifies in the crack. This molten rock material is dominantly
basaltic in composition and contains iron bearing magnetic minerals like magnetite.
These minerals orient themselves along the prevailing magnetic field of the earth. Thus,
the new oceanic lithosphere is magnetised in the direction of the ambient magnetic field
of earth. We know that the magnetic field of earth has been changing throughout its
4.5 billion years of history. For the past 700,000 years, the North magnetic pole has
been close to its present position. As fracturing and consequent filling up of the crack
continues, a strip of magnetised rock is produced. During earth history as and when
the magnetic poles change their location or flip, the lava is magnetised in the changed
direction and a strip of reversed magnetization is preserved between the two split
halves of the earlier strip. The magnetic poles may change after 50,000 years, a
million years or might not change even for 20 million years, as happened during the
Permian period. Along the oceanic ridges, we find younger rocks near to the spreading
zone while the older ones are found farther away from the ridge axis.
The speed of spreading on either side of the MOR (mid-oceanic ridge) varies from
less than a cm. per year to about 8 cm. per year. The East Pacific Rise records the
fastest spreading rate while the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Carlsberg Ridge of the
Indian Ocean are the slowest. The rate of production of new ocean floor at a ridge
axis is the sum of rates of spreading on its two flanks. Thus 8 cm. per year would
translate into 16 cm per year spreading and this rate the entire floor of Pacific Ocean
(15,000 km) could be produced in about 100 million annum. The rates of sea floor
spreading or ocean floor generation can be obtained from the magnetic patterns and
the dates of the reversals.
At convergent plate boundaries, the oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath the continental
plate. Such regions mark the zones of consumption of the oceanic crust. This destruction
of oceanic lithosphere explains the absence of sediments over 150 million years old on
the ocean floor. The general phrase used in this context is ‘The tea (ocean water) in
the cup (ocean) is older than the cup itself’. This can be explained because the older
sediments accumulated on the ocean floor have been carried away with the plates and
are chaotically piled up at the edge of a continent or are carried down along with the
subducting oceanic plate and consumed in the manle.
The second aspect of the formation of oceans relates to the origin of ocean water. The
origin of the oceans has to be traced since the time of the earth’s formation 4. 5 billion
years ago, when the process of earth accretion through planetesimals started. There
could be three likely sources for the water. It could have either separated out from the
rocks that make up the bulk of the earth; or it could have arrived as part of a late-
32 accreting veneer of water- rich meteorites, similar to the carbonaceous chondrites that
we observe today; or it could have been added as part of a late-accreting veneer of Plate Tectonics
icy planetesimals or comets. The composition of the ocean offers some clues as to its
origin. Space scientists have studied the isotopic composition of frozen water in Comets
Halley and Hyakutake. They suggest that if all the comets contain the same water ice,
then comets cannot have delivered all the water in the earth’s oceans as the isotopic
composition of both is different. Further, the meteorites could not be considered as
the source of the entire water on land, as it would have resulted in a high concentration
of xenon in earth atmosphere, a parameter, which is not observed in earth atmosphere.
The possibility of the earth water being a mixture of meteoritic water and comet derived
water does not hold true since this combination would contain a higher concentration
of deuterium than is found in the oceans.
The search for a source of water in oceans is an active area of research. They require
more studies about comets and other planets. Current state of knowledge suggests
that the most acceptable hypothesis for the source of the ocean water is a combination
of water derived from comets and water that was caught up in the rocky body of the
earth as it formed. This mixture satisfactorily explains the low xenon concentration and
the deuterium concentration.
2.3 SEA FLOOR SPREADING

2.3.1 Introduction
Alfred Wegner in 1912 proposed the theory of Continental Drift based on the zig-saw
fit of continents and many other evidences. He said that the continents were constantly
moving, and these ploughed through the oceans, a theory that was taken with scepticism
in his own country. The principal reason for doubt was the absence of a plausible
mechanism through which the phenomenon occurred. Harry Hess, a geologist and
naval submarine commander during World War II, was examining the deepest parts of
the ocean floor. In 1946, he observed that the floor of the Pacific ocean was dotted
with hundreds of flat-topped mountains. In 1962, Hess proposed the hypothesis of
sea-floor spreading, which stated that basaltic magma from the mantle rises to create
new ocean floor at mid-ocean ridges.
Definition: Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at sub-marine spreading mid-
oceanic ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity. The
newly created oceanic crust gradually moves away on either side of the ridge axis as
the process continues and fresh oceanic crust is added.
2.3.2 Evidences and Mechanism

Seafloor spreading occurs at the mid-oceanic ridges, which, topographically, are long
mountain ranges extending through the middle of every ocean floor. A ridge forms
along a crack in the oceanic crust. At a mid-ocean ridge, because of extension of the
crust, the oceanic crust thins out and develops cracks and fractures through which
molten material rises from the mantle and erupts. This molten rock material then spreads
out, pushing older rock to both sides of the ridge. This process, called seafloor
spreading, continually adds fresh material to the ocean floor.
Using submarines during world war created an interest in exploring the ocean floor.
Scientists started using magnetometers to measure the magnetism of the ocean floor in
the 1950s. The pattern of magnetism in basaltic rocks observed on both sides of the 33
Earth Processes mid-oceanic ridges helped them identify the process of seafloor spreading. Basalt is a
basic magmatic rock which contains magnetite, besides other ferro-magnesian minerals.
Basaltic lava pours out of the mid-oceanic ridge and solidifies to turn into basalt. The
magnetic minerals present in basaltic lava orient themselves along the ambient magnetic
field direction of the earth (thermal remnant magnetism) prevailing. The scientists found
that the magnetism of the ocean floor around mid-ocean ridges was divided into matching
“stripes” on either side of the ridge. As larger tracts of the seafloor were mapped, the
magnetic variations turned out not to be random or isolated occurrences, but revealed
significant recognizable patterns. When these magnetic patterns were plotted, the ocean
floor showed a zebra-like pattern with one stripe with normal polarity (normal magnetic
field) and the adjoining stripe with reversed polarity (reverse magnetic field). This
pattern of alternating bands of normal and reversely polarized rock, was termed as
magnetic striping. Further, the perfectly symmetrical pattern of stripes on both sides of
a mid-oceanic ridge suggested that the continuous process of lava eruption and
subsequent seafloor spreading separated the stripes in an orderly manner. The process
of seafloor spreading is not the same at all mid-ocean ridges. Slowly spreading ridges
are the sites of tall, narrow underwater cliffs and mountains. Rapidly spreading ridges
have a much gentler slope. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, for example, is a slowly spreading
centre ridge. It spreads at a rate of 2 to 5 centimetres every year and forms an ocean
trench approximating the size of the Grand Canyon, USA. The East Pacific Rise is a
fast spreading centre ridge. It spreads at a speed of about 6 to 16 centimetres per
year. The rapid rate of floor spreading does not permit the development of trenches.
The differences in spreading rate affect not only the geometries of the ridges but also
the geochemistry of the basalts that are produced. The geochronology of the ocean
floor reveals that the newest, thinnest crust on Earth is near the axis of the spreading
centre ridge—the actual site of seafloor spreading. The age, density, and thickness of
the oceanic crust increases with distance from either side of the mid-ocean ridge axis.
Besides the central portion of ocean basins, the process of generation of oceanic crust
might also start in a continent. Usually, sea floor spreading starts as a rift in a continental
land mass, for example, the Red Sea-East Africa Rift System. The process begins
with heating of the continental crust at its base, which makes it more plastic and less
dense. Gradually the area being heated becomes a broad dome. As the crust domes
upward, fractures appear that expand into rifts. A typical rift system comprises three
rift arms at an angle of approximately 120 degrees. These areas are named as triple
junctions. If the spreading process continues, two of the rift arms open while the third
arm stops opening and becomes a ‘failed rift’. As the two active rifts continue to
develop, the continental crust thins out as it stretches. At this juncture, rifting results in
the generation of basaltic oceanic crust between the separating continental fragments.
When one rift opens into the existing ocean, the rift system is flooded with seawater
and becomes an incipient sea. The Red Sea is an example of a new arm of the sea.
The process of sea floor spreading may stop in-between, but if it continues to where
the continent is completely severed, then a new ocean basin is created. The Niger
River has formed in the failed rift arm of the triple junction.
The driving force for continental drift and sea floor spreading was initially explained
based on the convection current hypothesis. The interior of earth is hot owing to the
primordial heat related to the genesis of earth as also because of radioactive minerals
and immense pressure of overlying rocks. It has been postulated that heat transfer
from the interior of the earth to the surface results in the formation of huge convection
34
current cells in the mantle which fuel the crustal movements. The region where two Plate Tectonics
upwelling adjacent hot convection current cells come near the surface is the site of
formation of new oceanic crust. Subsequently, as scientific understanding advanced,
the theory of plate tectonics developed.
2.4 PLATE TECTONICS

2.4.1 Introduction
Plate tectonics is a theoretical scientific model which tries to explain the large-scale
motion of seven large plates and many small plates of the Earth’s lithosphere, over the
past hundreds of millions of years. The theory builds on the concept of continental
drift, an idea proposed by Wegner in 1912. The plate-tectonic theory was largely
accepted in the 1970s after the validation of seafloor spreading theory and inputs by
many workers as detailed below in section on Brief history.
Definition: The theory of plate tectonics states that the surface of earth comprises
rigid plates which behave as brittle solids and travel on a visco-elastic or plastic layer
termed as asthenosphere which deforms readily by creep.
Brief History: After the gradual acceptance of the fact that the surface of earth was
not static but dynamic, scientists were constantly working on some plausible mechanism
to explain the results of the underwater sea bed magnetic exploration findings. Gradually
a theory explaining global movement of earth’s surface took shape. This theory appealed
to the scientists, but it had many shortcomings which the contemporary geoscientists
tried to explain. This initial theory, termed as ‘New Global Tectonics’, was later
termed as ‘Plate Tectonics’ after suitable inputs by many workers which increased its
acceptance by the scientific community. Tuzo Wilson, in 1965, added a new type of
plate boundary termed as transform fault to the plate tectonic concept to make the
global mobility of plates a reality. Edward Bullard and his co-workers (1965) showed
with a computer calculation how the continents along both sides of the Atlantic Ocean
would best fit to close the ocean which is popularly known as the “Bullard’s Fit”. In
1966, Wilson introduced the concept of the “Wilson Cycle”. In 1967, Morgan
proposed that the Earth’s surface comprises 12 rigid plates that move relative to each
other. Two months later, Pichon gave a complete model of 6 major plates with their
relative motions, which marked the absolute acceptance of the plate tectonic theory
by the scientific community. In the same year, McKenzie and Parker independently
presented a model similar to Morgan’s using translations and rotations on a sphere to
define the plate motions.
The approximate age of the Earth is 4.54 +_ 0.05 billion years. This figure has been
obtained by radiometric dating of calcium and aluminium rich inclusions in meteorites
formed within the solar system and the earliest recorded dates of terrestrial and lunar
rock material. The initial molten earth slowly cooled for a considerable time, and the
oldest fragments of continental crust found in Acasta Gneiss in Canada and ancient
rock formations in western Greenland date about 3.8 billion years. The gap in geological
record of about 500 million years is thought to reflect the time taken by the earliest
crust to solidify from a molten mass as also the probable consequence of re-melting
triggered after meteoritic effects on early forming earth.
Based on geochronological studies of ancient magmas, comparison of earth crust with
that of Venus, inclusions in diamonds, age of zircons and geochemical studies, the 35
Earth Processes majority of geoscientists think that modern plate tectonics began around 2.5 billion
years ago, but in a markedly different manner and rate. The age of the oldest seafloor
is about 200 million years. The oldest ocean rocks are found in the north-western
Pacific Ocean and the eastern Mediterranean Sea.
As the continents move around the Earth, they occasionally come together. Pangaea
was a super continent that formed about 335 million years ago during late Paleozoic
and began breaking up apart around 175 million years ago. The supercontinent was
surrounded by a super ocean termed Panthalassa. The Pangaea comprised South
America, Africa, Antarctica, India, and Australia. This super landmass had a
characteristic pattern of vegetation, animals, and rocks. Today, these continents are
spaced widely apart and are in different climatic zones. The tell-tale puzzle pieces left
behind by Pangaea, from fossils to the matching shorelines along the Atlantic Ocean,
provided the irrefutable idea that the continents move.
2.4.2 Major Plates

Our planet earth has a three-layered structure. Crust is the outermost layer which is
followed by mantle and then the innermost layer is termed as core. The lithosphere,
which is the outer rigid layer (comprising the crust and the upper mantle), is made up
of numerous rigid brittle fragments termed as tectonic plates. These tectonic plates
move like a ship on the asthenosphere. The asthenosphere is highly viscous, mechanically
weak, and plastically deforming region in the upper mantle. It lies below the lithosphere,
at a depth of approximately 80 km to 200 km below the surface of earth. This zone is
characterised by a sudden drop in seismic wave velocities and is termed as the low
velocity zone (LVZ).
The lithospheric plates are made up of dominantly continental crustal material or the
denser oceanic crustal material. At a plate boundary, the interaction between two
plates is interplay of their densities. The denser oceanic plate usually subducts beneath
the lighter continental plate at a continental plate – oceanic plate collision boundary.
The lithospheric fragments which are larger than 20 million sq. km. are termed as
major plates and those between 20 million sq.km and one million sq. km are termed as
minor plates.
Table 2.1: Tectonic plates and their size
S. No. Name of the Plate Area
Major Plates
1 Pacific Plate 103,300,000 km2
2 North American Plate 75,900,000 km2
3 Eurasian Plate 67,800,000 km2
4 African Plate 61,300,000 km2
5 Antarctic Plate 60,900,000 km2
6 Indo-Australian Plate 58,900,000 km2
7 South American Plate 43,600,000 km2
Minor Plates
1 Somali Plate 16,700,000 km2
2 Nazca Plate 15,600,000 km2
3 Philippine Sea Plate 5,500,000 km2
36
4 Arabian Plate 5,000,000 km2 Plate Tectonics
5 Caribbean Plate 3,300,000 km2
6 Cocos Plate 2,900,000 km2
7 Caroline Plate 1,700,000 km2
8 Scotia Plate 1,600,000 km2
9 Burma Plate 1,100,000 km2
10 New Hebrides Plate 1,100,000 km2
Plates smaller than 1 million sq. Km. are termed as micro plates and are often
grouped with the major plates.
1. Describe the mechanism of formation of continents and oceans.
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2. Explain the theory of sea floor spreading.
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3. What are the criteria of plate grouping? Enumerate the major and minor plates.
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.....................................................................................................................
2.4.3 Movement of Lithospheric Plates

The movement of lithospheric plates creates three types of plate boundaries. There
are:
• Convergent Plate Boundaries
• Divergent Plate Boundaries
• Transform Plate Boundaries
1. Convergent plate boundaries or Destructive boundaries or Active margins occur
where two lithospheric plates move towards each other to form either a subduction
zone or a continental collision zone (Fig. 2.1).
a) At zones of ocean-to-continent subduction (e.g. the Andes mountain range in
South America, and the Cascade Mountains in Western United States), the
dense oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath the less dense continental plate. 37
Earth Processes Swarm type earthquake activity traces the path of the downward-moving
plate as it descends into asthenosphere. The collision creates a trench where
the thin veneers of oceanic sediments accumulate as the oceanic plate descends
into the mantle. The subducted plate is heated during its downward journey
and it releases volatiles, mostly water from hydrous minerals, into the
surrounding mantle. This addition of water lowers the melting point of the
mantle material above the subducting slab, causing it to melt. The magma that
results typically leads to arc volcanism on the surface.
b) Along zones of ocean-to-ocean subduction (e.g. Aleutian Islands and the
Japanese island arc), older, cooler, denser crust subducts beneath the less
dense crust. This causes earthquakes and a deep trench to form in an arcuate
shape. The subducted plate heats, loses its volatiles, which act as flux for
magma generation at low temperatures, and the molten material rises to form
curving chains of volcanic islands. Deep marine trenches are typically
associated with subduction zones.
c) During collision of two continental plates (e.g., Himalaya) underplating results
in compression, folding and upheaval of continental sediments and the
consequent basin that develops along the active boundary is called as the
foreland basin (e.g. Siwalik Basin).
2. Divergent boundaries or Constructive boundaries occur where two plates move
apart from each other (Fig. 2.2).
a) Along the centre of the major ocean basins runs the mid-oceanic ridge, which
is a worldwide interconnected chain where rifting of the ocean basin occurs.
Divergent boundaries form by the process of seafloor spreading. These are
the sites for the formation of the new ocean basin floor. As the oceanic plate
splits, cracks, and fractures form in the thin oceanic crust. Hot molten rock
material from mantle outpours into these cracks and fractures. As rifting
continues, new oceanic lithosphere is added as the two sides of the ridge
move away from each other. The lava pours out through many vents and the
movement of magma creates rumbling in the substratum. Many small volcanoes
and shallow earthquakes occur along this zone.
Fig. 2.1: Sketch showing a Convergent Plate Boundary

b) Within a continent, rifting occurs. These rift zones result in the formation of a
new ocean basin as the continent splits. Gradually the rift widens out, spreads,
and the central rift collapses. The water from the adjacent sea or ocean fills
the newly created basin.
Active zones of Mid-Ocean Ridges (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge and East Pacific Rise),
and continent-to-continent rifting (such as Africa’s East African Rift Valley, Red Sea)
38
are examples of divergent boundaries.
Plate Tectonics
Fig. 2.2: Sketch showing a Divergent Plate Boundary
3. Transform boundaries or Conservative plate boundaries occur where two

lithospheric plates slide past each other along transform faults. In this tectonic
boundary, plates are neither created nor destroyed. The relative motion of the two
plates is sinistral (left side toward the observer) or dextral (right side toward the
observer). Transform faults occur across a spreading centre. The San Andreas
Fault in California is an example of a 1,300 km long continental transform boundary
between Pacific plate and the North American Plate. The fault exhibits dextral
motion (Fig. 2.3).
Fig. 2.3: Sketch showing a Transform Plate Boundary

2.4.4 Mantle Convection and Plate Tectonics

Mantle convection is the slow creeping motion of the solid silicate mantle of earth.
The interior of earth is hot and is continuously losing heat by mechanisms of convection
and conduction. The convection currents in mantle transfer heat from the interior of the
Earth to the surface (Fig. 2.4). Evidence from seismic tomography, numerical simulations
of mantle convection and gravitational field of earth suggest the existence of whole
mantle convection. Evidence reveal that convection speed is variable but typical mantle
convection speed is around 20 mm/yr near the crust. Further, the small-scale convection
in the upper mantle is much faster than the convection near the core. A single shallow
convection cycle completes in about 50 million years while the deeper convection
takes around 200 million years.
Plate tectonic model tries to explain the tectonics of earth based on plate movements.
The theory assumes that plates are the rigid brittle parts of lithosphere which travel as
ships on a weak layer, the asthenosphere. Tectonic plates are composed of oceanic
lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its characteristic type
of crust. Divergent plate boundaries are the mid-oceanic ridges and continental rifts
where new lithosphere is being created. Convergent plate boundaries are the zones
where the denser plate is being consumed. The material lost is roughly balanced by 39
Earth Processes the formation of new oceanic crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading. Sea
floor spreading gave the scientific evidence of sea floor movement based on magnetic
stripes on the ocean floor which are symmetrically placed across the MOR. At
transform boundaries, the two plates slide past each other with no destruction or
addition of the plates. In this way, the total surface of the lithosphere remains in
perpetual motion. This prediction of plate tectonics is referred to as the conveyor belt
principle. Tectonic plates can move because the Earth’s lithosphere has
greater mechanical strength than the underlying asthenosphere. Lateral density variations
in the mantle result in convection. The variations in topography and density of the
crust result in differences in gravitational forces. This along with drag results in the
motion of the seafloor away from the spreading centre ridge. A downward suction
force acts along the subduction zones.
Plate movement is also believed to be a consequence of the forces generated by tidal
pull of the Sun and Moon. The relative importance of each of these factors and their
relationship to each other is still not clearly known.
Fig. 2.4: Sketch showing convection currents in the mantle in relation to plate boundaries
2.4.5 Plate Boundaries and Hot Spots

Hot spots are volcanic regions which are thought to be fed by an underlying mantle
that is anomalously hot compared with the surrounding mantle. They may be on, near
to, or far from tectonic plate boundaries. The concept of hotspots was given by J.
Tuzo Wilson in 1963. He postulated that the Hawaiian Islands result from the slow
movement of a tectonic plate across a hot region beneath the surface. It was later
postulated that hotspots are fed by narrow streams of hot mantle rising from the Earth’s
core–mantle boundary in a structure called a mantle plume. The entire concept has not
been scientifically accepted so far and is the subject of a major controversy in Earth
science. The volcanic regions of Hawaii, Yellowstone and Iceland are thought to be
linked to hotspots. The lava erupting from the majority of the hotspots in oceanic
regions is basaltic in character while that in continental setup is rhyolitic in nature. The
hotspot hypothesis is intricately linked to the mantle plume hypothesis.
There are two views regarding their origin. One suggests that hotspots are because of
mantle plumes that rise as thermal diapirs from the core–mantle interface. The other
theory suggests that lithospheric extension permits the passive rising of melt from shallow
depths and that the mantle source is not anomalously hot.
The mechanism of plate motion has been explained in the convection current hypothesis.
This model suggests that the cold, subducting oceanic lithospheric plate descends
40
along the Benioff zone from the surface to the core-mantle boundary (CMB) and hot Plate Tectonics
plumes rise from the CMB all the way to the surface. The model shows that slab and
plume-like anomalies cross the mantle transition zone. Scientists are trying to find
whether the intra-plate volcanism is caused by shallow, upper-mantle processes or by
plumes from the lower mantle. Many geochemical studies have found that the intra-
plate lavas have different He-3/He-4 ratios as compared to mid-ocean ridge basalts
(MORB). The elevated He-3/He-4 ratio of Ocean Island Basalts (OIBs) suggest that
they might have been sourced from a part of the earth that has not previously been
melted and reprocessed in the same way as MORB source has been. This has been
interpreted as their originating from a different, less well-mixed region, probably the
lower mantle as also the result of inclusion of a minor component of near-surface
material from the lithosphere.
4. Explain the unique types of plate boundaries. Illustrate your answer with suitable
sketches.
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5. Describe the process of mantle convection in relation to plate tectonics.
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6. Write brief notes on hotspots and mantle plumes.
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2.5 LET US SUM UP

The earth is a blue planet. It is the only planet in our solar system which supports life.
Through a long eventful history of 4.5 billion years, the various endogenetic forces
operating on this planet created the continents and the oceans. These geographical
entities are ever developing and dynamic. The continents, as we know today, had an
entirely different location about 335 million years ago. These have been converging
and diverging during the different time spans in the history of earth. The theory of
Continental drift, sea floor spreading, and the plate tectonics have tried to scientifically
explain the processes and probable mechanisms of the movement of continents and
opening and closing of ocean basins. The role of mantle convection and hot spots in
fuelling the global movement of lithospheric plates and volcanism is interesting. 41
Earth Processes
2.6 KEYWORDS
Tectonic plates : The lithosphere, which is the outer rigid layer
(comprising the crust and the upper mantle), is
made up of numerous rigid brittle fragments
termed as tectonic plates. These tectonic plates
move like a ship on the asthenosphere.
Seafloor spreading : It is a process that occurs at sub-marine
spreading mid-oceanic ridges, where new
oceanic crust is formed through volcanic
activity.
Plate tectonics : A theoretical scientific model which tries to
explain the large-scale motion of seven large
plates and many small plates of
the Earth’s lithosphere, over the past hundreds
of millions of years.
MORB : Mid-ocean ridge basalts.
CMB : Core-mantle boundary.

READINGS
Taylor, S.R and McLennan, S.M., 2005, “The Evolution of Continental Crust” in
Scientific American Special Editions 15, 2s, 44-49 (July 2005) doi:10.1038/
scientificamerican0705-44sp
Kelermen, P.B., 2009, The origin of the ocean floor, Scientific American, 300(2), 52-
57.
Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift and Mountain Building by Wolfgang Frisch , Martin
Meschede, et al. ,2010, Springer.
Plate Tectonics & Crustal Evolution by Kent C. Condie, 2013, Pergamon Press.
Plate Tectonics by Arthur N. Strahler, 1998, Geo Books Pub.
Tectonics by Eldridge M. Moores and Robert J. Twiss, 1995, W.H. Freeman.
Plate Tectonics: How It Works by Allan Cox and R. B. Hart, 1986, Wiley-Blackwell.

Your answers should include the following points:
1. Continental Crust Formation, Plate Tectonics – Subduction, ARC volcanism,
Continental crustal growth. Convergent Plates boundary, Mid-Oceanic ridges,
Ocean floor generation, source of water.
42 2. Harry Hess, mid-oceanic ridges, magnetic stripes and polarity.

3. Crustal boundary type – Continental or Oceanic, density variation, large and small Plate Tectonics
plates.
4. Convergent, divergent and transform plate boundaries with examples and sketches.
5. Heat flow, crustal density, plate tectonic model, conveyor belt, lateral density
variations.
6. Mantle plumes, thermal diapirs, ocean island basalts.
43
Earth Processes
UNIT 3 EARTH SURFACE PROCESSES
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Surface Processes
3.2.1 Erosional Agents
3.2.2 Weathering
3.2.3 Transportation
3.2.4 Deposition
3.2.5 Burial
3.2.6 Diagenesis
3.3 Depositional Features Formed by Rivers, Winds, Glaciers, and Coastal
Processes
3.3.1 Stream Erosion, Transportation and Deposition
3.3.2 Glacial Erosion, Transportation and Deposition
3.3.3 Wind Erosion, Transportation and Deposition
3.3.4 Sea Wave Erosion, Transportation and Deposition
3.4 Let Us Sum Up
3.5 Keywords
3.0 INTRODUCTION
External natural agencies like rivers, wind, sea waves, glaciers are operational on
earth since geologic past. These processes are responsible for the continuous changing
landforms on earth’s surface. The present unit deals with an important topic where you
will learn about the role of rivers, wind, glaciers, and sea waves in the weathering of
rocks, formation of sediments, sediment transportation and finally sediment deposition.
All these natural agents help to shape the dynamic face of earth. After going through
the unit, you will understand how these natural agencies led to destruction and
construction of landforms over millions of years.
3.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
• Explain the geological features and geological processes taking place on the earth;
• Comprehend that rivers, wind, glaciers, and sea waves, which are natural agencies,
are important in shaping the face of the earth; and
• Describe the depositional features formed by rivers, winds, glaciers, and coastal
processes and;
• Interpret that the play of these natural processes will keep on changing the face of
44 earth in future and it has done in the past.
Earth Surface
3.2 SURFACE PROCESSES Processes
3.2.1 Erosional Agents

Erosion is defined as a geological process in which the worn-out earth materials are
transported by natural agencies such as wind, rivers, rains etc. The natural forces such
as wind, water (sea waves, river, waterfall etc.) and ice. These natural agents/agencies
come into play individually or together and erode and transport material from one
place to another depending on many factors such as energy of the eroding agency to
carry/transport the worn out earth material. Erosional agents are responsible for changing
landscapes. The mountain peaks can get flattened as a result of erosion over millions
of years depending at the rate of erosion. Similarly, low lying areas can accumulate the
eroded material and can transform into the new landscape!
3.2.2 Weathering
How do we define weathering? Weathering is breaking of surface rocks into sediments
by any natural process. How many of you recall having seen sediments? Sediments
result from weathering of a preexisting rock by either mechanical / physical or chemical
weathering. The physical weathering involves breaking of rocks and no change in
composition of rocks. Physical weathering implies breakdown of rock because of
extreme temperature change, widening of cracks and crevices of rocks, exfoliation.
The chemical weathering involves a reaction between the rock and the environment,
rainwater, river water, sea water. Both physical and chemical weathering generates
sediments. The weathering of rocks can result by thawing and freezing of water in
cracks and crevices in rocks in cold area, by splitting of rocks because of deeply
penetrating roots of trees, continuously passing of a stream/river over a rocky terrane,
moving glacier over rocks, etc. Once the rock gets weathered it is eroded by different
natural agents such as rivers, winds, glaciers and finally deposited in viable places such
as seas, basins, lakes, depressions on land. It may take millions of years for weathering
processes to produce sediments, and it depends on the climatic conditions and the
nature of the rock. For example, hot humid tropical climates promote sediment formation
whereas in cold climates it takes longer to weather rocks to sediments.
Erosion of the weathered sediments by wind, water and glaciers which act as
transporting agents play an important role in shaping the face of the earth. The earth
has pockets / sinks where these weathered and eroded sediments finally rest and pile
in form of layers. The piled layers finally get lithified and form sedimentary rocks.
Laying off sediments in the basins/sinks is also referred to as sedimentation.
3.2.3 Transportation
The sediments formed by weathering are eroded by rivers, wind, and glaciers to
sedimentary basins. The journey of the sediments may take long to reach the destination.
For example, the load of sediments accumulated by rivers may rest finally in the deltas
formed at the mouth of the river. The accumulation of sediments at the base of a hillock
is another example of transportation of sediments because of gravity. The moving of
boulders by a glacier is an example of transportation by the moving ice. The high
velocity winds can carry on fine sediments to far-off places and drop them when the
winds get milder in terms of velocity (when their energy weakens) and thus can cause
formation of heaps of sand or even sand dunes in desert areas.
45
Earth Processes Oceans are the greatest repositories of all kinds of sediments brought in by rivers and
wind. The currents in the rivers and wind are responsible for the transportation of
sediments. The river-borne sediments contribute annually around 25 billion tons to the
oceans (Grotzinger and Jordan, 2014).
The strength of the water or wind current, which depends primarily on the velocity,
dictates how far they can carry the sediments of different sizes. The strong currents
can carry the large sediments to far off distance, whereas the weak currents will drop
the sediments nearby. The currents are also responsible for segregation of sediments.
For example, the strong currents (velocity around 50 cm/s) which are most prevalent
in the mountainous regions or the regions where a river starts its journey downwards
with gushing waters can carry boulders, pebbles and cobbles along with finer materials.
Whereas, moderate and weak currents will not be as impactful in terms of erosion and
transportation as strong currents are and thus will promote deposition instead. For
example, point bars formed in a meandering river (Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Meandering river with point bars

3.3.4 Deposition
It is the process which is the outcome of water / wind currents or mass wasting putting
the sediments to rest. The powerful water or wind currents may deposit heavy sediments
like gravels closer to the source, but they can carry on with the lighter sediments such
as sand and clays to far-off places. On the weakening of river and wind currents, they
will deposit the load of sand and clays. The changing intensity of the currents also
helps in sorting of the sediments with the heaviest deposited close to the source and
the lightest carried far away from the source. The mass wasting allows the deposition
of sediments at the base of a slope.
3.3.5 Burial
Deposition is a process where sediments halt and if they keep halting in a same place,
then the older sediments subsequently get buried beneath the newer ones giving rise to
46 what we call burial process. With passaging time a tremendous mass of sediments gets
buried in depressions, basins or sinks on earth viz. Lakes, ponds, continental margin, Earth Surface
and shelf areas, etc. During burial, the older sediments at the bottom get a load of Processes
overlying sediments. The load of the overlying sediments causes compaction of the
sediments in the due course of time. The accumulated sediments remain there unless
some other geological process like exhumation or subduction moves them and again
put them back in rock cycle.
3.3.6 Diagenesis
It is a sedimentary phenomenon where the sediments undergo physical and chemical
changes mainly triggered by pressure. Fluids trapped in sediments are expelled and
heat and chemical reactions cause lithification and formation of a sedimentary rock.
b) Check your progress with answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Define natural processes and why are they important.
.....................................................................................................................
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2. Write brief notes on transportation of sediments.
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3. How do sediments get buried and converted to a sedimentary rock?
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3.3 DEPOSITIONAL FEATURES FORMED BY

RIVERS, WINDS, GLACIERS AND COASTAL
PROCESSES
3.3.1 Stream Erosion, Transportation and Deposition
Stream water is one of the widely acknowledged natural agencies which contribute to
erosion, transportation, and deposition of sediments. The important erosional and
depositional features created by running water of streams are prominent features of
earth (V-shaped valleys, deltas, sand bars, point bars, flood plains etc.), which ultimately
shape the earth’s face. Running stream/river water reinforced by mass wasting controls
the landscape of earth (Plummer et al., 2016).
The streams mostly originate in mountains and are in the youthful stage. The headward
waters of the youthful stream leads to formation of V-shaped valley by cutting deeper 47
Earth Processes across the bottom and sideways solid rock. The V shape valley forms by erosion and
eroded material is carried by the stream causing further degradation of the bedrock.
The load varies from bigger blocks called boulders to pebbles to sand-sized grains
and fine clayey materials. These bigger blocks further weather the bedrock and create
potholes. Through the process called attrition, the boulders rub against each other and
the bedrock, reducing in size. In the middle stages, the river becomes sluggish and
deposits the load and result in a meandering river. The different stages of the rivers
such as middle and old stage lead to several depositional features like bars, braided
streams, meandering streams, point bars, flood plains, deltas, alluvial fans. Most of the
sediments get temporarily deposited along the stream course in form of bars, floodplain
deposits. The continuous repeated flow of water in streams may carry these temporarily
deposited sediments to the final resting destinations such as alluvial fans and deltas
where the river ends into a sea or an ocean (Plummer et al. 2016). Let us describe a
few of these depositional features.
Sand and gravel bars (wall of sediments) commonly known as ‘bars’, are formed by
deposition of gravels and sands in the river center or on the sides of the river. The slow
velocity of the water during the middle stages of the river and receding waters after the
floods causes the formation of sand and gravel bars in the middle and at the banks of
the river. The lowering of the water level during recession of flood waters makes the
bars visible. The next cycle of flood may again wash the bars formed and redeposit
again newer brought up sediments.
A flood plain develops when river channel has ample water and sediment load i.e. it is
full of water and suspended sediment load (silt and clay) and it spills the sediments on
either side of the river channel forming a wide strip of sediments. As the water in the
river channel recedes, these sediment deposits become visible and form flood plains
on either side of the river channel. The subsequent cycles of flooding and receding of
water post floods on either side of the river form flood plains.
The destination of a river is a sea or an enormous lake. The final termination of river
with sediment load into calm water commonly forms a delta. It forms delta of sediments
brought by the river at its mouth. The reason it forms a delta is the considerable
reduced velocity of the river water. It splits the water of the river when it deposits load
into distributaries. Example of stream dominated delta is the bird-foot delta of
Mississippi.
3.3.2 Glacial Erosion, Transportation and Deposition

Let us first define a glacier. It is a moving mass of ice which is formed on land by
compaction and recrystallisation of snow. In this unit we will study about valley glacier
which like a river flows from higher to lower altitude under the control of gravity. The
rate at which a glacier moves can be variable from less than a few mm to 15 m a day.
The glaciers move fast if the slope is steep. A U-shaped valley forms by glacial erosion
in contrast to a V-shaped valley by river erosion.
The glaciers have power to erode the bedrock over which it creeps. The rock under
the glacier is easily abraded when the meltwater enters the cracks in the bedrock and
freezes. The continuous percolation of meltwater through cracks and its freezing leads
to breaking of the bedrock. The loose bedrock fragments are plucked by the base of
the moving glacier. This process of eroding the bedrock is known as plucking. The
48 thick glacier’s movement over the bedrock also leads to grinding and crushing of the
rock. The grinding of rock leads to formation of rock flour, fine powder resembling Earth Surface
flour. It comprises silt and clay-sized particles. The boulders trapped in the glaciers Processes
also get faceted during the movement of the glaciers.
The rock fragments plucked from the bedrock and scraped from valley walls make up
the glacier’s load. The glacier’s load comprises angular large sized rock fragments,
boulders, particles of all sizes, it is basically an unsorted mix. We term this unsorted
debris carried by the glacier a till. Moraines also form as a depositional feature of
glaciers. The accumulation of till left behind a glacier is called Moraine. Moraines can
be varied. The moraines which form along the sides of a valley glacier are known as
lateral moraines. Like river tributaries, the tributary glaciers can come together and
feed the main glacier. The adjacent lateral moraines of the tributary glaciers join and
form medial moraine. The end moraine forms where a glacier ends. Some end moraines
formed by valley glaciers are crescent or horseshoe shaped. Drumlins are inverted
spoon shaped bodies which resulted by accumulation of till by a past glacial activity.
The drumlins can help determine the direction of ice movement in the past glaciers.
The outwash is another depositional feature formed by meltwaters of glaciers. It is
sorted unlike till deposits and can be easily distinguished from till. Esker is an elongated
meltwater deposited on sinuous ridge associated with huge valley glaciers.
1. Define role of river in erosion of sediments.
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2. What are the common depositional features formed by river waters.
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3. How are valley glaciers involved in erosion and deposition?
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3.3.3 Wind Erosion, Transportation and Deposition

Wind is an important natural agent of erosion, transportation, and deposition. The
loose, dry, and dispersed finer sediments (sand, clay and soil) can be easily removed
and carried by wind and can cause deflation. The deflation in some areas is commonly
known as a blowout. The wind velocity dictates the erosion and transportation of
sediments. The high velocity winds can move sediments easily and to a greater distance. 49
Earth Processes The sand which is heavier compared to silt and clay is carried by wind close to the
land surface. Sand moves by saltation created by the wind currents. Sandstorms can
result because of top speed winds. The suspended sand in the wind near the land
surface can sandblast surfaces on hard rocks in its way. Ventifacts (rocks sculptured
flat) are commonly formed by windblown sediments.
The windblown deposits can form amazing landforms, i.e. loess and sand dunes. Loess
deposits comprise angular grains of quartz, feldspar, clay minerals bounded by calcite
cement. Sand dunes on the contrary contain rounded sand grains, mostly comprising
quartz mineral. Sand dunes are typical of a desert terrain where heaps of loose,
windblown sand accumulate and form mounds of distinct shapes. The sand found in
sand dunes is well sorted and almost devoid of silt and clay.
3.3.4 Sea Wave Erosion, Transportation and Deposition

A sea wave is an important natural agent which can shape up the coastal areas or
areas adjoining a sea. It is a powerful agent of erosion, transportation, and deposition.
The sea waves can erode, whether the coastal areas or build up the coastal areas.
Before going further, let us define a sea wave and how it is driven. The moving wind
over the vast open expanse of oceans and seas creates a wave in the oceans and seas.
The wind created waves have the energy to erode the coastal rocks. The sea waves
have the energy to transport and deposit the sediments in the coastal areas.
Erosional features sculpted by the sea waves are remarkably interesting and quite
unique. The waves can erode rocky coasts. The coastal rocks can undergo physical
and chemical weathering caused by the wave energy and the reactive nature of seawater,
respectively. Both the physical and chemical weathering depends on the coastal rocks.
Granulite, a hard rock, is difficult to physically and chemically weather, whereas
limestone, a soft rock, can be easily physically and chemically weathered. Headlands
in between the bays along the irregular coastlines can be straightened by wave action
i.e. weathering of headland and erosion of the weathered material. Similarly, rocky
cliffs can result from wave erosion on the headlands. The eroded material can get
deposited in the bay areas and result in broader beaches and straightened coastlines.
Most of the time weathering of headland leads to development of sea cliff. Sea caves
form at the base of the sea cliff because of eroding power of sea waves. Sea stacks
are formed by erosive sea waves when the remnant of headland is left behind. Sea
arches form when erosive waves cut headland in the shape of an arch or bridge.
A beach is a depositional feature formed by an accumulation of sand and gravel. The
exposure of sand deposits on beaches is controlled by rising and falling tides. Beach is
part of the coast. Coast is extensive, comprising beach and a band of land inland from
it. Coasts can vary from wide, gently sloping plains to rocky terrains with cliffs (Plummer
et al. 2016).
1. Define role of wind in transportation of sediments.
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50
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..................................................................................................................... Earth Surface
Processes
2. What are the common depositional features formed by wind.
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3. How are sea waves involved in sculpturing the coastal areas?
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3.4 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have touched upon basics of weathering, transportation, deposition,
burial, and diagenesis. The unit discusses the external natural agencies such as rivers,
wind, glaciers, and sea waves which have helped to shape the face of earth to a great
extent. These natural agencies have the prowess to weather the rocks, transport the
weathered material of varied sizes, and deposit the weathered material at viable places.
The erosion of material can lead to sculpturing of earth’s surface affected by such
activities. Similarly, the eroded materials are carried to different spots and laid off
depending on the transporting ability of the natural agency. The final resting of the
transported material further affects the face of the earth.
3.5 KEYWORDS
Earth processes : They are natural processes such as magmatism,
volcanism, blowing wind, flowing water, moving
ice (glaciers) that occur within and on the earth
and are largely responsible for shaping the earth.
Pothole : It is a depression formed in the riverbed by the
abrasive nature of boulders, gravels, sands (river
load).
Distributary : The main river water is distributed into small,
shifting channels when it deposits sediment load
at the mouth of the river during a delta formation.
Birdfoot delta : Stream sedimentation that forms the fingerlike
distributaries resembling a bird’s foot, thus the
name bird-foot delta.
Headland : A thin piece of land that ventures from a coastline
into the sea
Mass wasting : A process by which soil, sand, regolith,
and rock move downslope under the influence of
gravity.
51
Earth Processes Point bar : A depositional feature characteristic of a
meandering river. The inside bend of the
meandering river commonly accumulates
sediments giving rise to point bars.
Rock Cycle : Changeover from one key rock type to another
viz., igneous sedimentary and metamorphic
through geological processes and geological time.
Saltation : The transport of hard particles over an uneven
surface by air or water.

READINGS
Grotzinger, J.P. and Jordan, T. H., 2014. Understanding earth. W. H. Freeman and
Plummer, C.C., Carlson D.H. and Hammersley D 2016. Physical Geology.
McGraw Hill Education. New York. 673p.
https://sciencing.com/four-types-physical-weathering-6456598.html
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/CirqueMadeleine.jpg/
1024px-CirqueMadeleine.jpg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_bar#/media/File:Point_bar_and_cut_bank.jpg

Your answers should include the following points.
1. After reading the above text, you can visualize how earth is governed by internal
and external processes. Think of geological features such as beaches, sand dunes
and deltas. How do you think they came into existence? Explain that in your own
words.
2. How do you assess role of wind during a dust storm? Do you think dust and
sediments are carried during dust storms? If ever you are caught in a dust storm
have you felt the fine dust particles causing irritation to your eyes? Think of other
geological agencies which can transfer sediments besides wind.
3. You must have seen a sedimentary rock like sandstone. Think of the red fort of
Delhi, it is made of red sandstone. How a rock is formed from sediments. Try to
explain by reading the section on diagenesis.
1. Think of a river starting its journey from a higher altitude. What types of material a
river in different stages i.e. young, middle, and old stages can bring along? Try to
52
think about the eroding capacity of a river at different times during flow of the Earth Surface
river. Think of the flood time in a river when it has excess water in its channel. Processes
2. Important depositional features of rivers: read the section on rivers and try to
answer this question. How the river load gets deposited into varied features such
as bars, point bars, flood plains and deltas?
3. Valley glaciers can form many sorted and unsorted deposit. Read the section on
glaciers and write about how till, moraines, eskers etc form.
1. Wind is a powerful agency which can transport the sediments of varied sizes
depending on its velocity. It can carry the lighter load as far as 15 kms. Think
about dust and sandstorms.
2. You may describe the loess and sand dunes in this question. Search for literature
on types of sand dunes.
3. You may visualize the sea waves hitting the rocks exposed in the coastal areas.
Think of the features developed because of an erosive power of the sea waves.
53
Earth Processes
UNIT 4 ROCKS AND MINERALS
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Minerals
4.3 Chemical Classification of Minerals
4.4 Structural Classification of Silicates
4.5 Common Rock-Forming Mineral Groups
4.5.1 Olivine Group
4.5.2 Garnet Group
4.5.3 Pyroxene Group
4.5.4 Amphibole Group
4.5.5 Mica Group
4.5.6 Feldspar Group
4.5.7 Silica Group
4.5.8 Carbonates
4.6 Rocks
4.7 Classification of Rocks
4.7.1 Igneous Rocks
4.7.2 Sedimentary Rocks
4.7.3 Metamorphic Rocks
4.8 Weathering
4.9 Factors Controlling Weathering
4.10 Types of Weathering
4.10.1 Physical Weathering
4.10.2 Chemical Weathering
4.10.3 Biological Weathering
4.11 Basic Concepts of Geochemistry
4.11.1 Major Oxides
4.11.2 Trace Elements
4.11.3 Rare Earth Elements
4.12 Geochemical Classification of Elements
4.13 Mobility of Trace Elements
4.14 Let Us Sum Up
4.15 Keywords
54
Rocks and Minerals
4.0 INTRODUCTION
You have read about the Earth Surface Processes in the previous unit. In this unit we
will study about rocks and minerals. A rock is composed of combination of some
minerals hence minerals are the building blocks of rocks. Some rocks contain only one
kind of minerals whereas some others contain several kinds of minerals. Geologists
study rocks and minerals to understand the exogenic and endogenic processes and
events that occurred in geological past at some specific part of the Earth. Thespecific
rocks and minerals occurring in particular geological environment also help them to
locate potential deposits of economically important resources. In this unit, we will
learn about minerals and their importance to human beings. We will first introduce
mineral and then discuss about chemical and structural classification of minerals. We
will further discuss about characteristics of common rock forming mineral groups,
weathering and basic concepts of geochemistry.
4.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you should be able to:
• Explain the chemical classification of minerals and structural classification of silicates;
• Describe the common rock-forming mineral groups;
• Discussthe classification of rocks into igneous, sedimentary and sedimentary;
• Elaborate controls of weathering and types of weathering;
• Deliberate the basic concepts of geochemistry; and
• Discuss the geochemical classification of elements.
4.2 MINERALS
Let us get introduced to minerals.
If you visit the river front or a sea beach, pick an up handful of sand and inspect it.
What do you observe?
You find that sand contains grains of various colours. What are they? They are different
minerals making up sand. You must wonder, how do we identify these minerals? We
can identify minerals based on their physical properties. The branch of geology that
deals with the minerals, their structure, composition, occurrence and association is
termed as mineralogy. We define a mineral as a naturally occurring inorganic
solid crystalline substance having specific chemical composition.
Now we will discuss each aspect of the definition.
• Naturally occurring: A substance can be called a mineral only when it is found in
nature and is not produced artificially. Substances synthesized or produced in
laboratories does not qualify to be called as a mineral.
• Inorganic: Only the substances formed by inorganic processes qualify to be called
as a mineral.
55
Earth Processes • Solid: Liquids and gases do not qualify to be called as a mineral except the native
mercury.
• Crystalline substance: Solids without form does not qualify to be called as a
mineral. Only the solid substances which are commonly crystalline (but not always)
can be called as a mineral.
• Specific chemical composition: Uniqueness of mineral comes from its chemical
composition and the arrangement of its atoms in an internal structure. Chemical
composition of a mineral is fixed or it ranges within particular limits.
You can call a substance a mineral if it:
• is naturally occurring
• is a solid
• is inorganic
• has an orderly internal structure, and
• has a specific chemical composition.
After reading about the mineral, the next question which comes to our mind is how
minerals are formed?
Minerals are formed by different geological processes under various physicochemical
conditions in nature. These natural physicochemical conditions are determined by the
concentration of the chemical components, temperature, pressure, and the interaction
of minerals with existing rocks. This happens in a cooling magma (molten rock material
in Earth’s interior) or lava (molten rock material at Earth’s surface), but it can also take
place in evaporating fluids such as water.
Let us read about the processes and conditions under which a mineral can form. We
can group them as following:
• Crystallisation: It takes place during the cooling of molten materials.
• Evaporation: When a solution evaporates the solute stays behind, which is an
element or compound i.e. the mineral e.g. halite or table salt.
• Precipitation: When a mineral precipitate from a solution such as the calcite
dripstones form from calcite saturated groundwater in a cave.
• Metamorphism: This takes place at high temperatures and pressures when new
crystals may grow in solid materials such as diamonds from coal, metamorphism.
Minerals play a significant role in our lives. Just to name a few, like edible salt which is
derived from halite mineral (NaCl) to the utensils we use which comprise metals like
steel or aluminum or copper. These metals are derived from different ores, which are
minerals. Ceramic mugs, glass tumbler, battery, filament of light bulbs, etc. all are
made from various minerals in some or other form. The bricks, cement, tiles, and
paints which we use in the construction of our houses, all of them make up of minerals.
You will appreciate knowing that different components of the automobiles, computers,
mobiles, etc. comprise various minerals. Even toothpaste, automobile fuels, lead of
pencils, mirror glass, cosmetics we use, the jewelry and the gems we wear are all
56
minerals.
So, now you have understood how significant these minerals are to our lives. We Rocks and Minerals
cannot imagine our lives without minerals because they have become an integral part
of our lives.
Let us discuss the chemical classification of minerals.
4.3 CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS

Do you know that 4500 minerals are known to occur in nature?
Minerals can be classified based on their chemical composition and crystal structure.
However, majority of the mineralogists prefer to classify minerals into families or groups
based on their chemical composition.
The chemical classifications begin with the elements and then they are further subdivided
based on anion groups present. The classification scheme given by Professor James
Dana of Yale University in 1848 is used most. In this scheme, minerals have been
divided into eight basic classes mentioned below. Minerals are chemical compounds
composed of anions (e.g. oxygen - O-2) or anionic groups (e.g. carbonate - CO3-2)
bonded to positively charged cations in a regular geometric atomic structure or lattice.
Let us read about Dana’s classification of minerals.
1) Native Elements: This includes the category of pure metals. Nearly 40 chemical
elements occur in nature as relatively pure minerals and in a native state. Carbon
(C), sulphur (S) and copper (Cu) are often found in a native state (Fig. 4.1a).
2) Silicates: Silicates form the largest group of minerals on Earth’s crust. Most rocks
are composed of e”95% silicates. Silicates are composed largely of silicon and
oxygen along with the addition of ions such as Al, Mg, Fe, and Ca. Further in this
section we will read about important rock-forming silicates like feldspars,
quartz(Fig. 4.1b), olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, garnets, and micas.
3) Oxides: This group ranges from dull ores like bauxite to gems like rubies and
sapphires. The most widespread minerals of this group are oxides of silicon,
aluminum, iron, manganese, and titanium. Common oxides include hematite
(Fe2O3)(Fig. 4.1c), magnetite (Fe3O4), chromite (iron chromium oxide), ilmenite
(iron titanium oxide) and rutile (titanium dioxide). The oxide class also includes the
hydroxide minerals.
4) Sulfides: Sulfides are made up of compounds of sulfur, usually with a metal. Many
metal ores belong to this group like the pyrite (FeS), copper (CuS), lead (PbS)
(Fig. 4.1d), zinc (ZnS), galena (PbS), etc. Many sulfide minerals are economically
important as metal ores.
5) Sulfates:They are made of compounds of sulfur combined with metals and oxygen.
Sulfates commonly form in evaporite settings where highly saline waters slowly
evaporate, allowing the formation of both sulfates and halides. Common sulfates
include anhydrite (CaSO4), baryte (BaSO4 (Fig. 4.1e)), gypsum (hydrated calcium
sulfate) and celestine (SrSO4).
6) Halides: They form from halogen elements like chlorine, bromine, fluorine, and
iodine combined with metallic elements. They are incredibly soft and easily dissolved
in water. Halite (NaCl) is a well-known example of this group.
57
Earth Processes 7) Carbonates: They are a group of minerals made of carbon, oxygen, and a metallic
element. The carbonate mineralscomprise those minerals containing the anion
(CO3)2- and include calcite (Fig. 4.1f) and aragonite (both calcium carbonate),
dolomite (magnesium/calcium carbonate) and siderite (iron carbonate).
8) Phosphates: This mineral group includes any mineral with a tetrahedral unit AO4
where A can be phosphorus, antimony, arsenic or vanadium.
Fig. 4.1: Ore Minerals (a) sulphur-native mineral, (b) quartz, (c) magnetite-oxide, (d) lead-
sulphide, (e) Baryte-sulphateand (f) calcite-carbonate.
4.4 STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF SILICATES

We have read that silicates are the most abundant minerals in Earth’s crust. They are
composed of oxygen (O) and silicon (Si) which are the most abundant elements found
in combination with the cations of other elements. We can classify the silicates based
on their structure.
The basic building blocks of all silicate mineral structures (SiO44-) is the silicate ion,
which is formed by four oxygen ion (O2-) that surround and share electrons with a
silicon ion (Si4+). This four-sided pyramidal form is known as tetrahedron(Fig. 4.2a
and b). Each side of the tetrahedron forms a triangle (Fig. 4.2c). The silicon-oxygen
tetrahedron is an anion which has four negative charges. The negative charges must be
balanced by four positive charges to make it electrically neutral mineral which may
happen in the following two ways:
• The ion can bond with cations such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium
(Ca+), magnesium (Mg2+) and iron (Fe2+), or
• The ion can share oxygens with other silicon-oxygen tetrahedra.
Fig. 4.2: (a) A model of the silicate tetrahedron which has one silicon ion shared by four
oxygen ions, (b) blown up view of the same tetrahedron, and (c) triangles on each side of the
58 tetrahedron.
We classify the silicate minerals based on how the silica tetrahedra are linked. Tetrahedra Rocks and Minerals
may be isolated or be linked in rings, single chains, double chains, sheets, or frameworks.
• Nesosilicates (Independent/Isolated tetrahedral group) [(SiO4)-4]: The
isolated tetrahedra are linked by the bonding of each oxygen ion of the tetrahedron
to a cation (Fig. 4.3a). Thus, the tetrahedra are isolated from one another by
cations on all sides. The ratio of oxygen to silica is 4:1. Examples of such silicate
minerals are olivine, garnet, zircon, etc.
• Sorosilicates (Double Tetrahedral group) [(Si2O7)-6]: In this type two tetrahedra
are linked by a single oxygen atom or two tetrahedra share one oxygen (Fig.
4.3b). The ratio of oxygen to silica is 2:7 or 3.5:1. Example of this silicate structure
is epidote, melilite.
• Cyclosilicates (Ring structure) [(Si6O18)-12] or [(Si3O9)-6]: When the angular
position of tetrahedra is such that it forms a ring. The closed rings of tetrahedral,
each sharing 2 oxygen (Fig. 4.3c). The ratio of oxygen to silica is 3:1. It forms
following three types of closed rings:
− each of 3 tetrahedra sharing an oxygen ion such as in mineral benitoite
− each of 4 tetrahedra sharing an oxygen ion such as in mineral axinite
− each of 6 tetrahedra sharing an oxygen ion such as in mineral beryl
• Inosilicates: They can be single chain or double chain.
- Single Chain (SiO3)-2: Single chains also form by sharing two oxygens of
each tetrahedron bond to adjacent tetrahedra but in an open-ended chain
instead of a closed ring, as we had discussed in Cyclosilicate. Single chains
are linked to other chains by cations (Fig. 4.3d and e). The ratio of oxygen to
silica is 3:1. For example, pyroxene group of minerals like augite.
- Double Chain (Si4O11)-6: In this case there are continuous double chains of
tetrahedral alternatively sharing two and three oxygen. Two single chains
combine to form double chains linked to each other by shared oxygens (Fig.
4.3d). The adjacent double chains linked by cations form the structure of the
amphibole group of minerals like hornblende. The ratio of oxygen to silica is
2.75:1.
• Phyllosilicates (sheet silicates) [(Si2O5)-2]: In sheets structure each tetrahedron
shares three of its oxygens with adjacent tetrahedra to build stacked sheets of
tetrahedra. Cations may be interlayered with tetrahedra sheets (Fig. 4.3e). The
ratio of oxygen to silica is 2.5:1. The micas and clay minerals are the examples of
sheet silicates.
• Tectosilicates (3-D Framework) [(SiO2)0]: Three-dimensional framework form
when each tetrahedron shares all its oxygens with other tetrahedra (Fig. 4.3f). In
this silicate structure, the ratio of oxygen to silica is 2:1. Minerals of feldspars and
quartz are the examples of tectosilicates.
59
Earth Processes
Fig. 4.3: Crystal structure of (a) nesosilicate, (b) sorosilicate, (c) cyclosilicate minerals,
(d) single chain, (e) double chain silicate, (f) phyllosilicate minerals and
(g) tectosilicate minerals
(Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/nesosilicate)

Note: (a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
(b) You can check the answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Define minerals.
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2. List Dana’s chemical classification of minerals.
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3. What is tetrahedron?
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60 .....................................................................................................................
4. List the structural classification of silicates. Rocks and Minerals
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4.5 COMMON ROCK FORMING MINERAL GROUPS

We have discussed the definition and classification of minerals. Now we will read
about the common rock-forming mineral groups.
Rock-forming minerals are essential components of rocks commonly occurring in the
Earth’s crust. It will surprise you to know that there are over 4500 minerals but only
about 30 minerals are the most common minerals abundantly found on the Earth’s
crust (Deer, Howie and Zussman, 1992). About 96 percent of the minerals found in
Earth’s crust are silicates. They are building blocks of the common rock-forming
minerals. Silicates are minerals that contain silicon and oxygen and usually one or more
other elements. Each group of rocks characteristically has its own rock- forming
minerals. The common rock-forming minerals, as the name suggests are those common
minerals which make up the rocks. Some of these minerals are the essential components
of the rocks are called essential minerals and the other as accessory minerals.
The most common rock-forming minerals have been discussed.
Silicates: Silicate minerals are the most important rock-forming minerals and are
building blocks of the common rock-forming minerals. Silicate minerals make up about
90% of rocks in the Earth’s crust.
The common rock- forming silicate minerals(Fig. 4.4) are grouped as mentioned below:
• Olivine Group
• Garnet Group
• Pyroxene Group
• Amphibole Group
• Mica Group
• Feldspar Group and
• Silica Group
Among all the minerals, plagioclase feldspar is the most abundant mineral in the Earth
crust (Fig. 4.5).
4.5.1 Olivine Group

Olivine is the name of a group of common rock-forming minerals, mostly found in
dark-colored mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks. It is a magnesium iron silicate with
the following chemical composition:
(XY)2SiO4 where, X is Fe, andY is Mg
61
Earth Processes Olivine group minerals are usually green and have compositions that typically range
between Mg2SiO4 (Fosterite - Mg rich) and Fe2SiO4 (Fayalite - Fe rich). The ratio
of magnesium and iron varies between the two end members of olivine group. Olivine
is not a separate mineral, and the term is used instead of “forsterite” or “fayalite”.
Fig. 4.4: Common rock-forming minerals.
4.5.2 Garnet Group

Minerals of garnet group are used as gemstones and abrasives. Garnet has the following
generalized chemical composition:
X3Y2(SiO4)3
where,
X can be Ca, Mg, Fe2+ or Mn2+, and
Y can be Al, Fe3+, Mn3+, V3+ or Cr3+.
There are two subgroups of garnets: pyralspites and ugrandites. Pyralspites (pyrope,
almandine, spessartine) are reddish and occur in aluminum-rich metamorphic rocks or
igneous rocks. Ugrandites (uvarovite, grossular, andradite) are brownish and occur
mostly in calc-silicate rocks.
4.5.3 Pyroxene Group

Pyroxene group of minerals are the most significant and abundant group of rock-
forming ferromagnesian silicates. They are found in almost every variety of igneous
and metamorphic rocks. Pyroxenes crystallize in both the orthorhombic and monoclinic
crystal systems and occur as stubby prismatic crystals. They are chemically analogous
to the amphiboles except that hydroxyls are absent in the pyroxene structure. Because
of the absence of hydroxyls pyroxenes have slightly higher densities otherwise they
have physical properties like amphiboles.
The chemical composition of minerals of the pyroxene group has the following general
formula:
XYZ2O6
where,
62 X= Na+, Ca2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Li+;

Y= Mn2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Fe3+, Al3+, Cr3+, Ti4+; and Rocks and Minerals
Z= Si4+, Al3+
The range of chemical substitutions in pyroxene is constrained by the sizes of the sites
in the structure and the charge of the substituting cations. The most common pyroxene
mineral is augite. Augite is dark green to black and forms short, stubby crystals.
4.5.4 Amphibole Group

Amphiboles are common minerals in metamorphic rocks (amphibolite, glaucophane
schist) and some igneous rocks (especially diorite). Amphiboles are hydrous minerals.
Therefore, amphiboles are not stable in anhydrous and high-temperature conditions
where they transform to pyroxenes. The most common amphibole is hornblende.
Hornblende is quite like augite in that both are dark minerals, however hornblende
crystals are longer, thinner and shinier than augite.
They occur in metamorphic rocks derived from mafic igneous rocks with dark-coloured
ferromagnesian minerals. They are important constituents in a variety of plutonic and
volcanic igneous rocks ranging in composition from granitic to gabbroic. Amphiboles
decompose to anhydrous minerals (mainly pyroxenes) at elevated temperatures.
4.5.5 Mica Group

Micas comprise about 4% of the crust. Mica is easily distinguished by its characteristic
of peeling into many thin flat smooth sheets or flakes. This is like the cleavage in
feldspar except that with mica the cleavage planes are in only one direction and no
right-angle face joins occur.
General formula for the mica group of minerals is given here:
X2Y4-6Z8O20(OH, F)4
where,
X= K or Na
Y= Mg, Fe2+, Fe3+ or Al, and
Z= Si or Al
Mica may be white and pearly (muscovite) or dark and shiny (biotite). Muscovite is
a very common mica found in many rock types having chemical composition
KAl2(AlSi3O10) (OH)2.
4.5.6 Feldspar Group

Feldspars are the most abundant minerals in the crust. Feldspar is the common, light-
coloured, rock-forming mineral. Instead of being glassy like quartz, it is generally dull
to opaque with a porcelain-like appearance. Color varies from red, pink, and white,
i.e. orthoclase to green, grey, and white, i.e.plagioclase. Feldspar is also hard but
can be scratched by quartz. Feldspar in igneous rocks forms well developed crystals
which are roughly rectangular, and they cleave or break along flat faces. The grains, in
contrast to quartz, often have straight edges and flat rectangular faces, some of which
meet at right angles.There are two subgroups: alkali feldspars and plagioclase feldspars.
Alkali feldspars are usually Potassium-rich. Hence, they are often named K-feldspars, 63
Earth Processes i.e. orthoclase, microcline, and sanidine belongs to this group. Plagioclase feldspars
form a solid solution between Na- and Ca-rich end-members.
4.5.7 Silica Group

Minerals that belong to this group share the same chemical composition, i.e. SiO2.
The most important mineral in this group is quartz. Quartz is a glassy looking, transparent
mineral which varies in color from white and grey to smoky. When there are individual
crystals, they are clear, while in larger masses quartz looks milkier white. Quartz is
hard, it can easily scratch a steel knife blade. In many rocks, quartz grains are irregular
because crystal faces are rare and quartz does not have a cleavage (i.e., it does not
break on regular flat faces).
Fig. 4.5: Average mineralogical composition of Earth’s crust

(Source: Ronov and Yaroshevsky, 1967)
4.6 ROCKS
We live on rocks even though we do not always see them; Strange! Unbelievable?
These rocks are sometimes hidden deeply beneath our feet by soil cover, and sometimes
they are exposed on Earth’s surface when we can see them. Rocks have been fascinating
human beings since times immemorial. Stones were among the first tools and weapons
used by humans. The rock caves provided shelter to the prehistoric man. He could
ignite a fire by rubbing pieces of rocks. Rocks have been and are being explored by
men for extraction of metals, minerals and building materials. Later, metals became the
basis of wealth and the foundation of empires.
Now let us discuss some basic aspects related to rock and try to answer queries like-
• What are rocks?
• How do they look like?
• Where do they occur?
• How do they form?
To a geologist, rock is a coherent, naturally occurring solid, comprising an aggregate
of minerals and/or, less commonly, a mass of glass. For example, a rock like basalt
may have glass and fine-grained minerals.
64 Now let us analyze the unique aspects of this definition.

• Coherent:Minerals are held in a rock together and can be separated back. A pile Rocks and Minerals
of unattached mineral grains, e.g. loose sands, does not constitute a rock.
• Naturally occurring: For geologists in occurring naturally material brick do not
qualify.
• Aggregate of minerals or a mass of glass:You have read that rocks comprise
aggregate of mineral grains grown or stuck together. Volcanic rock products often
comprise glass which may be a homogenous mass or an accumulation of tiny glass
shards.
We must have learnt to appreciate that a single mineral crystal is considered as a
“mineral specimen” and not a rock, even if it is meters long. Though there are some
rocks such as limestone that contain grains of only one kind of mineral made up of
mineral calcite, where grain is any mineral, rock or glass fragment.
If a rock is made of over one mineral, it is called a monomineralic rock for example
dunite, anorthosite.If the rock comprises many minerals it is known as polymineralic
rock. Granite is a fine example of polymineralic rock. It comprises light and dark
coloured minerals.
Let us look carefully at granite sample (Fig. 4.6) with a hand lens; we observe some
rock that is translucent parts which is probably the mineral quartz. Pink with tabular
habit and pearly luster is pink K feldspar (potash feldspar). Other white mineral with
tabular habit and striations, shows properties of plagioclase feldspar and brown mineral
grains occur in thin sheets and show pearly luster is mineral biotite mica. Dark minerals
that occur in stubby crystals are probably hornblende, the most common mineral of
the amphibole family. Other minerals can occur in granite, but they are not as common
as these four.
Fig. 4.6: Constituent minerals of granite rock
A characteristic of rock is that each of the component’s mineral keeps its properties in
the mixture. A few rocks are composed of non-mineral matter. Coal is rock as it often
occurs in layered structure, although it comprises organic material. Obsidian and pumice
are volcanic rocks even though they are made of glassy material. 65
Earth Processes What determines the physical appearance of a rock? Rocks vary in colour, in the
crystal or grain sizes and the kinds of elements that compose them. Let us examine a
road cut to visualise it. You might find a rough white and pink speckled rock composed
of interlocking crystals, large enough to be seen with the naked eye (may be igneous
rock-granite). Nearby you might see greyish rock containing many enormous glittering
crystals of mica and some grains of quartz and feldspar (possibly micaceous sedimentary
rock-sandstone). Elsewhere we might see a rock wherein dark and light minerals are
aligned, forming bands (may be metamorphic rock-gneiss). The identity of a rock is
determined partly by its mineralogy and partly by its texture. Here the term mineralogy
refers to its constituent minerals of the rock. Texture describes the sizes, shapes, and
mutual relationship thereof. If mostcrystals or grains are a few in diameter in rocks, are
large enough to be seen with the naked eye, the rock is categorised as coarse grained.
If they are not large enough to be seen, the rock is categorised as fine grained.
Rock occurs at the Earth’s surface either as broken chunks (pebbles, cobbles or
boulders) that have moved down a slope or by being transported in ice, water or wind
or as bedrock that is still attached to the Earth’s crust. Geologists refer to an exposure
of bedrock as an outcrop. An outcrop may appear as a rounded knob in a field, as
cliff or ridge, along road-cuts or on the face of a stream cut (Fig. 4.7).
James Hutton, a Fig. 4.7: Field photographs showing appearance of rocks.

Scottish
According to the estimation made by Clarke and Washington, the lithosphere comprises
gentleman farmer
and doctor, with 95% igneous rocks, 5% sedimentary rocks, including shale, sandstone and limestone
many others (the metamorphic rocks being the altered equivalent of one or other of these rocks).
fostered the idea
of the genetic Now you must be curious to know about the origin of rock.
scheme of
classification of The discovery of the origin of rock was a century-long struggle. Neptunists, led by
rocks. Modern Abraham Werner (1749–1817) believed that all rocks were derived by the processes
geologists revere of chemical precipitation from the ocean. Volcanism (or plutonist) championed by
Hutton as the James Hutton (1726–1797) were of the belief that most rocks initially formed were of
“Father of
igneous origin. Hutton used careful observation to refute Neptunists’ claims by
Geology”.
demonstrating the presence of igneous rocks and showing evidence of Earth’s internal
heat.
66
Check Your Progress 2 Rocks and Minerals

b) You can check the answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Name the groups of common rock-forming minerals.
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2. Define rock.
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3. Differentiate between monomineralic and polymineralic rocks.
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4. What is outcrop?
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4.7 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

We classify rocks into three groups; three major types of rocks are igneous rocks,
sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks (Fig. 4.8)on the basis of their origin.
• Igneous rocks: These rocks, also referred as primary rocks, are solidified from
molten or partly molten material called magma.
• Sedimentary rocks: It is a rock resulting from the consolidation of loose sediment
or chemical precipitation from solution or an organic rock comprising secretions
or remains of plants and animals. When rocks crop out on the surface it subjects
them to geological agents and disintegrated into pieces called sediments or
decomposed or chemically precipitated from a solution, practically, at a normal
temperature and pressure, they are sedimentary rocks. They are also termed
secondary rocks because they are derived from pre-existing rocks.
• Metamorphic rocks: A rock derived from pre-existing igneous, sedimentary, or
metamorphic rocks when undergo mineralogical, chemical and/or structural changes
are called metamorphic rocks.
Let us try to differentiate between the igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rock. 67
Earth Processes Earlier you have noted that the igneous rocks form from cooling and consolidation of
the hot molten magma. Therefore, they comprise crystals of minerals. The crystals can
be big or small and fit together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. Igneous rocks
do not contain fossils and but may contain gas bubbles.
Sedimentary rocks comprise grains of sediment that have resulted from weathering
and disintegration of the pre-existing rock. The grains can be big or small; and angular
or rounded. The grains are often cemented to each other. Sedimentary rocks may be
layered and may also contain fossils.
Metamorphic rocks are formed when a pre-existing rock is subjected to heat and/or
pressure. They may show evidence of recrystallisation resulting in the formation of
bigger crystals, banding of minerals or foliation can be seen.
Now let us discuss about these rocks one by one.
4.7.1 Igneous Rocks

Country rocks are Igneous rocks (derived from the Latin ignis, meaning “fire” or “to ignite”) are formed
the rock bodies by cooling and crystallisation of hot molten material called magma, which rises from
which enclose an the mantle inside Earth and cools. This cooling may happen either below or on the
intrusive mass of Earth’s surface. When melted rock material is below Earth’s surface (magma), the
igneous rock.
cooling is slow; it takes a long time to cool resulting in coarse grained igneous rock.
Glassy is used for When melted rock moves above the Earth’s surface (lava), it does not take long to
those igneous cool as it is in contact with air or water. It cools rapidly and gets less time for
rocks which do growth therefore the rocks are fine grained. They may have air cavities, showing
not possess
discrete
that gas has escaped from the site on release of pressure. In extreme cases they
crystalline unit or may appear glass like.
structure.
Thus, igneous rocks may be intrusive or extrusive.
Intrusive igneous rocks:Rocks formed from magma at depth are known as intrusive
or plutonic rocks.Intrusive igneous rocks crystallise when magma cools in the magma
chamber or intrudes the country rocks. The magma beneath the surface of the Earth
undergoes slow cooling resulting in the formation of enormous crystals giving rise to
coarse-grained rocks, recognized by their large, interlocking crystals visible in hand
specimen. For example, granite is a commonly occurring intrusive igneous rock. Other
examples are granite (Fig. 4.8a), granodiorite, gabbro, and diorite.
Extrusive igneous rocks: They are known as extrusive or volcanicigneous rocks.They
are formed when the hot molten material erupts at Earth’s surface as lava and undergoes
rapid cooling in the contact with air and water. If the overlying rock has fractures, then
the pressures may be released and a sizeable volume of molten rock will extrude to the
surface. Molten or partly molten rock is called lava, will flow, and spread out. Because
lava cools and crystallises rapidly, it is fine grained or glassy. Extrusive igneous rocks,
such as basalt (Fig. 4.8b), rhyolite, trachyte are easily recognised by their glassy or
fine grained texture.
Three types of igneous based on their mode of occurrence have been identified:
• Plutonic rocks: The term plutonic is derived from Pluto the Roman god of the
underworld. These rocks undergo cooling and consolidation beneath (Fig. 4.8a) the
surface of the Earth or with in the magma chamber such as granite, gabbro. Plutonic
68 rocks occur as intrusive bodies like batholith e.g. Mount Abu, Ladakh batholith.
• Volcanic rocks: These rocks undergo cooling and consolidation at the surface of Rocks and Minerals
the Earth in contact with air or water such as basalt, rhyolite. They occur as extrusive
bodies like lava flow e.g. Deccan basalts (Fig. 4.8b), Maharashtra, Malani rhyolite,
Jodhpur.
• Hypabyssal rocks: These rocks undergo cooling and consolidation at the shallow
level/ near the surface of the Earth such as dolerite (Fig. 4.8c). They are medium
grained and occur often as dykes or sills.Let us learn about the common minerals of
igneous rocks.
We have read in earlier section that most of the minerals of igneous rocks are silicates,
partly because silicon is so abundant in Earth’s crust and partly because many silicate
minerals melt at the high temperatures and pressures reached in deeper parts of the
crust and in the mantle. The silicate minerals most found in igneous rocks include
quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene, amphibole and olivine.
We study igneous rocks as feed back for geological processes. Igneous rocks contain
three essential sources of information: their minerals, overall chemical composition,
and texture. These features offer a clue to decipher the place and time that the rock
formed.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 4.8: (a) Plutonic igneous rock, observe the coarse-grained granite, (b) Volcanic igneous
rock, (c) Hypabyssal igneous rock, photograph shows medium grained dolerite 69
Earth Processes 4.7.2 Sedimentary Rocks
By now we have learnt that sedimentary rocks are formed on decomposition and
disintegration of the pre-existing rocks- igneous, metamorphic, or even earlier formed
sedimentary rocks. Sediments are produced by weathering (physical, chemical,
and biological) by geological agents such as wind, river, glaciers, oceans and
groundwater. Therefore, they are categorised as secondary rocks.
The sedimentary rock is rock that forms at or near the surface of the Earth in one of
several ways: by the cementing together of loose clasts (fragments or grains) that had
been produced by physical or chemical weathering of pre-existing rock; by the growth
of shell masses or cementing together of shells and shell fragments; by the accumulation
and subsequent alteration of organic matter from living organisms; or by the precipitation
of minerals from water solutions.
One can compare the layers of sedimentary rocks to the pages of a book that record
stories of earlier events and environments of our dynamic planet Earth.
Sedimentologist‘sare geologists who study sedimentary rocks.
Sediments are the precursors of sedimentary rocks that are found at Earth’s surface
Sediment
consists of loose as layers of loose particles, such as sand, silt, and the shells of organisms. These
fragments of particles originate in the processes of weathering and erosion. The loose grains of
rocks or minerals sediment transform into sedimentary rock by following five steps-
broken off the
bedrock, mineral • Weathering refers to the entire chemical, physical and biological processes that
crystals that break up and decay rocks into fragments and dissolved substances of various
precipitate sizes. These particles are then transported by erosion, a set of processes that
directly out of
water, and shell
loosen soil and rock and rock and move them downhill or downstream to a place
or shell fragment. where they are deposited as layers of sediments.
This veneer
ranges in • Erosion refers to the combination of processes that separate rock or regolith
thickness from such as abrasion, plucking caused by moving air, water, or ice.
nonexistent, in
places where • Transportation can occur by gravity, wind, water, or ice. They can carry
bedrock crops sediments. The ability of a medium to carry sediment depends on its viscosity and
out at Earth’s velocity.
surface to few
kms. • Deposition is the process by which sediments (a) settles out of transporting
medium because of decrease in velocity or (b) precipitate from a solution because
of saturation or change in temperature/pressure.
• Lithification is the transformation of the loose sediment into solid rock. During
Siliciclastic rocks llithification the sediments accumulate in layers, compress under their own weight
are clastic and/or what buries them and form a hardened mass.
noncarbonate
sedimentary The sedimentary rocks may be:
rocks that are
almost 1) Clastic sedimentary rocks: They comprise siliciclastic sediments which comprise
exclusively silica- physically deposited particles such as grains of quartz and feldspar derived from
bearing, either as
weathered pre-existing rock (the term ‘clastic’ is derived from the greek word
forms of quartz or
other silicate klastos, meaning “broken”). These sediments are laid down by water, wind, and
minerals. ice. Common minerals in siliciclastics rocks are silicates because silicate minerals
predominate in the rocks that weather to form sedimentary particles (as shown in
70 Fig. 4.9a). The most abundant silicate minerals in siliciclastics sedimentary rocks
are quartz, feldspar, and clay minerals. Clay minerals are formed by weathering Rocks and Minerals
and alteration of pre-existing silicate minerals, such as feldspar. Some dark minerals,
pyroxene and amphiboles, micas and garnet may also be present.
2) Non clastic sedimentary rocks: They comprise the biological and chemical group
of sediments that form by the process of precipitation with or without organic
materials. For example, Halite is a chemical sediment that precipitates directly
from evaporating seawater. Calcite is precipitated by marine organisms to form
shells or skeletons, which form biological sediments when the organisms die. The
most abundant minerals of chemical and biological sediments are carbonates such
as calcite, the main constituent of limestone (as shown in Fig. 4.9b). Dolomite is a
calcium magnesium carbonate formed by precipitation during lithification.
Different kinds of sedimentary rocks are identified based on their mineral composition.
According to some estimates, 70% to 85% of all sedimentary rocks on Earth are
clastic, whereas 15%-25% are carbonate biochemical or chemical rocks. The
sedimentary rocks were once sediments; they are the records of the conditions at
Earth’s surface when and where the sediments were deposited. Using evidence provided
by a sedimentary rock’s texture, physical structure, and environment mineral content.
Geologists can work backward to infer the sources of the sediments from which the
rocks were formed and environment of their deposition.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.9: (a) Clastic sedimentary rock, coarse and medium grained sandstone; (b) Non
clastic sedimentary rock, limestone
71
Earth Processes 4.7.3 Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks take their name from the Greek words meta, meaning ‘change’
(meta) and morphe, meaning form. A metamorphic rock is one that (a) forms when a
pre-existing rock or protolith; (b) undergoes a solid-state change in response to the
modification of its environment. This process of change is called metamorphism.
You can consider an analogy of a caterpillar and a butterfly. Caterpillars undergo
metamorphosis because of hormonal changes in their bodies. Rocks undergo
metamorphism when they are subjected to heat, pressure, compression and shear,
and/or extremely hot water.
These rocks are produced when high temperature and pressures deep within Earth
and cause changes in the mineralogy, texture, or chemical composition of any kind of
pre-existing rock-igneous, sedimentary or other metamorphic rock-while maintaining
its solid form. The temperatures of metamorphism are below the melting point of the
rocks (about 700oC) but high enough (above 250oC) for the rocks to be changed by
recrystallisation and chemical reactions. Metamorphism can produce a group of minerals
which together make up a metamorphic mineral assemblage. Their texture is defined
by the new or re-arrangement of mineral grains. Commonly, the texture results in
metamorphic foliation defined by the parallel alignment of platy minerals (such as mica)
and/or alternating light coloured and dark coloured bands. For example, the
metamorphism of granite, a rock with randomly oriented crystals can produce a
metamorphosed rock like schist showing parallel alignment of platy minerals (such as
mica) or gneiss with alternating light coloured and dark coloured bands.
The formation of metamorphic minerals and textures takes place slowly-it may take
thousands to millions of years. The most common processes are:
• Recrystallisation, which changes the shape and size of grains without changing
the identity of the mineral making up the grains
• Phase change which transforms one mineral into another mineral with the same
composition but with a different crystal structure.
• Metamorphic reactionor neocrystallisation (from the Greek neos, for new)
which results in the growth of new mineral crystals that differ from those of the
protolith.
• Pressure solution which happens when a wet rock is squeezed more strongly in
one direction than in others, producing ions that migrate through the water to
precipitate elsewhere.
• Plastic deformation,which happens when a rock is squeezed or sheared at
elevated temperatures and pressures. Under such condition minerals behave like
soft plastic and change shape without breaking.
Common minerals of metamorphic rocks are silicate minerals. They are the most
abundant minerals in metamorphic rocks because most of the parent rocks from which
they are formed are rich in silicates. Typically, they include quartz, feldspar, micas,
pyroxenes, and amphiboles. Several other silicate minerals like kyanite, andalusite and
some varieties of garnet, are good indicators of metamorphism. Calcite is the mineral
of marble, which is metamorphosed limestone. Similarly, quartz is the mineral of
72 quartzite, which is metamorphosed sandstone.
Rocks and Minerals
4.8 WEATHERING
You have read about weathering earlier in your school textbooks. Weatheringrefers to
the natural processes of disintegration and decomposition of rocks. It includes activities
whereby the rocks at or near the surface, break, decay, or crumble. The process of
weathering is triggered with the change of environmental conditions to a new
environment. For example, when a depositional basin is uplifted, the rocks are exposed
to a different environmental setup. Because of this change, the rocks may be
disintegrated, fragmented, or decomposed to survive in the new conditions they are
imposed to. Weathering, one of the major processes in the rock cycle, is the first step
in flattening the mountains that have been uplifted by endogenic processes. It shapes
Earth’s surface topography/configuration and alters rock materials, converting them
into sediments and soils.
Weatheringcan also be defined as a set of physical, chemical, and biological
Weathering and
processes that break down rocks and minerals in the crust to create sediments, new sedimentation are
minerals, soil and dissolved ions and compounds (Fletcher, 2011). the geochemical
processes of
There are three processes of weathering. Let us read about them. greatest
importance to
• Physical weathering takes place when solid rock is fragmented into pieces by humans, since
physical disintegration or mechanical breakdown that does not change the chemical they provide us
composition. It is also known as mechanical weathering. with our basic
economic
• Chemical weathering occurs when the minerals in the rock undergo chemical resources, the
alteration or dissolution. soil. Human
culture and
• Biological weatheringoccurs when rock disintegrates or decomposes because civilization can be
of physical and/or chemical activity of the living organisms. closely correlated
with the pattern
Physical, chemical, and biological weathering may work together in unison to breakdown of soil fertility.
the crustal rocks. Chemical weathering results through chemically active fluids operating
on the exposed surfaces. Physical and biological weathering causes the rock(s) to
fragment into smaller particles, which increases the surface area that is vulnerable and
thus enhances effectiveness of chemical weathering.
1. How do you classify rocks based on their origin?
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2. Distinguish between intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks.
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Earth Processes 3. Define weathering. List three types of weathering.
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4. Write the names of the processes which transform sediment to sedimentary rocks.
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4.9 FACTORS CONTROLLING WEATHERING

Before discussing the factors affecting the weathering, you would realise that weathering
produces all the sediments / soils of the world and dissolved substances that streams
carry to the seas and oceans. All the rocks exposed on the Earth’s surface weather
varyingly. Following four key factors effect weathering:
1) Parent rock: As you recall from your school texts, following properties of a
parent rock affect the weathering process. Let us review these factors.
• Nature of the parent rock: The mineralogy and crystal structure of parent
rock play an important role that affects the rate of weathering. You would read
in this unit that rocks are composed of various minerals which weather
differently. Stability of minerals plays an important role in affecting the
susceptibility of parent rock material to cracking and fragmentation. You might
have observed that the hillocks or ridges comprise resistant parent material
while the vallcomprisingsting of weathered materials.
• Topography: It also plays an important role as factors like elevation, slope
and landscape position may either hasten or retard the weathering process.
Steep slopes encourage rapid soil loss by erosion and allow less rainfall to
enter soil before running off. Therefore, soil on steep terrain has rather shallow
and poorly developed profiles.
• Structures: Geological structures such as folds, faults and shear zones also
control topography. Shear zones have a good capacity of holding water. The
rivers follow the course of major fault zones.
2) The climate:Climate influences the weathering processes to a larger extent. It
includes rainfall, temperature, aridity, and humidity in a region. The rates of physical,
chemical, and biological weathering not only vary with the properties of parent
rock but also with the climate, especially the temperature and amount of rainfall in
the region where parent rock is located. Water is essential for the entire major
chemical weathering reactions. It may be present as reactant and/or carrier. For
effective weathering, water must be available to the parent rock. Now let us test
how water is important for chemical weathering reactions. The rainwater dissolves
atmospheric carbon dioxide from carbonic acid enough to dissolve substantial
quantities of rock over lengthy periods. You can study the reaction involving feldspar
74 (an important mineral constituent of crustal rocks) as given below:
2KAlSi3O8 + 2H2CO3 + H2OàAl2Si2O5(OH)4 + 2K+ + 2HCO3- + SiO2 Rocks and Minerals
Feldspar Carbonic acid Kaolinite Potassium Bicarbonate Silica

dissolved ions dissolved
The climate is affected by topography or relief of a region. Its setting may either
enhance or retard the chemical action. Topography affects the absorbance of
solar energy in a given landscape. Rainfall or humidity of a region affects vegetation.
Vegetation enhances biological weathering. Thus, you have seen that climate affects
biological weathering this is because vegetation is controlled by temperature, rainfall,
aridity, and humidity.
3) The presence and absence of soil: You have already learnt that acidic water
weathers feldspar. Let us discuss why chemical reactions are faster in feldspars
that are buried in damp soils than on bare rock outcrops. The obvious explanation
behind this is thin soil cover over the weathered surface which enhances longevity
of interaction aiding the weathering process. This basic concept would help you
better appreciate that why feldspars on bare outcrops are better preserved than
those buried in damp soils. This also answers the question that why the chemical
weathering process is more rapid in the tropics than in temperate and cold climates.
This is mainly because plants and bacteria grow more quickly in warm humid
climates and they contribute more of carbonic acid and other acids that promote
weathering. You will read more about the role of biota in weathering under biological
weathering discussed later in this unit.
4) The time of exposure:The time to which a rock is exposed to weathering conditions
is also particularly important. Longer the operating time, more will be the impact.
4.10 TYPES OF WEATHERING

Now we shall discuss three types of weathering discussed in the above section.
4.10.1 Physical Weathering

You have already learnt that physical weathering plays a crucial role by increasing the
surface area of rocks (as shown in Fig. 4.). It also changes the appearance of Earth’s
surface because of several processes: temperature, pressure release, abrasion, freeze-
thaw, hydraulic action and action of gravity. It involves the mechanical breakdown of
minerals and rocks by a variety of processes, hence physical weathering is also known
as mechanical weathering. It occurs when rock is fragmented by physical processes.
This does not involve change in the chemical composition of the parent body. Rocks
can physically break because ofa variety of reasons:
• Temperature: You might have observed that the rocks expand with the rise of
temperature and contract on cooling like any other substance or material. During the
day time the temperature rises and the nights are cold. Different rocks expand and
contract differently because of varying mineralogical composition. As stresses develop
differently within the rocks, the constituent minerals are affected differently. Dark
coloured minerals absorb more heat than the light-coloured minerals and hence may
be more affected. Effects of temperature changes are more important in deserts and
high mountains because the rocks are barren. The strain develops because of unequal
expansion, giving rise to cracks and fractures (as shown in Fig. 4.10). 75
Earth Processes
Fig. 4.10: A granite boulder of ~5m height, displaying fracture developed due to excessive
temperature variation
• Pressure release:Rocks are brittle, and they break when overlying pressure is
released on cap unloading.The pressure released leads to the development of
fractures and joints. Exfoliation is the physical weathering process in which large
flat or curved sheets are detached from the outcrop.It is common in rocks like
granite. These sheets may look like the layers of peeled onion. The projections
and corners are affected to the maximum. The hills become dome shaped and
boulders become rounded as shown in Fig. 4.11a and b.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.11: (a) Sketch of exfoliated boulders; (b) Exfoliated granite boulder
76
• Abrasion: It is an important process of physical weathering. This happens when Rocks and Minerals
small particles of rock carried by wind, water or ice collide with larger rocks.
When rock particles collide with one another or a stable rock mass, it leads to
grinding on their surfaces. Blowing wind and running water are usually laden with
suspended particles that can abrade any surface they encounter. Fig. 4. shows an
example of an effect of abrasion.
• Freeze-Thaw:Joints and cracks in the rocks play an important role in the frost
action. Frost wedging is an important phenomenon where water episodically freezes
and thaws, as in temperate climates and mountainous regions. Frost wedging is
an efficient mechanism for widening cracks in rocks. The breakage results from
expansion of the freezing water. During the day, water enters the cracks and joints,
and at night, when temperature falls below 0°C, it freezes. On freezing, its volume
increases by 1/10th of the original. By this process, the rocks break and cracks
widen. As water freezes, it expands, exerting an outward force strong enough to
wedge open a crack and split a rock (as shown in Fig. 4.12). The process is
followed further and finally results in breaking of rocks into smaller pieces.
Fig. 4.12: Sketch of disintegration of rock by frost action
• Frost heavingis the slipping ofthe boulders on the sloping surface. During the
day, water enters below the boulder. In the night it freezes and lifts the boulder a
little because of increase of volume of frozen film of water. The next day when ice
below melts, the boulder moves further down the slope under the action of gravity.
After a period, it reaches down the slope covering a considerable distance as
shown in Fig. 4.13.
Fig. 4.13: Boulders slip because of melting of under ice
• Hydraulic Action: On rocky shorelines, the powerful force of breaking waves

forces water into cracks and fractures in the rocks. Wave action widens the crack
and hydraulic action damages cliffs and other types of coastal outcrops (Fig. 4.14). 77
Earth Processes
Fig. 4.14: Hydraulic action at rocky shoreline. (Photo credit: Dr. S. D. Shukla)
Weathering
processes
performed by
microbes is
studied in a
branch called
Geomicrobiology
Fig. 4.15: Box diagram showing creep (b) Field photograph depicting creep. Notice the bulge
in the trunk toward creep. (Photo credit: Dr.PiyooshRautela)
• Action of Gravity: It is important as it exposes a fresh surface of rocks for

weathering agents to work upon. Weathered rock material falls downwards under
the action of gravity. Rockslide orland slideis the falling of the rock and weathered
material downwards under the action of gravity. Creepinvolves the slow movement
of weathered products downwards under the action of gravity (as shown in Fig.
4.15). The dislodged broken material obtained on weathering of rocks from a hill
or cliff, fall under the action of the gravity to the base of the hilltop. It forms a
conical feature which is broad at the base and tapers upwards and is called Talus(as
shown Fig. 4. a and b). Scree is the mass of varying sizes and shapes of rock
fragments which constitutes talus. We shall read about these features again while
discussing mass wasting.
4.9.2 Chemical Weathering

You have already been introduced to chemical weathering earlier in this section. It
78 occurs when minerals react with air and water. In these chemical reactions, some
minerals dissolve while others combine with water and atmospheric components such Rocks and Minerals
as oxygen and carbon dioxide to form new minerals. Chemical weathering has a special
place in weathering processes as water along with other chemicals and dissolved
gases may enter even in thin cracks produced by physical weathering or along bedding
and joint planes. With time these cracks and joints are widened for more percolation
along them, leading to faster chemical weathering. In the chemical weathering,
decomposition takes place by bonding with and removal of cations from a solid mineral
surface. Water plays an important role and is highly effective in dissolving many
substances. All the chemical processes involve an increase in volume. These result in
development of stresses and strains in the rock and cause the rocks to crumble.
Chemical weathering involves following reactions:
• Dissolution: It is a chemical weathering reaction in which carbonic acid dissolves
minerals like calcite, found in limestones (a common sedimentary rock). Water is
exceptionally good solvent and dissolves many minerals. Limestone, dolomite, common
salt, and gypsum are dissolved in water. As you have read earlier, water reacts with
CO2 and forms carbonic acid, which is a weak acid but dissolves limestone rapidly.
H2O + CO2 → H2CO3
water carbon carbonic acid dioxide
CaCO3 + H2CO3 → Ca (HCO3)2
limestone soluble insoluble
You have learnt that rocks are aggregates of minerals. If one mineral of the rock is
dissolved even slightly, the adhesion of minerals is loosened and the rock crumbles.
• Carbonation:It is a chemical union of a mineral with CO2 to form carbonate.
Carbonate reacts with water forming bicarbonate which is in dissolved state. Granite
is the most commonly occurring rock on Earth and is weathered in the same way.
Its feldspar changes to kaolin. This process is called as kaolinisation. Fault is a crack or
fracture in the
4NaAlSi3O8 + 4H2CO3 + 18H2O → Al4Si4O10(OH)8 + 4Na+ + 4HCO3- + Earth’s crust,
8H4SiO4 which involves
displacement of
feldspar carbonic acid kaolinite dissolved sodium ion the rocks on one
side relative to
• Oxidation:It involves the loss of an electron from a cation in a crystal. The reaction those on the
involves chemical union with oxygen. Readily oxidised elements include iron, sulphur, other.
and chromium. Pyrite (FeS2) on oxidation gives rise to limonite (Fe2O3.nH2O)
The Earth’s
and free sulphur. This sulphur is mixed up with water to form sulphuric acid
surface contour
(H2SO4). It is strong acid and brings about rapid decomposition. The electrons is called
lost by iron are gained by oxygen atoms in a process called oxidation. topography or
relief.
FeS2 + O2 → Fe2O3.nH2O + S Topography
describes
pyrite limonite sulphur differences in
elevation, slope
Sulphur + water → Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and landscape
position.
• Hydration:This reaction involves the chemical union with water. For example,
mineral anhydrite may be converted to gypsum.
79
Earth Processes CaSO4 + 2H2O → CaSO4 .2H2O
anhydrite gypsum
Spheroidal weatheringresults from chemical weathering. Let us discuss how it takes
place. When water containing dissolved CO2 enters a rock mass through joints,
fractures, a chemical reaction takes place and there is an increase in volume. Initially,
corners and edges of the rock fragments are attacked giving rounded or spheroidal
appearance. Gradually, there is peeling away of layers like those of onion (as shown in
Fig. 4.16a and b).
It is important for you to distinguish between the process of exfoliation and spheroidal
weathering. Exfoliation is flaking or stripping of a rock body which occurs mainly
because of physical/mechanical weathering and is product when concentric folia are
developed. Spheroidal weathering refers to peeling off small rock bodies into onion-
like layers produced mainly by chemical weathering.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.16: (a) In spheroidal weathering, the solutions move along the joints and dissolve
the rock corners and edges; (b) Deposit the weathered products in the cracks;
(c) Field photograph showing spheroidal weathering
4.10.3 Biological Weathering

You have already been introduced to biological weathering. It is the product of organisms
causing wea thering that is physical and chemical or a combination of the two. The
organisms that can cause weathering range from bacteria in soil and rock, to plants, to
animals. Biological weathering can take place by the processes listed below, let us
discuss them:
• Movement and mixing of materials: You might have observed burrows on
shores created by burrowing organisms. These burrowing organisms cause mixing
in the soil by their movements also known as pedoturbation. This movement
exposes fresh surfaces to weathering processes found at distinct depths below the
surface that are attacked by chemical weathering.
80
• Simple breaking of particles: Rocks can also be fractured because of burrowing Rocks and Minerals
by animals or the pressure from growing roots, known as root wedging (Fig.
4.17). You might have observed the roots of trees penetrating in the cracks and
joints of the hard rocks. As roots penetrate in the cracks or joints, widening and
breaking them. Quarryingof material by man may also be one factor responsible
for mechanical weathering.
• Production of carbon dioxide by animal respiration or organic decay: You
have read that during the process of respiration plants release carbon dioxide.
Now let us analyse the role of released carbon dioxide in weathering processes.
You have learnt earlier in this unit that carbon dioxide increases the acidity of
water, which attacks and dissolves minerals in rocks by chemical weathering,
processes viz. hydrolysis, dissolution, and oxidation. Apart from these plants and
animals decay in the absence of oxygen produce an organic product known as
humus and humic acid, fulvic acid. These organic acids, though weak, also help in
decomposition by process of biological weathering.
• Changes in the moisture content of soils: Organisms influence the moisture
content of soils and enhance weathering. You might have observed that shade from
leaves and stems, root masses and organic material increase soil moisture. Higher
moisture content enhances physical and chemical weathering processes.
• Bacteria, Fungi, lichens and moss: It might surprise you to learn that fungi,
lichens, bacteria also play a significant role in the disintegration and decomposition of
rocks. A group of bacteria has the power of forming HNO3 which is a powerful acid.
It attacks and alters several minerals. Fungi, lichens and bacteria during their metabolic
activity produce organic acids which attack minerals and cause biological weathering.
Fig. 4.17: The roots penetrating the granite boulder. Note the physical
pressure exerted by the growing roots.
4.11 BASIC CONCEPTS OF GEOCHEMISTRY

Let us get introduced to geochemistry.
Geochemistry a science that deals with the chemical composition and chemical
changes/reactions in the solid earth and its various components (lithosphere:rocks,
minerals, hydrosphere and oceans, rivers, lakes, and atmosphere: agaseousshello four
planet). It also includes the study of chemical species in natural environments and the
effects of human activities upon them.
81
Earth Processes Environmental Geochemistry is the study of the chemical species in natural
environments and the effects of technology upon them. It involves the comparison of
natural systems with those affected by human activities investigates the impact of natural
geochemical processes, andhuman induced (anthropogenic) environmental
perturbations, onournatural systems (e.g.rivers, lakes, soils, forests) and on human
health.
Humans can alter the environment physically, i.e., they can cause excess erosion that
silts a river which causes water clarity and light transmission to go down, which can
affect the temperature and chemistry of the riverine system (and therefore its biology
as well). Humans can also alter the environment chemically: i.e., they can add materials
to an environment which changes the way it functions by affecting either its biota or its
natural chemical condition (e.g., pH).
V.M. Goldschmidt (1888-1947) is known as the Father of Modern Geochemistry.
He described geochemistry in the following terms:
• The primary purpose of geochemistry is on the one hand to determine quantitatively
the composition of the earth and its parts, and on the other to discover the laws
which control the distribution of the individual elements. The main goals of
geochemistry may be summarized as:
• The determination of the relative and absolute abundances of the elements and of
the atomic species in the earth.
• The study of the distribution and migration of the individual elements in the various
parts of the earth (the atmosphere, hydrosphere, crust, etc.), and in minerals and
rocks, with the object of discovering principles governing this distribution and
migration.
We have been introduced to geochemistry. Conventionally geochemical data have
been subdivided into four major categories:
• major oxides
• trace elements
• radiogenic isotopes
• stable isotopes
4.11.1 Major Oxides

In this unit we will discuss major oxides and trace elements including rare earth elements.
Major oxides are those whose abundance exceeds 1 percent of the total mass of
elements present in the Earth. Eleven elements are described as major elements
because they form over 99 wt% of most igneous rocks. These major elements are:
SiO2, Al2O3, TiO2, Fe2O3, MgO, CaO, MnO, K2O, Na2O, P2O5.
The elements making up major oxides are in the first four periods of the periodic table;
all other elements typically occur in lower abundance. They can be arranged in order
of increasing atomic number O, Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, K, Ca, Ti, Mn and Fe (Table 4.1).
Their concentrations are expressed as a weight percent (wt%) of the oxide. The relative
82 abundance of major elements in a rock are determined by the proportions of rock-
forming minerals such as feldspar, quartz, micas, olivine, pyroxenes and amphiboles. Rocks and Minerals
The major elements are the elements which predominates any rock, mineral or soil
analysis.
Major element determinations are usually made only for cations, and it is assumed that
they are accompanied by an appropriate amount of oxygen. Thus the sum of the major
element oxides will total to about 100% and the analyses total may be used as rough
guide to its reliability. Iron may be determined as FeO(tot) or Fe2O3(tot). Volatiles
such as H2O, CO2 and S are normally included in the major element analysis.Major
elements are analyzed by X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Inductively Coupled Mass
Spectrometer (ICP-MS), Inductively Coupled Atomic Emission Spectrometer
(ICPAES).
Table 4.1: Abundance of the elements in the Earth’s crust
Element % by weight
Oxygen (O) 46.6
Silicon (Si) 27.7
Aluminium (Al) 8.1
Iron (Fe) 5.0
Calcium (Ca) 3.6
Sodium (Na) 2.8
Potassium (K) 2.6
Magnesium (Mg) 2.1
All others 1.5
Total 100
4.11.2 Trace Elements

We have discussed major oxides now let us discuss trace elements.
A trace element is a chemical element whose concentration (or other measure of
amount) is extremely low (a trace amount). Trace element geochemistry has been of
enormous use in understanding the evolution of the Earth. Trace elements are defined
as those elements present at less than the 0.1% or 1000 ppm and their
concentrations are expressed in parts per million (ppm) or rarely in parts per
billion (ppb; 1 billion=109) of the element.
The exact definition depends on the field of science:
• In analytical chemistry, a trace element is one whose average concentration of less
than 100 parts per million (ppm) measured in atomic count or less than 100
micrograms per gram.
• In biochemistry, a trace element is a dietary element that is needed in very minute
quantities for the proper growth, development, and physiology of the organism,
i.e. magnesium is a trace metal.
• In geochemistry, a trace element is one whose concentration is less than 1000 ppm
or 0.1% of a rock’s composition. The term is used mainly in igneous petrology.
Element Zr (zirconium) may be a trace element in all other minerals but in zircon
(ZrSiO4) mineral it is a major oxide.
Trace elements are analyzed by X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Inductively Coupled Mass 83
Earth Processes Spectrometer (ICP-MS), Inductively Coupled Atomic Emission Spectrometer
(ICPAES).
Trace elements, by definition, make up only an infinitesimal fraction of a system of interest,
they provide geochemical and geological information out ofproportion to their abundance.
There are several reasons for this. First, variations in the concentrationsof many trace
elements are much larger than variations in the concentrations of major components, oftenby
many orders of magnitude. Second, in any system there are far more trace elements than
majorelements. In most geochemical systems, there are 10 or fewer major components
that together accountfor 99% or more of the system. This leaves 80 trace elements. Each
element has chemical propertiesthat are unique, hence there is unique geochemical information
in the variationof concentration for each element. Thus the 80 trace elements always contain
information notavailable from the variations in the concentrations of major elements. Third,
the range in behavior oftrace elements is large and collectively they are sensitive to processes
to which major elements are insensitive.Trace element is an element whose activity obeys
Henry’s Law in the system of interest.
4.11.1 Rare Earth Elements

The rare earth elements (REE) are the most useful of all trace elements and REE
studies have important applications in igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic petrology.
The REE comprises the series of metals with atomic numbers 57-71-La to Lu (Table
4.2). In addition, the element Y with an ionic radius similar to that of REE Ho is
sometimes included. Typically, the low atomic number members of the series are termed
as Light Rare Earth Elements (LREE). Those with higher atomic numbers are termed
as Heavy Rare Earth Elements (HREE). REE’s has remarkably similar chemical and
physical properties. This arises from the fact that they all form stable 3+ ions of similar
size. Such differences as there are in chemical behaviour are a consequence of the
small but steady decrease in ionic size with increasing atomic number. Cerium (Ce)
and Europium (Eu) exhibit other oxidation states other than 3+.
According to Oddo-Harkins rule elements with an even atomic number are more
common than elements with an odd atomic number.
Table 4.2 Rare earth elements
Atomic Number Element Symbol
57 Lanthanum La
58 Cerium Ce
59 Praseodymium Pr
60 Neodymium Nd
61 Promethium Pm
62 Samarium Sm
63 Europium Eu
64 Gadolinium Gd
65 Terbium Tb
66 Dysprosium Dy
67 Holmium Ho
68 Erbium Er
69 Thulium Tm
70 Ytterbium Yb
84 71 Lutetium Lu
Rocks and Minerals
4.12 GEOCHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF
ELEMENTS
Goldschmidt was the first to point out the importance of this primary geochemical
differentiation of the elements. He classified the elements into four broad categories
(Fig. 4.18; Table 4.3)and coined the terms like:
• atmophile
• lithophile
• chalcophile,
• siderophile
Atmophile elements are volatile (i.e., they form gases or liquids at the surface of the
Earth) and are concentrated in the atmosphere and hydrosphere.
Lithophile, siderophile and chalcophile refer to the tendency of the element to partition
into a silicate, metal, or sulfide liquid respectively.
Lithophile elements are those showing an affinity for silicate phases and are
concentrated in the silicate portion (crust and mantle) of the earth.
Chalcophile elements have an affinity for a sulfide liquid phase. They are also depleted
in the silicate earth and may be concentrated in the core. Many sulfide ore deposits
originated from aqueous fluids rather than sulfide liquid.
Siderophile elements have an affinity for a metallic liquid phase. They are depleted in
the silicate portion of the earth and presumably concentrated in the core.
Most elements that are siderophile are usually also somewhat chalcophile and visa
versa.
Fig. 4.18: Periodic Classification indicating Goldschmidt’s Classification of the Elements

(Source: Chauvel and Rudnick, 2016)
85
Earth Processes Table 4.3: Goldschmidt’s Classification of the Elements
Siderophile Chalcophile Lithophile Atmophile

Fe*, Co*, Ni* (Cu), Ag Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs (H), N, (O)
Ru, Rh, Pd Zn, Cd, Hg Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe
Os, Ir, Pt Ga, In, Tl B, Al, Sc, Y, REE
Au, Re†, Mo† (Ge), (Sn), Pb Si, Ti, Zr, Hf, Th
Ge*, Sn*, W‡ (As), (Sb), Bi P, V, Nb, Ta
C‡, Cu*, Ga* S, Se, Te O, Cr, U
Ge*, As†, Sb† (Fe), Mo, (Os) H, F, Cl, Br, I
* Chalcophile and lithophile in the earth’s crust
† Chalcophile in the earth’s crust
‡ Lithophile
Goldschmidt’s classification is relevant mainly to distribution of elements in meteorites
and to how elements distribute themselves between the Earth’s major geochemical
reservoirs: the core, the mantle and crust, and the hydrosphere and atmosphere. Since
there is an overabundance of O in the outer part of the Earth, metallic liquids do not
form, and siderophile elements have little opportunity to behave as such. Similarly,
sufficient S is rarely available to form more than a trace amount of sulfides. As a result,
siderophile elements such as Ni and chalcophile elements such as Pb occur mainly in
silicate phases in the crust and mantle.
The elements can be classified based on their geochemical behaviour (Fig. 4.19).
Now let us discuss.
Large-ion-lithophile elements: The alkali and alkaline earth elements have
electronegativities less than 1.5 and a single valence state (+1 for the alkalis, +2 for the
alkaline earths). The difference in electronegativity between these elements and most
anions is 2 or greater, so the bonds these elements form are strongly ionic (Be is an
exception, as it forms bonds with a more covalent character). Ionic bonds are readily
disrupted by water because of its polar nature. The low ionic potential (ratio of charge
to ionic radius) makes these elements relatively soluble in aqueous solution. Because
of their solubility, they are mobile during metamorphism and weathering. Because
bonding is predominantly ionic, the atoms of these elements behave approximately as
hard spheres containing a fixed-point charge at their centers. Thus, the factors that
most govern their behavior in igneous rocks are ionic radius and charge. K, Rb, Cs,
Sr, and Ba, are often collectively termed the large-ion-lithophile (LIL) elements. These
elements thus be concentrated in the melt phase when melting or crystallization occurs.
Such elements are called incompatible elements. Incompatible elements are defined
as those elements that partition readily into a melt phase when the mantle undergoes
melting. Compatible elements, conversely, remain in the residual minerals when melting
occurs.
86
Rocks and Minerals
Fig. 4.19: Periodic table in which elements are grouped according to

their geochemical behaviour
(Source: White, 2013)
High field strength (HFS) elements: Theyare so called because of their high ionic
charge: Zr and Hf have +4 valence states and Ta and Nb have +5 valence states. Th
and U are sometimes included in this group. As we noted, Th has a +4 valence state
and U either a +6 or +4 valence state. Because of their high charge, all are relatively
small cations, with ionic radii of 64 pm for Nb5+ and Ta5+, and 72 and 76 pm for Zr4+
and Hf4+ respectively (U4+ and Th4+ are larger, however). Although they are of
appropriate size for many cation sites in common minerals, their charge is too great
and requires one or more coupled substitutions to maintain charge balance. As we
noted earlier, such substitutions are energetically unfavorable. Thus, Hf and Zr are
moderately incompatible elements, while Nb and Ta are highly incompatible elements.
These elements are less electropositive than the alkalis, and alkaline, and rare earths.
Transition elements: The chemistry of the transition elements is considerably more
complex than that of the elements we have discussed. There are several reasons for
this. First, many of the transition elements have two or more valence states in nature.
Second, the transition metals have higher electronegativity than the alkali and alkaline
earths, so that covalent bonding plays a more important role in their behavior. Bonding
with oxygen in oxides and silicates is still predominantly ionic, but bonding with other
nonmetals, such as sulfur, can be covalent. The solubility of the transition metals, though
lower than that of the alkalis and alkalineearths, is variable and depends upon valence
state and the availability of anions with which theycan form soluble coordination
complexes.
Noble metals: The platinum group elements (Rh, Ru, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt) plus gold are
often collectively called the noble metals. These metals are so called for two reasons:
first they are rare, second, they are unreactive and stable in metallic form. Their rarity
is in part a consequence of their highly siderophilic character. The concentration of
these elements in the silicate Earth is only about 1% of their concentrations in chondrites.
Presumably, the bulk of the Earth’s inventory of these elements is in the core. Because
of their low concentrations, their behavior is still poorly understood. 87
Earth Processes Check Your Progress 4
1. Mention the factors controlling processes of weathering.
.....................................................................................................................
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.....................................................................................................................
2. Define major oxide.
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.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3. Define trace element.
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.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4. Mention the broad categories of Goldschimdt’s classification.
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4.13 MOBILITY OF TRACE ELEMENTS

Geochemical behaviour of trace elements is quite different from major elements. Absolute
and relative abundance of trace elements, such as Zr, Y, Nb, Ga, and Sc, are stable
during the geological processes such as alteration, metamorphism, hydrothermalism
and weathering. The behaviour of immobile elements is sometimes related to those of
major elements. Immobile elements, especially high field strength elements (HFSE,
e.g. Nb, Zr, Ta, Hf and Ti), are convenient for classification of altered rocks On the
other hand, large ion lithophile elements (LILE, e.g. K, Rb, Sr, and Ba) and the light
rare earth elements (LREE), especially Ba, are mobile and easily transferred by fluids.
In addition, certain elements, such as REEs, show geochemical behaviour different
from major elements, providing unique information on magma generation and evolution.
The factors affecting the environmental mobility are:
• Chemistry (inorganic, organic, physical)
• Geology (lithology, structure, mineralogy)
• Hydrology (flow rates, permeability, flow paths)
88
• Microbiology (affects chemistry) Rocks and Minerals
• Gas transport (air permeability and flowpaths)

• Weather and climate
Metals like chromium, nickel, copper, manganese, mercury, cadmium, and lead, and
metalloids, including arsenic, antimony, and selenium, in the natural environment is of
great concern (Adriano, 1986; 1992), particularly near former mine sites, dumps,
tailing piles, and impoundments, but also in urban areas and industrial centres. Metals
of major interest in bioavailability studies, as listed by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), are Al, As, Be, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Se, and Sb (McKinney and
Rogers, 1992). Other metals that are presently of lesser interest to the EPA are Ag,
Ba, Co, Mn, Mo, Na, Tl, V, and Zn. These metals were selected because of their
potential for human exposure and increased health risk.
4.14 LET US SUM UP

We have read about minerals, rocks and basic concepts of geochemistry. Now let us
sum up what we have read in this unit:
• Mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid crystalline substance having specific
chemical composition.
• Dana’s classification of minerals includes (1) Native Elements, (2) Silicates, (3)
Oxides, (4) Sulfides, (5) Sulfates, (6) Halides, (7) Carbonates, and (8) Phosphates.
• The structural classification of silicate includes (1) Nesosilicates, (2) Sorosilicates,
(3) Cyclosilicates, (4) Inosilicate (single chain and double chain), (5) Phyllosilicates,
and (6) Tectosilicates.
• The common rock- forming silicate minerals are grouped as Olivine Group, Garnet
Group, Pyroxene Group, Amphibole Group, Mica Group, Feldspar Group and
Silica Group. Among all the minerals, plagioclase feldspar is the most abundant
mineral in the Earth crust.
• Rocks can be defined as aggregate of minerals. They can be classified on the basis
of origin as (1) igneous, (2) sedimentary, and (3) metamorphic rocks.
• Igneous rocks are also referred as primary rocks, are solidified from molten or
partly molten material called magma.
• Sedimentary rocks result from the consolidation of loose sediment or chemical
precipitation from solution or an organic rock comprising secretions or remains of
plants and animals.
• Metamorphic rocks are derived from pre-existing igneous, sedimentary, or
metamorphic rocks when undergo mineralogical, chemical and/or structural changes
are called metamorphic rocks.
• Three types of igneous based on their mode of occurrence have been identified,
i.e. plutonic, volcanic and hypabyssal.
• Sediments are produced by weathering (physical, chemical, and biological) by
geological agents such as wind, river, glaciers, oceans and groundwater.
89
Earth Processes • The loose grains of sediment transform into sedimentary rock by following five
steps: weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition and lithification.
• The most common processes are: recrystallisation, phase change, metamorphic
reaction or neocrystallisation pressure solution and plastic deformation.
• The factors controlling weathering are: parent rocks, climate, presence and absence
of soil and time of exposure.
• Conventionally geochemical data can be subdivided into four categories: major
oxides, trace elements, radiogenic and stable isotopes.
• Goldschmidt has classified the elements into four broad categories like: atmophile,
lithophile, chalcophile and siderophile.
• The elements can be classified based on their geochemical behaviour as: large-
ion-lithophile elements, high field strength (HFS) elements, transition elementsand
noble metals.
4.15 KEYWORDS
Mineral : A mineral can be defined as a naturally occurring
inorganic solid crystalline substance having
specific chemical composition.
Sediments : are the precursors of sedimentary rocks that are
found at Earth’s surface as layers of loose
particles, such as sand, silt, and the shells of
organisms.
Environmental : is the study of the chemical species in natural
Geochemistry environments and the effects of technology upon
them. It involves the comparison of natural systems
with those affected by human activities investigates
the impact of natural geochemical processes, and
human induced (anthropogenic) environmental
perturbations, on our natural systems (e.g. rivers,
lakes, soils, forests) and on human health.
Weathering : can also be defined as a set of physical, chemical,
and biological processes that break down rocks
and minerals in the crust to create sediments, new
minerals, soil and dissolved ions and compounds
(Fletcher, 2011).
Physical weathering : takes place when solid rock is fragmented into
pieces by physical disintegration or mechanical
breakdown that does not change the chemical
composition.
Chemical weathering : occurs when the minerals in the rock undergo
chemical alteration or dissolution.
Biological weathering : occurs when rock disintegrates or decomposes
90
because of physical and/or chemical activity of Rocks and Minerals
the living organisms.

READINGS
Adriano, D.C., (editor), 1992, Biogeochemistry of trace metals, Lewis Publications,
Boca Raton, Fla, 514 p.
Adriano, D.C., 1986, Trace elements in the terrestrial environment, Springer-Verlag,
N.Y., 533 p.
Chauvel, Catherine and Rudnick, Roberta L. (2016) Large-Ion Lithophile Elements.
Encyclopedia of Geochemistry, W.M. White (ed.), Springer International Publishing
Switzerland. DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39193-9_232-1
Deer, W. A., Howie, R. A. and Zussman, J. (1992) An Introduction to the Rock-
Forming Minerals, 2nd edition. London (Longman Scientific & Technical), 696 pp
Fletcher, Charles (2011) Physical Geology, The Science of Earth. John Wiley & Sons,
679p.
https://www.britannica.com/science/nesosilicate (Website accessed on 16th August
2020)
McKinney, James, and Rogers, Ron, 1992, Metal bioavailability: Environmental Science
and Technology, v. 26, p. 1298-1299.
Ronov, A. B. and Yaroshevsky, A. A. (1967) Chemical structure of the Earth’s crust.
Geochem. lntl 4, 1041-1075.
White, W.M. (2013) Geochemistry. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Chichester, UK, 660p.
Dutta. A.K, 2010 (Reprinted), Introduction to Physical Geology, Kalyani Publishers,
Ludhiana.
Mahapatra, G.B, 2012 (Reprinted), A Textbook of Geology, CBS Publishers, New
Delhi.

1) Mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid crystalline substance having specific
chemical composition.
2) Native elements, silicates, oxides, sulfides, sulfates, halides, carbonates, phosphates.
3) The basic building blocks of all silicate mineral structures (SiO44-) is the silicate
ion, which is formed by four oxygen ion (O2-) that surround and share electrons
with a silicon ion (Si4+). This four-sided pyramidal form is known as tetrahedron.
4) Nesosilicates, sorosilicates, cyclosilicates, inosilicates, phyllosilicates, tectosilicates.
91
Earth Processes Answers to Check Your Progress 2
1) Olivine Group, Garnet Group, Pyroxene Group, Amphibole Group, Mica Group,
Feldspar Group and Silica Group.
2) Rock is an aggregate of minerals.
3) If a rock is made of over one mineral, it is called a monomineralic rock for example
dunite, anorthosite. If the rock comprises many minerals it is known as polymineralic
rock, for example granite.
4) Rock exposed on the surface of the earth is called as outcrop.
1) Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
2) Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma at depth are known as intrusive
or plutonic rocks. Extrusive or volcanic igneous rocks are formed when the hot
molten material erupts at Earth’s surface as lava and undergoes rapid cooling in
the contact with air and water.
3) Weathering can also be defined as a set of physical, chemical, and biological
processes that break down rocks and minerals in the crust to create sediments,
new minerals, soil and dissolved ions and compounds. Physical, chemical biological.
4) Weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition and lithification.
1) Please refer to section 4.8.
2) Major oxides are those whose abundance exceeds 1 percent of the total mass of
elements present in the Earth.
3) Trace elements are defined as those elements present at less than the 0.1% or
1000 ppm and their concentrations are expressed in parts per million (ppm) or
rarely in parts per billion.
4) Atmophile, lithophile, chalcophile and siderophile
92
Rocks and Minerals
Block 2
CLIMATOLOGY AND
METEOROLOGY
93
Prof. Shachi Shah
Prof. B. Rupini
New Delhi
SOS, IGNOU
Prof. Nidhi Rai
Dr. Pulak Das
BHU
SOITS, IGNOU
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. Jaswant Sokhi
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. Neera Kapoor
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. P.K. Biswas
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. S.K.Yadav
SOITS, IGNOU

Unit 5 & 6 Unit 8
Dr. Satya Raj Dr. Dr. Deeksha Katyal
Geography, School of Scieince University School of Environmental
Indira Gandhi National Open University, Management, Guru Gobind Singh
New Delhi Indraprashtha University, Delhi
Unit 7
Dr. Rachna Bhateria
Department of Environmental Science,
Maharishi Dayanand University,
Rohtak, Haryana
COURSE COORDINATOR
CONTENT EDITOR
Prof. Meenal Mishra, Geology, School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open
University, New Delhi
FORMAT EDITOR
PRINT PRODUCTION
March, 2021
ISBN: 978-93-90773-70-1
New Delhi-20
Climatology and
Meteorology
96
Elements of Climate
BLOCK 2 : INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the M.Sc. Environmental Science programme of IGNOU. This is the
second block in the course on Earth processes and it deals with climatology and
meteorology. The block has four units, and the details of each unit is explained in the
following paragraphs.
Unit 5 deals with the elements of climate. Details on climate controls, the Earth’s
radiation balance, latitudinal and seasonal variation of insolation, temperature, global
pressure and wind belts and humidity are given. Cloud formation and precipitation,
water balance, spatial and temporal patterns of climate parameters are also explained
with diagrams for easy understanding.
Unit 6 deals with weather phenomena. Details on air masses and fronts, southwest
and Northeast monsoon, jet stream, tropical and extratropical cyclone, ENSO, QBO
have been explained. Finally, the unit focusses on the Koppen’s and Thornthwaite’
scheme relating to the classification of climates.
Unit 7 deals with Meteorology. Thermal structure of the atmosphere and its
composition, Pressure, temperature, wind, humidity, moisture variables, virtual
temperature, radiation, radiation from sun, solar constant, surface and planetary albedo,
emission and absorption of terrestrial radiation, radiation windows, greenhouse effect,
net radiation budget, atmospheric stability diagrams, turbulence, diffusion, dry and
moist air parcel, thermodynamic diagrams, T-phigram and mixing height,
thermodynamics of dry and moist air, specific gas constant, adiabatic and isoentropic
processes, entropy and enthalpy, adiabatic processes of moist air.
Unit 8 deals with Hydrometeorology and climate. Hydrometric networks and catchment
morphology- precipitation- evaporation and evapotranspiration soil moisture-river flow-
River, Lakes and Ground water- Occurrence of surface water and groundwater.
Movement of water on the surface and below the surface.
on the various aspects of climatology and meteorology.
97
Climatology and
Meteorology
98
Elements of Climate
UNIT 5 ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Elements and Controls of Climate
5.3 Earth’s Radiation Balance
5.4 Latitudinal and Seasonal Variation of Insolation
5.5 Global Pressure and Wind Belts
5.6 Humidity and Precipitation
5.6.1 The Hydrologocial Cycle
5.6.2 Precipitation and Its Forms
5.6.3 Types of Precipitation on Rainfall
5.7 Water Balance
5.8 Let Us Sum Up
5.9 Keywords
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this block you will learn about climatology and meteorology. In this unit you will be
introduced to elements and controls of climate. You know that Sun is prime source of
energy for earth and the differential heating of earth by sun (spatially and temporarily)
results into differences in climatic elements which leads to different climatic patterns.
However, there is a balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing radiation
from earth which you will learn later in this unit. You will study about latitudinal and
seasonal variation of insolation Pressure is another important element of climate. I If
we look at the globe, there happens to be alternate arrangement of high- and low-
pressure belts induced not only by thermal factor, but also dynamic factor related to
earth’s rotation. Differences in pressure give rise to winds. We will also discuss about
humidity which is another element of climate and an important determinant of
precipitation. Precipitation is uneven and so is the distribution of water around the
globe in different realms and at different times thus the knowledge of water balance is
essential which will be discussed in this unit. Lastly you will also get acquainted with
spatial and temporal patterns of climate parameters.
5.1 OBJECTIVES
• define elements and controls of climate;
• explain earth’s radiation balance and describe latitudinal and seasonal variation of
temperature;
• describe the distribution of surface pressure systems;
• analyse the processes leading to precipitation and then describe different forms
and types of precipitation; 99
Climatology and • define and explain water balance; and
Meteorology
• illustrate the spatial and temporal patterns of climate parameters.
In the next unit, you will learn about weather phenomenon especially air masses and
fronts, tropical and extra-tropical cyclones and also monsoons. You will also be
introduced to the classification of climates in the next unit.
Now let us start our study with the elements of climate.
5.2 ELEMENTS AND CONTROLS OF CLIMATE

Before we study elements and controls of climate, let us first know about weather and
climate. Though these terms might sound similar but the term weather is used to describe
the condition of atmosphere at a certain place at specific time while climate is the
average of atmospheric conditions of an area over a considerable time, say for about
35 years. Weather denotes day-to-day or even an hour-to-hour phenomenon on a
larger or on even a small area. It is subjected to drastic changes at any time. On the
other hand, climate involves systematic observation, recording and processing of the
various elements of the climate such as temperature, pressure, winds, humidity, rainfall
etc. It is also controlled by other elements such as altitude, distribution of land and
water, mountain barriers, global pressure belts, air masses, atmospheric disturbances
and ocean currents.
Now let us learn about the terms climatology and meteorology. Climatology is the
study of atmospheric conditions of different parts of the earth over a long temporal
duration. Meteorology is concerned with day-today atmospheric conditions and
their causes. Meteorology and climatology represent the study of weather and climate
respectively, the difference essentially being the different time scales and approaches
used for such study. Meteorologists tend to concern themselves with the analysis of
actual weather situations, while climatologists are more concerned with the aggregation
of such situations.
Have you ever wondered what are the elements of weather and climate? These are
basically the primary conditions of atmosphere which include wind, temperature,
pressure, humidity, clouds and precipitation. The intensity and the distribution of these
elements function as controls of weather and climate. Climate is also controlled by the
elements such as altitude, distribution of land and water, mountain barriers, air pressure,
atmospheric disturbances of various kinds, ocean currents etc. These controls, act in
different intensities and produce variations in temperature and precipitation and in turn
give rise to the changing patterns of weather and climate on the globe.
We will study briefly all these elements in this unit. Lets us also understand the process
related to heating up of the earth through insolation.
5.3 EARTH’S RADIATION BALANCE

Sun is the prime source of energy for earth. It heats up the atmosphere and earth
through insolation which is the “incoming solar radiation”. However, earth intercepts
only a minute percent of solar radiation which is only about 1/2,000,000,000th (one in
two billion) part of Sun’s energy output. Also, it takes 8 minutes 20 seconds for Sun’s
energy to reach the earth’s surface. The amount of solar radiation intercepted by the
earth’s surface is approximately 2 calories per square centimeter per minute or 2
100 Langley. Langley is known as the solar constant.
There are various processes responsible for the movement of this heat energy and Elements of Climate
heating and cooling of the atmosphere like radiation, reflection, scattering, absorption,
transmission, conduction and convection. It is also important that there exists a perfect
balance between the amount of incoming solar radiation and the outgoing terrestrial
radiation. If the outgoing radiation had not occurred, the surface would have become
progressively hotter. This balance between the amount of insolation and outging
terrestrial radiation is known as the Earth’s Radiation Balance or Earth’s Heat
Budget. Now let us study how it happens. Refer to Figure 5.1 to get a clear picture of
it.
Of the total 100 units of solar radiation reaching the earth’s outer atmosphere, 34 units
are directly returned to space without attempting to heat the atmosphere. Of these 34
units, 25 units are reflected by clouds to space, 2 units are reflected by earth’s albedo
and 7 units is lost as a result of scattering by air molecules and dust particles in the
atmosphere. Of the remaining 66 units, 19 units are absorbed within the atmosphere
(16 units by gases and 3 units by clouds). The remaining 47 units, reaches the earth
surface which is actually converted to heat energy, out of which 19 units are received
at the earth’s surface as direct sunlight, 23 units as diffused radiation through clouds
and 5 units as scattered radiation. Thus a total of 66 units (19 units + 47 units) of
effective solar radiation is actually absorbed by atmosphere and earth’s land-sea surface.
It is effective in heating up the earth’s atmosphere. In order to maintain the terrestrial
heat balance, the 66 units of solar radiation gained must be balanced by the same
amount of energy radiated back to space in the form of long wave terrestrial radiation.
Let us see the operation of the terrestrial heat balance (Fig. 5.1a, b). The earth radiates
120 units of energy upward out of which 6 units are radiated back to space directly.
The atmosphere absorbs the remaining 114 units of long wave earth radiation. Further,
10 units of heat are transported upward by convection currents. Thus, the atmosphere
gains these 10 units of heat. The atmosphere also gains 23 units as latent heat carried
to it in the hydrologic cycle due to processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation.
19 units of solar energy were already absorbed directly by the atmosphere as discussed
above. Hence the total units absorbed by the atmosphere is equal to 166 (19 + 114 +
10 + 23). Out of 166 units, 106 units are re- radiated back to the earth’s surface and
60 are radiated back to space. These 60 units in addition with 6 units radiated directly
by the earth’s surface, brings the total of 66 units of energy which is actually radiated
back to the space. Thus, the amount of incoming solar radiation is balanced by an
equal amount of outgoing radiation.
a b
Fig. 5.1 a, b: Heat budget of the atmosphere and earth 101

Climatology and Check your progress 1
Meteorology
1. What is the difference between climatology and meteorology?
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2. What are the elements and controls of climate?
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5.4 LATITUDINAL AND SEASONAL VARIATION

OF INSOLATION
You should know that insolation is not uniform all over the earth. It is generally more in
the equatorial regions and it declines towards the pole. However, there is spatial and
temporal variation in the amount of insolation received. Tropical zone (between 23.5o
North and 23.5o South) receive the maximum insolation. All places in this zone receive
overhead Sun twice a year because of the apparent movement of sun northwards and
southwards. The middle latitudes zone extending between 23.5o and 66 o in both the
hemispheres receive maximum insolation at the time of summer solstice (21st June) in
northern hemisphere and at the time of winter solstice (22nd December) in southern
hemisphere. They receive minimum insolation at the time of vernal equinox (21st March)
in northern hemisphere and autumnal equinox (23rd September) in southern hemisphere.
The polar zone extending between 66 o and 90 o in both the hemispheres receive
maximum and minimum insolation at one time in a year. Here sometime the insolation
becomes zero due to complete absence of solar rays.
The distribution of temperatures across the latitudes is known as horizontal distribution
of temperature. Isotherms show the horizontal distribution of temperature on earth.
The term ‘isotherms’ is derived from two Greek words, ‘Isos’ meaning equal, and,
‘thermos’ meaning hottest. So, isotherms are imaginary lines drawn on a map
connecting places having the same temperature, reduced to mean sea level. The most
important isotherms are the mean monthly isotherms, especially for the months of
January and July. As these months have the greatest extremes of temperature owing
to the apparent movement of the Sun, the isotherms of these months are important.
During January, it is summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the northern
hemisphere. The January isotherms are more irregular and closely spaced in the northern
hemisphere and more regularly and widely spaced in the southern hemisphere. On the
continents of the northern hemisphere the isotherms of this month bends sharply towards
the equator as the oceans are relatively warmer than the landmasses and over the
oceans the isotherms bend towards the poles. In the southern hemisphere, these
102 conditions during January are just the reverse.
For July, the sun is overhead along the Tropic of Cancer. It is period of summer in Elements of Climate
northern hemisphere and winter in southern hemisphere. A high temperature belt is
seen extending from North Africa through South-West Asia to the North-Western
part of Indian Sub-Continent. Another belt of high temperature is in the south-western
part of the United States of America. The July isotherms bend equator-wards over the
oceans and pole-wards over the continents. This is because the land heats much more
rapidly than the sea in the similar latitudes. It also can be seen that the decrease of
temperature is almost regular in the southern hemisphere due to the preponderance of
oceans, whereas the isotherms are more irregular in the Northern Hemisphere. In July,
all the isotherms are shifted slightly towards north with the apparent movement of the
sun. The thermal equator is also displaced to the north of the equator.
So far, you have had an introduction to elements and controls of climate, insolation
and latitudinal and seasonal variation of insolation. Let us now get acquainted with
global pressure and wind belts.
5.5 GLOBAL PRESSURE AND WIND BELTS

You might have studied at previous level that air is an admixture of several gases. So
air has weight of its own and is able to exert pressure through this weight. Air pressure
can be defined as total weight of a mass of column of air above per unit area at sea-
level. Pressure on one square centimeter area of the surface of earth would be equal to
the actual weight of the column of air above that area extending upwards to the outer
limits of the atmosphere. So, atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted
by a weight of air above it. As air is compressible, so the air which lies in the lowest
portion is greatly compressed and is therefore the densest whereas, as we move up,
both density and pressure of the air decreases.
The air exerts a pressure of 1034 g/cm2 at sea level.
As one goes up from sea level to higher altitudes, air
pressure decreases. You might have experienced
mountain sickness in the form of nose bleeding, ear
bleeding, nausea while travelling to places of high
altitude Mountaineers face these difficulties because
the higher we go, the thinner the atmosphere becomes
and there is lesser pressure and hence lesser oxygen.
Bleeding of nose and similar ailments are related to
higher pressure inside the body compared to lower
external pressure due to which the thin nasal capillaries
tend to bleed.
The instrument to measure the atmospheric pressure is
called Barometer. It is a glass tube 1m long which is
sealed at one end and completely filled with mercury.
The open end is inverted and immersed into a dish of
mercury. Under normal atmospheric conditions, the
mercury in the tube falls and remains fixed at a level
about 76 cm above the surface of mercury in the dish
(Fig. 5.2).
Fig. 5.2: Mercurial Barometer 103

Climatology and Standard sea level pressure is 76 cm (29.92Inches) on this scale. Since 1910, the
Meteorology millibars have gradually come into use as convenient unit of atmospheric pressure. It
represents a force of 1000 dynes acting on 1 cm2. The SI unit of pressure is Pascal that
is equivalent to a force of one Newton per square meter. The value of mean sea level
is 1013.25 millibars (mb) at a temperature of 150C and latitude of 450. Thus 76 cm of
mercurial column is equivalent to 1013.25 mb. Isobars are imaginary lines drawn on a
weather map connecting points of equal pressure.
Now let us study the latitudinal distribution of atmospheric pressure. It is also known
as horizontal distribution of atmospheric pressure. It is characterised by low and high
pressure belts. There are mainly seven pressure belts on the earth. The formation of
these pressure belts are either due to thermal factor or rotational factor. Thermal
factor operates due to differential heating of the surface of earth and atmosphere e.g.,
equatorial low pressure belt and polar high pressure belts. On the other hand, due to
the effect of rotation of the earth, some pressure belts are dynamically induced e.g.,
sub- tropical high pressure belts and sub-polar low pressure belts. You would
understand this by studying all the pressure belts in detail.
There are seven alternate belts of low and high pressures on the earth’s surface. They
are listed below:
1) Equatorial Low Pressure Belt
2) Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt (Northern hemisphere)
3) Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt (Southern hemisphere)
4) Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt (Northern hemisphere)
5) Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt (Southern hemisphere)
6) Polar High Pressure Belt (Northern hemisphere), and
7) Polar High Pressure Belt (Southern hemisphere)
Now let us study these pressure belts separately.
A. The Equatorial Low Pressure Belt
This pressure belt is located in the vicinity of the equator between 5° N and 5° S
latitudes. The average pressure in this belt is less than 1013 millibars throughout. The
equatorial trough of low pressure is the zone of convergence of trade winds blowing
equatorwards from the sub-tropical belts of high pressure in the northern and southern
hemispheres. Thus north-east trade winds and South-East trade winds converge here
to form Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). As these regions receive vertical
rays of the sun throughout the year, temperatures are high. So the ground gets heated
and as such the lower layers of air also gets heated and expands and becomes light.
Consequently they rise upwards creating a low pressure along the ground. That is why
these belts are called the Doldrums. The equatorial trough of low pressure is tied with
the sun. Therefore it shifts towards the north and south of the equator with the apparent
movement of the Sun.
B. The Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt
The sub-tropical high pressure belts are located between latitudes 25° to 35° in both
104 hemispheres. The most important feature of this pressure belt is that it is broken into a
number of high pressure centres or cells. In the northern hemisphere it is called the Elements of Climate
North sub-tropical high pressure belt and in the southern hemisphere it is known as
South sub-tropical high pressure belt. The high pressure belt in these latitudes is because
of the settling down of winds that arose in the equatorial region and got deflected
towards poles due to the earth’s rotation. So these sub-tropical high pressure belts are
dynamically induced and not thermally induced in spite of the temperatures being fairly
high in these regions for a greater time of the year. These belts have a convergence
zone at higher altitudes which when subsides, causes piling up of air and reduction of
volume thus resulting into high pressure. Thus anticyclonic conditions develop which
results in calm and arid weather. In olden days, vessels or ships with cargo of horses
passing through these belts found difficulty in sailing under these calm conditions. Hence,
they were forced to throw the horses into the sea in order to make the vessels
lighter.Therfore these high pressure zones are also called as horse latitudes. Contrary
to the equatorial regions, these are the regions of divergence of winds from ground
level as winds blow from these belts towards the equatorial and sub-polar low pressure
belts.
C. The Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belts
Sub-polar low pressure belts are located between 60° to 70° latitudes in both the
hemispheres. These low pressure belts are also dynamically induced in spite of the
fact that these regions experience low temperatures throughout the year. Due to the
rotation of the earth (Coriolis effect), the air develops a tendency of being thrown
outwards or spreading outwards. Winds from here are displaced towards sub-tropical
high pressure and polar high pressure zones. As a result low pressure belt develops
here. In the southern hemisphere, there is an uninterrupted belt of low pressure between
latitudes 60° and 70°, where there is a very vast expanse of ocean. This pressure belt
is broken in the northern hemisphere due to dominance of landmasses here. However,
there are well-defined low pressure cells over the northern oceans. The cells of these
low pressure system lies near to Aleutian islands in the Pacific Ocean and between
Greenland and Iceland in the Atlantic Ocean.
D. Polar High Pressure Belts or Polar Highs
The polar regions are characterised by low temperatures throughout the year and
hence high pressure persists at the poles which overcomes even the high Coriolis
effect in these regions. In northern hemisphere it is called the North Polar High Pressure
Belt and in southern hemisphere it is known as South Polar High Pressure Belt. Winds
from these belts flow towards the sub-polar low pressure belts.
Now let us study about humidity which is one of the most important elements of
climate and the driving force behind the presence of life on earth.
5.6 HUMIDITY AND PRECIPITATION

Humidity refers to water vapour content of air at a particular time and place. Water
is the most abundant substance found on the earth and covers about 70% of earth’s
surface though it is very unevenly distributed. Also a very small amount of fresh water
is available for use though water appears everywhere on earth, that is in the air, in land
and in every living beings. It also exists on the earth in all the three states, that is, solid,
liquid and gaseous state. The different physical states of water is in fact very important
as they are all connected to the hydrological cycle. 105
Climatology and 5.6.1 The Hydrological Cycle
Meteorology
Hydrological cycle, also known as water cycle, is the continuous movement of water
on, above and below the surface of earth through physical processes of evaporation,
condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surface run-off and sub-surface flow. During
the process there is also change in form of water like solid (ice), liquid and gas (water
vapour). The key phenomena in water cycle are evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, run-off, sublimation, transpiration and evapotranspiration. The process
of conversion of liquid water to water vapour is called evaporation. Reverse of
evaporation is called condensation that marks a change from gaseous to liquid state.
Sometimes there is a direct change of state from solid ice to water vapour. This process
is called sublimation. Reverse of sublimation is called the deposition. Further
change of state from liquid to solid is called freezing. The change of state from solid to
liquid is called melting. The processes of evaporation, sublimation and melting
consume energy while condensation, deposition and freezing release energy.
In strong sunlight, water evaporates from the ocean surface and other water bodies.
This is taken to be the beginning of the hydrologic cycle, as shown in Fig. 5.3. Solar
radiation heats the surface of the earth. This in turn heats the
The hydrologic cycle gives the proportion between precipitation, evaporation and
run off, which varies from continent to continent.
air above it, which becomes lighter and rises. Air cools when it reaches the cooler
layers of troposphere and its capacity to ‘hold’ moisture decreases. At one point the
air is cooled enough to reach saturation. The water vapor in the air condenses to
form clouds. Moisture in the form of clouds is then transported around the world
until it returns to the earth’s surface as precipitation. When the water reaches the
ground, some of it may evaporate back into the atmosphere or may go below the
surface and become groundwater. Groundwater flows into the oceans, rivers, and
streams, or it is goes back into the atmosphere through evaporation from soil and
transpiration from vegetation. Some of the water remains on the earth’s surface
as runoff, which flows into lakes, rivers and streams and is carried back to the
oceans, where the cycle begins once more.
Fig.5.3: Hydrologic Cycle

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5.6.2 Precipitation and Its Forms Elements of Climate
Precipitation is defined as water in some form, falling out of the air, and settling on the
earth’s surface. Rain, snow, hail, sleet, and freezing rain are all different forms of
precipitation. Let us get acquainted with them.
The kind of precipitation received by the earth depends on the variation of temperature
above the surface.
(a) Rain: Rain is precipitation in liquid form. Also higher latitudes or higher altitudes,
rain may begin as snow. but if the air temperature near the surface is above freezing,
the snow will melt into rain and fall in liquid form.
(b) Snow: Snow is precipitation in solid form. If the air temperatures are below freezing,
then precipitation will be in the form of snow. Ice crystals form (typically) a hexagonal
shape. Size and shape of the crystal is dependent on moisture content and temperature
of the air.
(c) Sleet: This occurs when snow falling through a warm layer of air melts and passes
through a cold layer of air, the water refreezes and falls in solid form as sleet. These
are small pellets of ice with diameters about 5mm or less.
(d) Freezing Rain: This occurs when snow melts upon passing through a warm layer
of air and then freezes on the surface whose temperature is at or below freezing.
(e) Hail: Hail falls as large pellets or balls of ice having diameters about 5-50mm.
Hailstones form due to the up and down movement of moisture laden air inside a
cumulonimbus cloud. Cloud droplets freeze when they reach temperatures below
0p C then melts and then refreezes once more and the process goes as air goes up
and down through the storm. This creates concentric rings of ice inside the hail
stone.
(f) Drizzle: Drizzle are extremely minute droplets of water having diameter of amounts
to 0.5 mm or even less and falls continuously from low stratus clouds. However, the
amount of water that has fallen is significantly low in this case.
5.6.3 Types of Precipitation or Rainfall
Rain is the most common type of precipitation. For rainfall to occur, it is required that
moist air should ascend, get cooled and saturate and then condense. There are three
ways in which the moist air ascends. Due to this there are three distinct ways in
which precipitation may occur. These include orographic, convectional and cyclonic
types of precipitation. Let us discuss them briefly.
(a) Orographic Precipitation
This occurs when a mountain barrier comes across the direction of air flow. This
forces the moist air to rise along a mountain. As the rising air cools it condenses to
form clouds and leads to precipitation. This type of rainfall is common in the Western
Ghats and in the north-eastern parts of our country. Have a look at Fig. 5.4 which
explains orographic precipitation very well. The face of the mountain facing the wind is
called windward slope where maximum rainfall occurs while the other side of the
mountain is called the leeward slope or rain shadow area as it receives very meager
rain.
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Climatology and
Meteorology
Fig. 1.4: Orographic Precipitation
(b) Convectional Precipitation

Convectional precipitation occurs usually in equatorial regions which receives huge
amount of insolation and has high humidity levels. Due to intense heating of the ground,
the air in contact with the ground gets heated, expands and rises in the form of convection
currents. This ascending air cools due to dry adiabatic lapse rate and at a point it
becomes saturated. Cumulonimbus clouds form and heavy downpours accompanied
by thunderstorms occur, especially in the afternoon. Please refer to Fig. 5.5 to
understand better. It also occurs in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions during
summer. However, in temperate regions the rainfall is for a longer duration and is not
that heavy.
Fig. 5.5: Convectional Precipitation
(c) Cyclonic Precipitation

Cyclonic precipitation is typically associated with frontal region in the mid-latitudes.
This happens when warm air is pushed up above a wedge of cooler air. It is a common
occurrence when warm westerlies is undercut by cooler polar air. As rising warm air
cools, clouds form and precipitation falls over a wide area. In our country, the north-
western region gets this kind of precipitation during winter, which is known as ‘western
108 disturbance’. You will learn more about cyclones and their type in the next unit.
Elements of Climate
Fig. 5.6: Cyclonic Precipitation

1. Why low pressure develops along sub-polar regions in spite of very low
temperatures prevailing there?
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2. What is the difference between convectional, orographic and cyclonic rainfall?
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5.7 WATER BALANCE

The concept of water balance has recently gained considerable importance among
climatologists, meteorologists, geographers, geologists, hydrologists and from other
disciplines concerned primarily with water problems. Water balance may be defined
as the income of water from precipitation and other sources and the loss or outflow of
water by means of evapotranspiration which represents the combined loss of water
from the earth by means of evaporation and transpiration as well as from other sources.
In other words, the process of evapotranspiration is actually the reversal of the process
of precipitation. The water balance can be shown using the formula:
P= Q + E +ÄS
Where P = Precipitation
E = Evapotranspiration and
Ä S = Changes in storage
This equation uses the principle of conservation of mass in a closed system. Total
water enters a system through precipitation which is equal to evaporation or surface
run-off and change in the reservoir where it is stored. Wet seasons have a positive
water balance as precipitation is greater than evapotranspiration which creates a water 109
Climatology and surplus. Surface runoff is increased and there is higher water level in rivers. Contrary
Meteorology to this, in drier season, evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation due to which plants
absorb more water and depletes the ground water stores. So, at the end of dry season,
we have water deficit.
Water balance is used in studies related to water management. It can also highlight
areas of water shortages. It is used in studies related to irrigation, run-off
assessment, flood control, pollution control etc. It is also used in the design of
subsurface drainage systems which may be horizontal (pipes, tile drains or ditches)
or vertical (wells).
5.8 LET US SUM UP

Elements of Climate are basically the primary conditions of atmosphere which include
wind, temperature, pressure, humidity, clouds and precipitation. However, the intensity
and the distribution of these elements function as controls of weather and climate.
Sun is the prime source of energy for earth. Insolation is defined as the incoming solar
radiation. It is interesting that there exists a perfect balance between the amount of
incoming solar radiation and the outgoing terrestrial radiation which is also called the
Earth’s Radiation Balance. Insolation is more in equatorial regions and it declines pole
wards. Isotherms show the horizontal distribution of temperature on earth.
Since air has weight, it exerts pressure. Air pressure is defined as total weight of a
mass of column of air above per unit area at sea-level. Standard sea level pressure is
76 cm (29.92Inches) on a Barometer which measures atmospheric pressure. SI unit
of pressure is Pascal that is equivalent to a force of one Newton per square meter. The
value of mean sea level is 1013.25 millibars (mb) at a temperature of 150C and latitude
of 450. There are mainly seven pressure belts on the earth which are formed either due
to thermal factor or rotational factor.
Humidity refers to water vapour content of air. Water exists on the earth in all the
three states, that is, solid, liquid and gaseous state. Hydrological cycle, also known as
water cycle, is the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of
earth through physical processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration,
surface run-off and sub-surface flow. Precipitation is defined as water in some form,
falling out of the air, and settling on the earth’s surface. Rain, snow, hail, sleet, and
freezing rain are all different forms of precipitation. There are three distinct ways in
which precipitation may occur. These include orographic, convectional and cyclonic
types of precipitation
Water balance may be defined as the income of water from precipitation and other
sources and the loss or outflow of water by means of evapotranspiration which
represents the combined loss of water from the earth by means of evaporation and
transpiration as well as from other sources.
5.9 KEY WORDS

Climatology : Climatology is the study of atmospheric conditions
of different parts of the earth over a long temporal
duration.
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Meteorology : Meteorology is concerned with day-today Elements of Climate
atmospheric conditions and their causes.
Weather : Weather denotes day-to-day or even an hour-
to-hour phenomenon on a larger or on even a
small area.
Climate : Climate is the average of atmospheric conditions
of an area over a considerable time.
Barometer : An instrument to measure atmospheric pressure.
Isotherms : Isotherms are imaginary lines drawn on a map
connecting places having the same temperature,
reduced to mean sea level.
Terminal Questions
1. Explain hydrological cycle with the help of a diagram.
2. List and describe the global pressure belts.
3. Explain with the help of a diagram the heat budget of the earth.

READINGS
Trewarta, G T. (1968), An Introduction to Climate, International Student Edition,
Mc Graw Hill Kogakusha Ltd, Tokyo.
Oliver, J.E., Hindore, J.H.(2009), Climatology-An Atmospheric Science, Prentice
Hall of India Learning Pvt Ltd, New Delhi.
Critchfield,H. (2012), General Climatology,PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
Lal D.S. (2013), Climatology and Oceanography, Shardha Pustak Bhavan, Allahabad.
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/69214/11/11_chapter%201.pdf
http://www.alevelgeography.com/water-balance/

1. Climatology is the study of atmospheric conditions of different parts of the earth
over a long temporal duration. Meteorology is concerned with day-today
atmospheric conditions and their causes. Meteorologists tend to concern themselves
with the analysis of actual weather situations, while climatologists are more
concerned with the aggregation of such situations.
2. These are basically the primary conditions of atmosphere which include wind,
temperature, pressure, humidity, clouds and precipitation. Climate is also controlled
by the elements such as altitude, distribution of land and water, mountain barriers,
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Climatology and air pressure, atmospheric disturbances of various kinds, ocean currents etc. These
Meteorology controls, act in different intensities and produce variations in temperature and
precipitation and in turn give rise to the changing patterns of weather and climate
on the globe.
1. The development of low pressure along sub-polar latitudes, that is between 60 o -
70o latitudes is not due to thermal conditions as temperature here is quite low. It is
in fact dynamically induced due to rotation of earth and coriolis effect. Along these
latitudes the air develops a tendency of being thrown outwards or spreading
outwards. Winds from here are displaced towards sub-tropical high pressure and
polar high pressure zones. As a result low pressure belt develops here.
2. Convectional precipitation occurs when the ground gets heated and air in contact
with ground also gets heated and rises upwards as convection currents. In orographic
rainfall, air is lifted over an orographic barrier that happens to fall in its course
while in cyclonic rain when warm air is lifted along a fron that results due to
convergence of two contrasting airmasses (warm westerlies and cold polar air).
Answers to Terminal Questions
1. First define hydrological cycle and explain it with the help of a figure as given in
Section 5.6.1.
2. First list all pressure belts and describe them with the help of a figure as given in
Section 5.5.
3. As given in Section 5.3 first state that incoming solar radiation is equal to outgoing
terrestrial radiation and explain the entire process with the help of figure.
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Elements of Climate
UNIT 6 WEATHER PHENOMENON
Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Weather: An Introduction
6.3 Introduction to Air Masses
6.3.1 Classification of Air Masses
6.4 Fronts and Temperate Cyclones
6.5 Tropical Cyclones
6.6 Jet Streams
6.7 South-West and North East Monsoons
6.7.1 South-West Monsoon
6.8 El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
6.9 Classification of Climate by Koeppen and Thornthwaite
6.10 Let Us Sum Up
6.11 Keywords
6.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit of this block, you have been introduced to elements of climate and
their controls. So now you are aware that there is differential heating of different parts
of the earth due to incoming solar radiation. This brings about differences in
temperatures, pressure and rainfall etc and in fact different climatic conditions across
the globe. In this unit, we are concentrating more on weather phenomenon or weather
disturbances. You have already been introduced to weather and climate in the previous
unit. In this unit, you will get a short introduction to weather. To understand different
weather phenomenon we need to get an overview of different air masses. Meeting of
different air masses leads to development of fronts and in fact cyclones. You will also
study about tropical cyclones which are non-frontal cyclones and about jet streams
and monsoons. El Nino is also discussed and is to be studied in connection with
monsoons. Lastly, you will study climatic classification given by Koeppen and how his
scheme was different from that of Thornthwaite’s scheme of climatic classification.
6.1 OBJECTIVES
• define weather and air masses and explain various processes in different air
masses that lead to weather disturbances;
• discuss the formation of fronts and temperate cyclones;
• explain the processes related to tropical cyclones;
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Climatology and • describe the origin and mechanism of monsoons;
Meteorology
• analyse the affect of jet streams and El Nino in the outbreak and progression of
monsoons and other weather phenomenon; and
• describe the classification of climates given by Koeppen.
6.2 WEATHER: AN INTRODUCTION

Let us have a quick recap about weather. ‘Weather’ refers to the state of atmosphere
at any given time and denotes the short term variations of atmosphere in terms of
temperature, pressure, wind, moisture, cloudiness, precipitation and visibility. These
are also known as the elements of weather. Weather is highly variable. It varies not
only from day to day but even hour to hour. This is because of the constant change in
the elements of weather which are closely interrelated. Take for example if temperature
rises, pressure becomes low, winds get attracted towards low pressure area, gives
rise to convection currents and results in cloudiness, low visibility and precipitation.
Extremes of these conditions may lead to cyclones or other weather disturbances. It is
important to note that most of the weather phenomena occur in the lowest levels of the
atmosphere, that is, troposphere, just below the stratosphere.
6.3 INTRODUCTION TO AIR MASSES

As mentioned earlier, in order to understand atmospheric disturbances, we need a
clear understanding of air masses. This is because air masses play a major role in
bringing about day-to-day weather changes and in producing different climate types in
the long run. So let us learn about air masses. An air mass is an immense body of air
usually 1600 km or more across and perhaps several kilometers thick, which is
characterised by homogenous physical properties (particular temperature and moisture
content) at any given altitude. Trewartha defines air mass as “an immense body of air
that moves over earth’s land-sea surface as a recognizable entity, with temperature
and humidity characteristics which are relatively uniform in a horizontal direction at
different levels.” Thus, we conclude that air mass is a large body of air whose physical
properties especially temperature, moisture content and lapse rate are more or less
uniform horizontally for hundreds of kilometers.
Let us now study how air masses are formed and what are source regions of air
masses. Areas where air masses form are known as source regions. Nature and
degree of uniformity of air mass are determined by the properties of the source area,
changes introduced in the air mass during its journey away from the source area and
the age of the air mass. When air remains in contact with a large and uniform surface
for a quite some time, let us say a couple of days, its temperature and moisture attain
equilibrium with the surface. So an ideal source region should an extensive and
homogenous earth’s surface so that it may possess uniform temperature and moisture
conditions. There should be divergent air flow so that air may stay over the region for
longer period of time. Thus, anticyclonic conditions characterised by high barometric
pressure and low pressure gradient favours the development of air masses. Also the
atmospheric conditions should be stable for considerably long period of time so that
air may attain the conditions of the surface.
There are three bases of classification of air masses. These are:
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• Thermal
• Latitudinal Weather
Phenomenon
• Configurational
On the basis of temperature (thermal) air masses can broadly be divided into warm air
mass and Cold air mass. On the basis of latitudinal extent it may be (i) tropical and (ii)
polar air mass and on the basis of configuration they can be (i) Continental air mass
and (ii) maritime air mass.
Again a composite scheme may be given by combining all the 3 above mentioned
schemes. Composite scheme shows that there are two major types, four second order
types and eight 3rd order types. Each one is again divided on the basis of stability.
Altogether, it becomes 16 types of air masses. Air masses however in general are
instable. Instability brings modification in the characteristics of air mass. Hence only 8
types of air masses are considered important. Refer to Figure. 6.1 for understanding
the scheme of classification of air masses.
Fig. 6.1: Classification of Air masses
Check your progress 1

1. What are the characteristics of a good source region of air masses?
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A body of air is modified through thermodynamic and dynamic processes.
Thermodynamic processes involve heating or cooling of air from below or by solar
heating of the ground over which the air is located. Dynamic changes are mechanical
and they involve mixing and pressure changes associated with actual movement of the
air mass. These modifications bring considerable changes in the weather condition of
four major air masses. Let us discuss them briefly.
A. Continental Polar Air Mass
This air mass brings a lot of meteorological changes. It becomes more effective during
winter season in northern USA and Canadian column of air masses and also Siberian 115
Climatology and air mass. Siberian air mass is formed due to the shift of pressure belts and very low
Meteorology temperature prevailing over the region. Sub-polar low pressure belt disappears from
the Siberian plateau and one of the largest columns of air mass is formed in Eurasia
which is called as Siberian air mass. All these air masses promote polar cold winds
which modify the meteorological condition of the area visited by them. Similarly North
American and Canadian air mass is also developed. North-easterly winds towards
Atlantic create weather disturbances in the form of snow, sleet, icy winds and foggy
conditions. The air moving to the south over the continent acquires higher temperatures
and tends to become unstable, but there is little gain in moisture content.
B. Maritime Polar Air Mass
This air mass prevails over the northern part of North Atlantic and Arctic sea region.
During winters both are in continuity and are responsible for the development of cold
front and temperate cyclone as they move southwards. Visiting areas receive very
cold condition but the moving air is also modified while moving towards lower latitudes.
However, due to low temperature sometimes it brings snowfall even in coastal areas
of Western Europe.
C. Continental Tropical Air Mass
These air masses are characterised by moderate temperatures, low moisture and low
humidity and constitute the source of trade winds and westerlies. However, continental
tropical has seasonal changes in regional perspective e.g. central plains of India develops
these air masses only during winters. During summers, this zone becomes a low pressure
area due to which continental tropical high pressure air mass. In southern U.S.A and
southern China similar situation is formed.
D. Maritime Tropical Air Mass
This air mass is principally the sub-tropical high pressure areas of North Pacific and
North Atlantic. Winds blowing from these sources have greater meteorological
consistency as they move on the ocean surface. These air masses also form the source
of trade winds and westerlies. Westerlies are warm and move towards higher latitudes
that is sub-polar low pressure areas. It leads to condensation in lower atmosphere and
fog appears and visibility decreases and this is the reason why English Channel becomes
permanently foggy due to this.
Vertical movement in an air mass is of great significance because nearly all precipitation
is associated with adiabatic cooling and condensation in the rising air. Stability and
instability of air mass are also related to vertical movements of air. This is an important
parameter for weather forecasting. Sometimes two air masses of contrasting
characteristics meet, they do not mix readily but a front or a sort of boundary is
formed between them. Let us study about these in the next section.
6.4 FRONTS AND TEMPERATE CYCLONES

As we have mentioned earlier that, air masses with contrasting physical properties like
temperature, pressure, humidity, density etc. come into contact with one another along
a sloping boundary called front. So fronts are defined as the sloping boundary surface
or the transitional zone between two contrasting air masses. Fronts vary in thickness
from 50-100 km. The boundary always slopes upward over the colder and denser air
116
exhibiting abrupt temperature discontinues throughout its vertical extent. Since air Weather
masses are three-dimensional, so the boundary separating two different air masses are Phenomenon
also three-dimensional as is having both vertical and horizontal extent, although in
weather charts they are shown as lines.
Systematic evolution of front in mid latitude regions due to convergence of polar air
mass and the warm sub-tropical air mass is known as frontogenesis. Frontogenesis
is well explained by the ‘polar front theory’ of V. Bjerknes, J. Jakob. The general
atmospheric circulation favours divergence of air masses in sub-tropical and Polar
regions, but there is convergence of two air masses of different properties in sub-polar
low pressure region, which gives rise to fronts and temperate cyclones. Let us now
learn about cyclones and fronts in greater detail.
The atmospheric disturbances which involve a closed circulation about a low pressure
centre, anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern
hemisphere are called cyclones. In simple words movement of air at around a vortex
or a depression or low pressure area is called cyclone. They are of 2 types- (a) Extra
tropical cyclones (wave cyclones) and (b) Tropical cyclones. Extra tropical cyclones
are weather disturbance of temperate and high latitude regions. In common usage they
are also called temperate cyclones.
According to the ‘polar front theory’ frontal activities or temperate cyclone passes
through six stages which are explained as follows:
1st stage: In the initial stage, the two contrasting air masses move parallel to the front
in opposite directions maintaining their boundary zone for some time. The boundary at
this stage is known as stationary front.
2nd stage: The second stage is also called as the initial stage which marks the beginning
of cyclonic circulation as the cold and the warm air masses penetrate into the territories
of each other and thus a wave-like front is formed.
3rd stage: This stage is the stage of evolution of warm sector. Now cold and warm
fronts are clearly formed. The meeting point of the 2 fronts becomes the centre of low
pressure around which cold and warm winds begin to circulate. Cold air advances
equatorwards while the warm air advances polewards along the warm front. Now
isobars are almost circular.
4th stage: During the 4th stage cold air overtakes the warm air. Warm sector is further
narrowed as cold air moves faster equatorwards.
5th stage: This is the stage of occlusion. Here cold front overtakes the warm front
pushing the warm air aloft and closing the warm sector. The area of low atmospheric
pressure is thus filled up by the cold air and occlusion occurs. This new frontal surface
is called as occluded front. The depth of the cold air along the occluded front increases
and the entire warm sector is forced to rise until it spreads out laterally over the cold
air mass.
6th Stage: This is the stage of dissipation. The air fails to turn further and the opposite
moving airs emerge between them the stationary front is re-established. Refer to Figure
6.2 to understand better.
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Climatology and
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Fig 6.2: Stages of a Temperate Cyclone
In Fig 6.2, you must have noticed there are different types of fronts. So we see that
temperate cyclone involves four types of fronts. They are the cold front, warm front,
occluded front and the stationary front. These four fronts are associated with different
weather conditions. Let us know about them.
Cold Front: Cold front is that front along which cold air becomes active and invades
the warm air territory. The cold air being denser remains on the ground but forcibly
uplifts the warm air. Since air motion is retarded near the ground surface due to friction
while the free air aloft has higher velocity, hence cold front becomes much steeper than
the warm front. Its slope varies from 1:50 to 1:100 (meaning rise of the wedge of cold
air at the rate of 1 km for every 50 or 100 km horizontal distance). Here the clouds are
generally cumulonimbus which brings hailstorm in Europe and U.K. Sometimes
nimbostratus and stratocumulus clouds are formed over U.K. They bring heavy and
light rain respectively. With the passing of the cold front, pressure begins to rise and
temperature decreases. Sky becomes suddenly clear.
Warm Front: It is that gently sloping frontal surface along which warm air becomes
active and rises slowly over cold and dense air. The average slope of warm front in the
middle latitudes varies from 1:100 to 1:200. This gentle slope develops multi-layered
cloud. The topmost is cirrus followed by cirrostratus and altostratus and further down
nimbostratus and stratus clouds. The Sun is obscured. It first drizzles and then rains
covering a large area.
Occluded Front: It is defined as a front formed when cold front completely overtakes
the warm front and displaces it from the ground. Occluded front is of two types having
different weather conditions. Cold front occlusion occurs when the cold air which
overtakes the warm air is colder that the retreating cold air. In case of warm front
occlusion, the retreating cold air mass is colder than the advancing cold air mass.
Stationary Front: As the name suggests, surface position of this front does not move.
Winds on either side of this front appear to be nearly parallel.
6.5 TROPICAL CYCLONES

You were taught in the previous section that there are two types of cyclones, temperate
and tropical cyclones. We discussed about fronts and temperate cyclones there. Let
us now study about tropical cyclones in this section. Tropical cyclone emerges due to
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thermal effect. Thermal effect causes the emergence of the centre of low pressure and Weather
warm air of almost similar properties begins to rush to the centre. It emerges invariably Phenomenon
over the surface of oceans between 8o to 15o latitudes. Extensive shallow lows
occasionally formed along the thermal equator, becomes cyclonic once the situation is
beyond 8o latitudes. It cannot emerge in lower latitudes due to weak effect of Coriolis
force. Coriolis force brings turn in the wind and almost circular system of wind circulation
is developed. The centre of the circular wind system is known as the eye of the cyclone.
It is the centre of low pressure and causes the emergence of high velocity violent winds
in the tropical region but it remains calm as the moving winds develop the tendency of
horizontal rise. The warm winds go on rising which also causes condensation, cloud
formation and ultimately rainfall. This tendency does not allow winds to reach the
destination centre of low pressure. This is how the eye of cyclone is meteorologically
a calm region, otherwise cyclonic winds are violent and destructive having a wind
velocity of 120-200 km per hour. The diameter of the eye of cyclone is generally
below 50 km but the diameter of the cyclonic influence is up to 500 km. The eye of the
cyclone develops ideally when the ocean surface is between 25 to 28o C.
Refer to Figure 6.3 to know the mechanism of tropical cyclone. You can also listen to
the following video programmes to know more about cyclones and how their prediction
is done by IMD (India Meteorological Department):
1) Observing Weather: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EKWrrkI1xrY
2) Predicting Weather: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZJE2VrdFxDg&t=5s
Tropical cyclones are known by different names in different places of the world. In the
seas off China, Philippines, Japan and other islands of Western Pacific Ocean they are
known as typhoons and off the coast of north-west Australia, they are known as Willy
Willies. Tropical cyclonic storms in North America are known as Hurricane. You also
need to get familiar with some other terms like thunderstorms, tornadoes and
waterspouts. These are violent storms in which enormous amount of energy is
discharged in an extremely short duration of time due to which they have a disastrous
impact. Thunderstorms are defined as storms produced by cumulonimbus clouds
and are always accompanied by lightning and thunder. Like cyclones, tornadoes are
also intense centres of low pressure. They are defined as a violent rotating column of
air attended by a funnel shaped or tubular cloud extending down from the base of a
cumulonimbus cloud. Tornadoes are common in USA. Waterspouts are tornadoes,
the main difference being that it occurs over water instead of land.
1. Differentiate between temperate and tropical cyclones.
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Let us also discuss about anticyclones in brief. Anticyclones can be defined as a large
wind system that rotates about a centre of high atmospheric pressure, clockwise in the 119
Climatology and northern hemisphere and counter-clockwise in the southern hemisphere. It denotes an
Meteorology atmospheric system just opposite to cyclones. Since anticyclones are characterized
by clear and fine weather, no serious study has been conducted in this regard. However,
the location and energy of anticyclone is an important parameter of weather forecasting.
In this unit so far, we have studied about atmospheric circulation and related weather
disturbances in the lower troposphere. Let us now study about air circulation of upper
atmosphere which also has a significant impact on surface weather conditions. These
are jet streams which came to the knowledge of meteorologists during Second World
War.
6.6 JET STREAMS

Jet Streams are defined as swift geostrophic air streams in upper troposphere that
meanders in relatively narrow belts. These are thousands of kilometers in length and a
few hundred kilometers in width and having a vertical thickness of two or more. The
mean velocity of jet streams is about 144 km/h. However, at times the mean velocity
of inner core of jet streams may be as high as 480 km/h.
The regions around 30° north and south of equator and 50°-60° north and south of
equator are areas where temperature changes are the greatest. As the difference in
temperature increases between the two locations the strength of the wind increases.
Therefore, the regions around 30° N/S and 50°-60° N/S are also regions where the
wind, in the upper atmosphere, is the strongest. The 50°-60° N/S region is where
the polar jet is located with the subtropical jet is located around 30°N. Jet streams
vary in height of four to eight miles and can reach speeds of more than 442 km/h.
Refer to Figure 2.3 to know better.
Jet streams play a significant role in determining the weather conditions in lower
atmosphere. The path followed by temperate cyclones or mid-latitude weather
disturbances are largely controlled by these upper air circulations. Movement of jet
streams is also important in determining prolonged periods of floods or droughts. So
we see that surface meteorological conditions are highly affected by the path of jet
streams and so a preliminary knowledge of jet streams is necessary for studying weather
phenomenon. Jet streams also affect the regularity of monsoonal winds. We will discuss
it in the next section of this unit.
Fig 6.3: Cross section of the two main jet streams by latitude (Public Domain, 2008
120
Weather
6.7 SOUTH-WEST AND NORTH-EAST MONSOONS Phenomenon
The term monsoon is derived from an Arabic word ‘mausim’ which means ‘season’. It
refers to the seasonal or six monthly reversal of the direction of winds. Monsoons
predominantly occur in South Asia, South-East Asia, parts of China and Japan, other
regions being southern USA, northern Australia, and in western Africa. Monsoon
winds have helped merchants and travellers who used to travel by boats for long
distances in the Indian Ocean. Now let us study about the South-West monsoon and
North-East monsoons which marks the reversal of wind direction and are also known
as summer and winter monsoon.
6.7.1 South-West Monsoon

During summer, continental regions of Eurasia are heated up faster in comparison with
the adjoining oceans. Hence low pressure develops over the continents in the southern
and south-eastern Asia during summer. However, contrary to this, the oceanic areas
are having relatively higher pressure. This pressure difference causes winds to blow
from Indian Ocean to the continent. The south-east trade winds blowing in the southern
hemisphere crosses the equator, and gets deflected to the right due to the Coriolis
effect and becomes south -west winds which are moisture laden onshore winds and
are in fact south-west monsoon rainfall bearing winds. This south-west monsoon gets
split into two branches due to Indian Peninsula, that is, Bay of Bengal branch and
Arabian Sea Branch. These onshore moisture laden winds bring heavy rainfall in the
windward slopes. Take for example, the Arabian Sea branch, which bring heavy rain
along the windward slopes of Western Ghats. After crossing the windward slopes,
they descend over the leeward eastern slopes, where they get warmed up adiabatically.
So these areas are actually the rain shadow areas as the amount of rain received here
is quite low compared to the windward slopes. The branch continues its journey across
the Indian peninsula and some are even diverted towards north and reach Kutch,
Rajasthan and even Jammu and Kashmir. In the absence of any mountain barrier,
these however do not bring any rain in Rajasthan. The Aravallis are also parallel to the
direction of these winds. This is the reason why Rajasthan is a desert.
A current of Bay of Bengal branch moves towards the north-eastern portion of India.
There the windward slopes of eastern Himalayas receive heavy rainfall. A place called
Mausinrum, along the southern slope of Khasi hills receives the highest amount of
rainfall in the world. The winds now turn due to Himalayas and reach the low pressure
centre of north India. Here the monsoonal winds blow from south easterly direction
and reaches up to the western and north western part of India, via the Gangetic plains.
This is also marked by the decrease in the amount of rainfall from east to west.
Retreating Monsoons: By the end of September and early October, the low pressure
centre in the north-western part of the Indian sub-continent weakens and again shifts
to the equatorial region. This marks the beginning of the retreat of monsoons. Due to
this rainfall starts decreasing in the northern plains of India which almost ends up by
October. This retreat is of gradual nature as the southern part of Indian peninsula
receives rain from this retreating monsoon even after October. Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu receive rain in October-November through retreating monsoon. The retreat
continues till December and soon North-East monsoon is about to set in.
121
Climatology and 6.7.2 North-East Monsoon
Meteorology
During winter the interior of Asia becomes excessively cold, resulting in the development
of a continental anticyclonic condition or high pressure area. At this time temperatures
over the seas to the east and south of Asia, are relatively higher, and consequently
pressure is lower. As a result of this arrangement of the pressure areas, the gradient is
from the continent towards the oceans. Consequently, cold surface winds move out
from Asia toward the surrounding seas. The winds blow from the north-east direction
in southern Asia and hence called the north-east monsoon which brings winter rain to
the areas wherever they are onshore moisture laden winds. The southern part of Indian
peninsula receives rain from north-east monsoons.
The above explanation of the mechanism of monsoon is the Classical Theory or Thermal
Concept of the origin and mechanism of monsoons as it was thermally induced due to
differential heating and cooling of land and oceanic areas in different seasons. This
concept was propounded by Halley in a memoir presented to the Royal Society in
1686.
However, the above concept regarding the monsoons could not explain the erratic
behavior of monsoons as thermal heating and cooling of land and oceanic areas is
consistent. So it suggests that there are some other factors too which affect the onset
and the entire mechanism of monsoons. We need to discuss about them in brief here.
According to Koteswaram, upper air warm anticyclonic conditions developing over
Tibetan plateau is closely related with the burst of monsoons. His observation was
further validated in the Monex (Monsoon Expedition) studies conducted by joint efforts
of India and Soviet Union in 1973. Let us discuss this.
Tibetan Plateau is an enormous block of about 4000 m high plateau which is 2000 km
in length and 600-1000 km wide so summertime heating of Tibetan plateau makes it a
massive heat source due to which warm anticyclonic conditions emerge in the upper
part of the plateau. At this time sub tropical jet stream disappears from the Indian sub-
continent. The upper air anticyclonic conditions in the plateau, produce an easterly jet
stream from its southern portion, with the flow direction from east to west. These are
known as Tropical Easterly Jet. After sweeping the entire sub-continent, these easterly
jet streams descend in the high pressure region of Indian Ocean further intensifying the
high pressure prevailing there. It is from this high pressure oceanic region that winds
start blowing towards the thermally induced low pressure area as monsoon winds. So
the strength of monsoons, is dependent to a great extent on the meteorological conditions
prevailing over Tibet and the strength of tropical easterly jet stream. Besides, Tropical
easterly jet stream, monsoons are also affected by El Nino. Let us study about El Nino
in the next section.
6.8 EL NINO SOUTHERN OSCILLATION (ENSO)

El Nino is a warm ocean current off the Peruvian coast in South America which brings
heavy rain in the adjoining coastal region of South America. Due to El Nino an entire
low pressure region is created across Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean. This weakens
the high pressure region of Indian Oceanand tropical easterly jets. Thus the source
region of the origin of monsoon winds is weakened and hence it affects the origin and
mechanism of monsoons.
122
El Nino and the Southern Oscillation, also known as ENSO is a periodic fluctuation in Weather
sea surface temperature (El Nino) and the air pressure of the overlying atmosphere Phenomenon
(Southern Oscillation) across the equatorial Pacific Ocean. For this sea level barometric
pressure across two observation stations, that is, Darwin in Australia and Tahiti are
measured. It is quantified in the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), which is
a standardized difference between the two barometric pressures. If the pressure is
lower over Darwin and higher over Tahiti, then air circulation is from east to west,
which also draws warm surface water westwards and brings precipitation to Australia
and the western Pacific regions. Due to El Nino, the pressure difference between the
two stations weaken, and parts of the western Pacific as well as Australia experience
severe drought, while across the ocean, heavy precipitation can bring flooding to the
west coast of equatorial South America.
6.9 CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE BY

KOEPPEN AND THORNTHWAITE
Climatic classification helps in comprehending the multiplicity of atmospheric conditions
in meaningfully organized simple and general terms in a way that large and diverse
information is grouped into similar entities and are different from other groups by
specific attributes. Different approaches have been adopted by geographers for climatic
classification. These are empirical, genetic and applied. An empirical classification is
based on the observable elements of climate which may be considered singly or in
combination to frame criteria for climatic types. A classification based on genetic or
causative factors of climate is known as a genetic classification. In applied classification
of climate the climatic regions are delineated in terms of effects of climate on other
phenomena. The most common elements which have been used for climatic classification
are temperature, precipitation and vegetation. The most widely known schemes of
climatic classification are given by Koeppen and Thornthwaite.
1. What is the purpose of a climatic classification?
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Koeppen recognised five major categories of climate and each category is designated
by a capital letter as listed below:
A – Tropical Rainy Climates
B – Dry Climates
C – Humid Mesothermal Climates or Warm Temperate Rainy Climates
D – Humid Microthermal Climates or Cold Forest Climates
E – Polar Climates
Koeppen further identified finer details and further subdivided these five major 123
Climatology and categories into second and third order types which are mentioned in the Table 6.1
Meteorology given below:
Table 6.1: Koeppen’s System of Climatic Classification
Letter Symbol Precipitation and temperature
1st 2nd 3rd
A Average temperature of the coldest month is 180C or
above.
f Moist; Every month has 6 cm of precipitation or more;
no dry season
m Short dry season in monsoon type of precipitation;
driest month < than 6 cm but equal to or more than 10-
R/25 (R is annual precipitation in cm)
w Well-defined winter dry season; precipitation in driest
month < than 10-R/25.
s Well-defined summer dry season (rare distribution)
B Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation. It is
identified on the basis of average annual precipitation
(R), average annual temperature (T) and seasonal
distribution of precipitation in following manner:
(i) R<2T+28, when 70 % or more of precipitation
occurs in warmer 6 months.
(ii) R<2T, when 70 % or more of precipitation occurs in
cooler 6 months.
(iii) R<2T+14, when neither half year has 70 % or more
of precipitation.
S When R is more than ½ of the upper limit for B.
W When R is less than ½ of the upper limit for B.
h Average annual temperature is 180C or above.
k Average annual temperature is less than 180C.
C Average temperature of the coldest month is < than
180C and above -30C; average temperature of the
warmest month is greater than 100C.
w At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month as in
the driest winter month; precipitation in driest summer
month < than 4 cm.
s At least three times as much rain in wettest winter month
as in the driest summer months; precipitation in driest
summer month < than 3 cm.
f Precipitation throughout the year and no dry season.
Difference between the rainiest and driest months is less
than that for w and s and the driest month of summer
receives > 3 cm rainfall.
a Hot summer; average temperature of the warmest
month > 220C; at least four months above 100C.
b Cool summer; average temperature of the warmest
month < 220C; at least four months above 100C.
c Cool short summer; average temperature of the
warmest month < 220C; at least one to three months
124 above 100C.
D Average temperature of coldest month is – 30C or Weather
below; average temperature of warmest month is Phenomenon
greater than 100C.
s,w,f Same as under C.
a,b,c,d Same as under C.
E Average temperature of the coldest month is – 380C or
below. Average temperature of warmest month is below
100C.
T Average temperature of warmest month is between 00C
and 100C.
F Average temperature of warmest month is 00C or
below.
As Koeppen’s climatic classification is based on vegetation classification of A. de
Candolle the climatic boundaries match with vegetation boundaries. As it is based on
shorthand code of letters for the climate types the repetition of descriptive terms is
easily avoided. The use of symbols and representation of climatic types on map further
increases its utility for meteorologists. However, his climatic classification also has
some limitations. As it is based on mean monthly temperature and precipitation values
it fails to highlight the variations over time in one locality or region and makes comparison
of one locality with another difficult. Further, Koeppen ignored the role of weather
elements such as winds, atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, air masses and cyclones
etc. This way it is empirical but not genetic classification as causative factors were
ignored totally
Thornthwaite in his climatic classification (1931) used the criteria of thermal efficiency
and precipitation effectiveness. Keeping in view the significance of temperature in
vegetation growth, Thornthwaite introduced an index of thermal efficiency. It is
expressed by the positive departure of monthly mean temperature from the freezing
point. Precipitation Effectiveness is the amount of precipitation which is actually available
for the growth of natural vegetation. It is also known as precipitation efficiency. It is a
function of precipitation and evaporation. In 1948, Thornthwaite proposed a new
classification of climates with a number of modifications in criteria. In this classification
he developed and introduced the concept of potential evapotranspiration. Potential
evapotranspiration is an index of thermal efficiency and water loss. It represents the
amount of moisture that would be transferred to the atmosphere by evaporation of
liquid or solid water plus transpiration from plants.
Terminal Questions
1. Define air masses and classify them. Briefly discuss four major air masses.
2. What is frontogenesis and temperate cyclone? Explain the different stages of
progression of a temperate cyclone.
3. Describe the origin and mechanism of Indian monsoon. How are monsoons
affected by jet streams and El Nino? Explain.
6.10 LET US SUM UP

Let us recapitulate what we have learnt so far:
• ‘Weather’ refers to the state of atmosphere at any given time and denotes the 125
Climatology and short term variations of atmosphere in terms of temperature, pressure, wind,
Meteorology moisture, cloudiness, precipitation and visibility which are known as the elements
of weather.
• An air mass is an immense body of air usually 1600 km or more across and
perhaps several kilometers thick, which is characterised by homogenous physical
properties (particular temperature and moisture content) at any given altitude. Air
masses play a major role in bringing about day-to-day weather changes and in
producing different climate types in the long run. There are three bases of
classification of air masses. These are thermal, latitudinal and Configurational.
• Fronts are defined as the sloping boundary surface or the transitional zone between
two contrasting air masses. Convergence of two air masses of different properties
in sub-polar low pressure region gives rise to fronts and temperate cyclones.
According to the ‘polar front theory’ frontal activities or temperate cyclone passes
through six stages. Temperate cyclone involves four types of fronts, viz, cold
front, warm front, occluded front and stationary front.
• Tropical cyclone emerges due to thermal effect invariably over the surface of oceans
between 8o to 15o latitudes. . Thermal effect causes the emergence of the centre of
low pressure and warm air of almost similar properties begins to rush to the centre.
Coriolis force brings turn in the wind and almost circular system of wind circulation
is developed, the centre of which is known as the eye of the cyclone which is
meteorologically calm region contrary to the surrounding cyclonic winds which
are violent and destructive.
• Monsoon is derived from an Arabic word ‘mausim’ which means ‘season’. It
refers to the seasonal or six monthly reversal of the direction of winds which leads
to South-West and North-East monsoons. Though monsoons are originated due
to thermal effect but jet streams and El Nino also affect the mechanism of monsoons.
• Climatic classification helps in comprehending the multiplicity of atmospheric
conditions in meaningfully organized simple and general terms in a way that large
and diverse information is grouped into similar entities and are different from other
groups by specific attributes.
6.11 KEYWORDS
Airmass : An air mass is an immense body of air usually
1600 km or more across and perhaps several
kilometers thick, which is characterised by
homogenous physical properties (particular
temperature and moisture content) at any given
altitude.
Cyclone : The atmospheric disturbances which involve a
closed circulation about a low pressure centre,
anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere and
clockwise in the southern hemisphere are called
cyclones.
El Nino : El Nino is a warm ocean current off the Peruvian
126 coast in South America which brings heavy rain
in the adjoining coastal region of South America Weather
due to which an entire low-pressure region is Phenomenon
created across Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean.
Jet Stream : Jet Streams are defined as swift geostrophic air
streams in upper troposphere that meanders in
relatively narrow belts. These are thousands of
kilometers in length and a few hundred kilometers
in width and having a vertical thickness of two or
more.
Potential : It is an index of thermal efficiency and water loss.
evapotranspiration It represents the amount of moisture that would
be transferred to the atmosphere by evaporation
of liquid or solid water plus transpiration from
plants.

READINGS
• Critchfield,H., (1981), General Climatology, Prentice Hall, New York.
• Lal D.S., (2009), Climatology and Oceanography, Sharda Pustak Bhavan,
Allahabad.
• https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/teleconnections/enso/enso-tech.php

1. An ideal source region should have the following characteristics:
• Should be extensive;
• Should be homogenous;
• There should be divergent air flow or anticyclonic conditions, so that air may
stay for a long duration; and
• Conditions should be stable for a long period of time.
2. The main differences between tropical and temperate cyclones are as follows:
• Tropical cyclones originate in tropical oceanic areas between 8-20o latitudes
north and south of equator, while temperate cyclone can originate both in land
or oceanic areas between 35-60o latitudes north and south of equator.
• Tropical cyclones are thermal in origin, while temperate cyclones are dynamic
in origin and involve two different air masses and formation of fronts between
127
them.
Climatology and • Tropical cyclones have a meteorologically calm are which is the central low
Meteorology pressure area and is called the eye of cyclone. In temperate cyclone there is
no area which is calm and having no rains.
• Tropical cyclone localized and is for a shorter duration while temperate cyclone
persists for a longer duration and is covers a larger area.
3. The basic purpose of climatic classification is to bring order to large and diverse
information by organising similar entities together into groups that are different
from other groups by specific attributes. In this way, an order is generated out of
complexity. Climatic classification helps in comprehending the multiplicity of
atmospheric conditions in meaningfully organised simple and general terms.
Terminal Questions
1. First define air masses. Classify them on the basis of thermal, latitudinal and
configurational bases. Then describe the four major air masses as given in Sec.
2.3.
2. Define frontogenesis. Explain how fronts are related to the phenomenon of temperate
cyclones. With the help of a figure explain different stages of a temperate cyclone
as given in Sec. 2.4.
3. Start you answer by defining monsoons. Discuss the process of origin and
mechanism of monsoons in Indian context with the help of a figure. Then explain
the effect of jet streams and El Nino in the outbreak and progression of monsoons.
Refer to Sec. 2.7 and Sec 2.8.
128
Meteorology
UNIT 7 METEOROLOGY
Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Composition of Atmosphere
7.3 Stratification of Atmosphere
7.4 Moisture Variables
7.5 Greenhouse Effect
7.6 Earth’s Radiation Budget
7.7 Atmospheric Stability
7.8 Thermodynamic Diagrams
7.9 T-Phigram and Mixing Height
7.10 Let Us Sum Up
7.11 Keywords
7.0 INTRODUCTION
Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and its phenomena. It can also be defined
as the science of the air. The term meteorology comes from a Greek word “meteoros”
which means “high in the air”. This term got its origin from the time of Aristotle, a
Greek Philosopher around 340 B.C. who wrote the book on natural philosophy entitled
“Meterologica”. The book represented the submission on knowledge of weather,
climate, astronomy, geography and chemistry. In his book, Aristotle made an attempt
to explain atmospheric phenomena in a philosophical way. After several years Aristotle’s
student Theophrastus published a book entitled Book of Signs which was based on
weather forecasting. The origin of Meteorology did not have its meaning until the
invention of weather instruments. With the development of better instruments, the science
of meteorology developed. Meteorology received a major boost in 1843 with the
discovery of Telegraph. In 1950s another milestone was crossed by Meteorology
with the development of high-speed computers which solved the mathematical equations
that easily described the behaviour of atmosphere. After World War II, abundant
military radars were available which were further transformed into precipitation
measuring tools. First weather satellite Trios I was launched in 1960 opening the way
for space-age meteorology. Throughout 1990s, several attempts were made to develop
more sophisticated satellites which could do accurate forecasting.
“Atmospheric Science involves the movement of air masses in the atmosphere,
Atmospheric heat balance, atmospheric chemical composition and reactions”.
Atmosphere plays a major protective role. It absorbs major part of cosmic rays from
outer space and protects organisms from their deleterious effects. It also absorbs
electromagnetic radiations from the sun, allowing transmission of radiation in the region
of 300-2500 nm (near-ultraviolet, visible and near-infrared radiation) and 0.01-40 m
(radio waves). The atmosphere screens out harmful ultraviolet rays by absorbing
electromagnetic radiations that would otherwise be very harmful for living beings.
Mention what will be dealt in this unit 129
Climatology and
Meteorology 7.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to
• Describe the composition, stratification and significance of atmosphere;
• Explain physical factors governing the atmosphere like pressure, temperature, wind,
humidity, moisture and temperature;
• Describe Earth’s radiation budget;
• Analyse thermodynamic diagrams, Tephigram and mixing heights;
• Explain Enthalpy and Entropy.
7.2 COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE

Now let us learn about the composition of atmosphere. Dry air near the surface of
ground level up to several kilometres mainly comprises of 78.08% Nitrogen and
20.95% of Oxygen and in small amounts i.e. 0.934% Argon and 0.035% carbon
dioxide is present. Other constituents of air consist of noble gases like Xenon, Neon,
Krypton and Helium are also present along with other trace gases (CH4, CO, N2O,
HNO3, NH3 etc). The air present in the atmosphere may also contain 0.1 to 5% water
by volume with normal range of 1 to 3%.
7.3 STRATIFICATION OF ATMOSPHERE

“Atmosphere is stratified on the basis of temperature/density relationships which are
based on the interrelationship between physical and photochemical phenomena in the
air”. Atmosphere may be divided into following strata:
Troposphere: It is the lowest layer of the atmosphere which extends from sea level to
an altitude of 10-16 km. It is characterised by homogeneous composition of major
gases (due to constant mixing by circular air masses) apart from water. The content of
water vapour is variable due to cloud formation, precipitation and evaporation from
terrestrial water bodies. It is marked by decreasing temperature with increasing altitude
from the heat radiating surface of the atmosphere.
Stratosphere: Stratosphere is the second lowest layer of earth’s surface atmosphere.
This layer ranges from 10-50 km. stratopause is the upper boundary of stratosphere
while tropopause is the lower boundary. Stratosphere is abundant in ozone molecules
which forms ozone layer that is helpful in protection of earth’s surface from ultra violet
radiations. Stratosphere contains less amount of water vapours hence it is dry.
Mesosphere: Mesosphere lies in between stratosphere and thermosphere. It ranges
from 50-85 km. there is decreases in temperature in mesosphere. The upper boundary
of mesosphere is known as mesopause. Meteors vaporize on entering in mesosphere.
“Very strange, high altitude clouds called “noctilucent clouds” or “polar mesospheric
clouds” sometime form in the mesosphere near the poles”.
Thermosphere: It is the thickest layer in the atmosphere which extends from 80km
and above. Thermosphere is divided into two regions, i.e. ionosphere and exosphere.
In ionosphere radiations of sun tends to charge particles. This layer also exhibits light
130
shows known as “Aurora borealis or Northern lights”. Exosphere extends above Meteorology
550km where satellite freely orbits around the earth.
Check your progress 1
1. Give an account of atmospheric stratification?
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Pressure
You have learnt about atmosphere, now let us read about pressure. To study the fluid
behaviour, it is more convenient to use the term pressure inspite of force. Pressure can
be defined as the force applied per unit of an area. Pascal or Newton per square
meter is the standard unit for describing pressure. For example, for an object which is
sitting on the surface, it is the weight of the object which creates force while pressing
on the surface therefore, different pressure is exerted on the surface (Figure 7.1).
Figure 7.1: Different pressure exerted by same force and area
In our daily life we encounter various situations in which pressure plays important role.
Suppose when we peel an apple, pressure is the main parameter working in but if the
knife is sharp hence area of contact becomes minor and force exerted on the blade
while peeling is less.
The medium is in continuous distribution of matter while dealing with a pressure of
liquid at rest. But for pressure of gas, it is an average pressure generated from the
molecular collision with walls.
Temperature
Measure of heat is known as temperature. In general terms heat means energy, so
when more energy is there, the hotter things get. From daily experiences we observe
that when you exercise hard, you become sweaty and hot. The reason behind is that
we have used a lot of energy while exercising which increases heat of the body. 131
Climatology and Depending on the country, the temperature can be measured in two different units.
Meteorology The US uses the Fahrenheit scale while rest of the world measures temperature on
Celsius scale. Both the scales give different number for same temperature measurement.
For instance, the “Celsius scale has 0 degrees for freezing of water and 100 degrees
for boiling of water whereas Fahrenheit scale is based on the water freezing temperature
at 32 degrees and boiling at 212 degrees”. Kelvin is another standard scientific scale
for temperature measurement. Absolute zero or 0 Kelvin could be the minimum possible
temperature at which the particle can generate heat or could be able to move. On
Fahrenheit scale, absolute zero is -459-degree Fahrenheit. Thermometer is the device
used to measure temperature of objects, air or liquids.
Wind
Climate and weather changes frequently therefore to determine and control weather,
wind plays important role. Wind is “the movement of air relative to the surface of the
earth”. Wind blows due to the difference in horizontal and vertical gradient of
atmospheric pressure. Pressure can be the reason behind distribution of winds. On the
surface of earth, wind blows around low pressure that is cyclones or high-pressure
anticyclones region. Winds generally have clockwise rotation in and around southern
hemisphere while flows counter clockwise in northern hemisphere.
Humidity
Humidity is the amount of atmospheric water vapor. Humidity can be measured as
Relative humidity or Dew point temperature. Water vapor is the vapored form of
water. Water vapours are transparent as gases. Naked eyes are not able to see humidity
but can see it while condensing back to droplets of water. “Relative humidity is a
measure of how close to saturation the air is with water vapor”. At a given conditions
of temperature and pressure, the maximum amount of water held by the air before the
vapor begins to form droplets of fog or clouds. When relative humidity is 100%, then
the air is totally saturated. When it is 0% it means that no water vapor is present in air.
At 0-degree F which is very cold temperature, the dewpoint is also 0 degree then
there is 100% relative humidity means the air cannot hold more water vapours without
condensing back to liquid droplets. But in absolute terms, the amount of water vapor
is less as absolute humidity is very low.
2. What is relative humidity?
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7.4 MOISTURE VARIABLES

In order to specify the humidity or amount of moisture in air, there are various variables.
132 These can be described as follows:
• Dewpoint temperature Meteorology
• Saturation vapor pressure

• Relative humidity
• Specific humidity
• Mixing ratio
• Wet bulb temperature
• Vapor pressure
• Saturation mixing point
Virtual Temperature
At a given conditions of pressure, moist air density is same as dry air density. The
density of warm air is least than cold air and water vapours are least dense than dry air,
therefore the virtual temperature remains increased or equivalent to actual temperature.
It is noted that saturation mixing ratio increases tremendously with temperature or
approximately doubles with successive rise of 100.C, for higher dewpoint it is important
to consider initial temperature correction (Fig 7.2).
Figure 7.2: Skew-T Procedure to determine virtual temperature

(http://tornado.sfsu.edu/geosciences/classes/m201/buoyancy/SkewTMastery/mesoprim/
skewt/tv2.htm)
1. Firstly, mixing ratio is determined

2. Virtual temperature is then calculated by following calculation:
Tv ~ T + w/6
In this example:
T = 5°C and Td = -6°C.
Thus, w = 3.0 g/kg.
Tv = T + w/6
= 5 + 3/6
= 5.5°C 133
Climatology and Radiation from Sunlight
Meteorology
Sunlight or radiations of Sun comprises of mixture of IR and UV radiations. UV rays
comes in between infrared and ultraviolet radiations in electromagnetic spectrum. The
“speed of electromagnetic waves in vacuum is 3.0 × 108 m/s”. 1 AU is the average
distance between sun and earth in one earth orbit. Therefore, these electromagnetic
radiations from the sun takes 8 minutes to reach the earth. The energy radiated from
the core of Sun is due to the fusion reaction occur which eliminates high energy gamma
radiations. As the gamma ray photons reaches to the surface of sun, they get absorbed
by solar plasma and makes gamma radiations to re-emit at lower frequencies.
Electromagnetic radiations of sun strike atmosphere of earth, some part of these
radiations get adsorbed by the atmosphere while rest moves to the earth’s surface.
Accordingly, the UV radiations of sun are absorbed. The ozone layer absorbs the UV
radiations and re-emit as heat to warm up the stratosphere. While rest of the radiations
are radiated back to the outer space. Parallelly, the radiations which are not absorbed
by the atmosphere strikes the surface of earth to heat it up. Moreover, greenhouse
gases (GHGs) present in the atmosphere are also responsible for absorption and
heating up of atmosphere.
Solar Constant
The solar constant, “a measure of flux, is the amount of incoming solar electromagnetic
radiation per unit area that would be incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays, at
a distance of one astronomical unit (AU)(roughly the mean distance from the Sun to
the Earth)”. Visible light and all solar radiations constitute to solar constant. The value
of solar constant is approximately 1.366 kilowatts per square meter (kW/m2) measured
by the satellite.
3. Define Solar constant?
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Surface and Planetary Albedo

Planetary albedo is the “division in atmospheric reflection and surface reflection
components by shortwave fluxes at the top and surface of the atmosphere in association
with simple radiation model”. Atmospheric reflection contributes to about 88% of the
global planetary albedo while small contribution is due to surface reflection.
The planetary albedo is a “function of the optical properties of objects within the
atmosphere (e.g., clouds, water vapor, and aerosols) and objects that constitute the
planet’s surface (e.g., ice, ocean, and trees)” (Wielicki et al. 1995; Hall 2004).
Atmospheric contribution towards planetary albedo can be categorised in 3 bulk
processes:
134
1) incident solar radiations are radiated back to the space by aerosols and clouds. Meteorology
2) the opacity of atmosphere to downwelling the shortwave radiation limits them to

reach the surface.
3) the shortwave radiations upwelling due to atmospheric opacity limits the reflected
shortwave radiations escaping to the space (Qu and Hall 2005).
Thus, “the atmosphere influences the planetary albedo by way of direct reflection
back to space (process 1) and by attenuating the effect of surface albedo on planetary
albedo (processes 2 and 3). Both the atmospheric and surface contributions to planetary
albedo are functions of the climate state”.
Emission and Absorption of Terrestrial Radiation

It is well known that “Every object with temperature greater than absolute zero emits
radiation at the intensity proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature”.
So, it can be can be concluded that external or outer space is approximately near or
on the absolute zero. The terrestrial temperature of the atmosphere ranges from very
cold to 500.C. Hence, the long wave radiations of the atmosphere tend to move towards
earth and also back to space. The long wave radiations emitted from the earth’s surface
are found in the infra-red range of 4-100µ with maximum at 10µ. Moreover, maximum
radiations absorbed by the atmosphere is reverted back to the surface of the earth as
“counter radiations”. These radiations are helpful in prevention of excessive cooling
during nights. All atmospheric layers contribute in radiations absorption and emission
but lower layers are efficient absorbers due to presence of water vapours, methane,
carbon dioxide etc.
7.5 GREENHOUSE EFFECT

A natural process which makes the earth’s surface warm is known as greenhouse
effect. When radiations from sun strike the atmosphere of earth, greenhouse gases
absorb and re radiates some of the radiations while rest are redirected back to space.
The energy absorbed by the atmosphere and surface of earth maintains temperature
of 33 degrees C warmer at earth which makes life possible on earth.
Step 1: solar energy strike earth’s surface, some radiations get reflected back to the
space.
Step 2: the remaining solar radiations are absorbed by oceans and land to heat up the
earth.
Step 3: heat radiates towards space from earth.
Step 4: GHGs trap some of the radiations in the earth’s atmosphere to sustain life.
Step 5: anthropogenic activities like land clearing, fossil fuel burning and agriculture
results in increment of GHGs in atmosphere.
Step 6: due to extreme heat trapping by GHGs results in rise in earth temperature.
Greenhouse gases
There are various greenhouse gases present in the atmosphere. The main gases are
“nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, methane and water vapor”. All these gases are made 135
Climatology and up of three or more atoms and these atoms are loosely bounded to one another hence
Meteorology on absorption of heat get vibrated. These vibrating molecules tend to release radiations
which further get absorbed by another greenhouse gas molecule. This is the reason
behind the heat near the surface of earth.
Some of the common greenhouse gases are enlisted below:
Carbon dioxide (CO2): It is made up one carbon atom joined by two oxygen atoms.
Carbon dioxide makes small contribution to the atmospheric constitution of gases but
found to have large effect on the climate. The amount of CO2 is 270 parts per million
volume in atmosphere in the mid-90s but fast-growing industrial revolution leads to the
increase in carbon dioxide amount in atmosphere. It is now reaching to 400 parts per
million volume.
Methane (CH4): It is a far more powerful gas than carbon dioxide. The structure of
methane comprises of one carbon and four hydrogen atoms. This gas also contributes
in warming inspite of its less quantity in atmosphere. Methane releases carbon dioxide
which is also a GHG in the atmosphere when burned, so it is also used as fuel.
Even though small amount of greenhouse gases is present in the atmosphere but they
contribute more in increasing greenhouse effect. These greenhouse gases are increasing
due to various activities such as burning of fossil fuels releases gases and pollutants in
the atmospheric air. There are other sources also for instance, farm animals release
methane while digesting their food, cement formation from limestone also releases
carbon dioxide gas in ambient air.
7.6 EARTH’S RADIATION BUDGET

You must be aware of financial budget that includes balancing of incoming and outgoing
money. Similarly, if energy from sun is earth’s income while the energy that escapes
from earth to space is earth’s spending. If incoming radiations of sun will be increased
then the earth would heat up. Due to extra heat, the earth can emit longwave radiations.
Alternatively, if incoming solar radiations decreased, the earth is likely to cool. Hence
all the solar radiations are not re radiated back to the space. Some of these radiations
get trapped by the greenhouse gases while some are stored in oceans and ground.
Figure 7.3: Earth’s net radiation
The “balance maintained in the incoming and outgoing energy at the apex of atmosphere
is known as Earth’s net radiation or net flux” (Figure 7.3). It is the total energy of
the system. Energy of the sun enters into the system or atmosphere. This energy goes
136 out by means of two ways i.e. reflection of radiations or energy by earth’s surface,
aerosols and clouds. Another way is thermal radiation i.e. heat emitted by clouds in the Meteorology
atmosphere or by surface of earth. “The global average net radiation must be close to
zero over the span of a year or else the average temperature will rise or fall”.
7.7 ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY

Atmospheric stability governs that whether the air will increase or not. Moreover, it
causes clear skies, storms or sinks or may do nothing. Stability depends on “Dry
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rates and the Environmental Lapse Rates.” Thereof to
determine the atmospheric stability conditions we can compare ELR with DALR and
SALR.
Stability forms
There are three essential types of stability. These are illustrated using a diagram (Figure
7.4).
Figure 7.4: Atmospheric stability forms
In the given example, a parcel is in the interaction with a surface. Basically, “Air takes
on the characteristics of the surface beneath it.” Therefore, each parcel formed is
having same features as the surface beneath it. The following rule is followed to determine
the stability condition.
A) If the parcel of the air is warmer than the surroundings then it will rise and less
dense. This air is unstable and can cause storms.
B) If the parcel of air is cooler than the surroundings then it will be denser and sink
towards the surface. This type of air is stable and results in clear skies.
C) If the parcel of air is of same temperatures as surroundings then the parcel will not
move and the air is neutral.
To determine the atmospheric stability, adiabatic lapse rates have been plotted on a
diagram (Figure 7.5). Here are some of the stability diagrams and their illustrations:
137
Figure 7.5: Stability diagram
Climatology and SALR is the saturated adiabatic rate
Meteorology
ELR is the Environmental lapse rate
DALR is the Dry and saturated adiabatic lapse rates.
“DALR and SALR are fixed and will always plot” as shown in diagram. While ELR is
variable and can be plot in various positions giving different stability conditions.
Diagram illustration: ELR shows warm and cold side’s means temperature increases
towards right along X-axis. The region towards right along X-axis and it is warm while
towards it is cold. The “dry air ‘D’ is on the left of the ELR ‘E’ while the saturated air
‘S’ is on the right of E”. At a given level, dry air cools rapidly than the environment.
Hence dry air is stable. On the other hand, saturated air cools slowly as compared to
the surroundings and warm the ambient environment. Therefore, this diagram shows
the unstable situation.
“A parcel line plotting to the right of the ELR indicates unstable conditions for that
parcel type. A parcel line plotting to the left of the ELR indicates stable conditions for
that parcel type”. Specific stability conditions: the diagrams shown below depict
the stability forms
Absolute stability:
A condition is said to be absolute stability when both parcel plots are on the same ELR
side i.e. on left or cool side (figure 7.6a). It means that they are stable. The air will not
rise as it is of relative humidity and cools faster than surroundings. This type of air
tends to create clear skies and sink.
Absolute instability
The absolute instability condition reveals that both parcel lines are on the ELR right
side or the warmer side (figure 7.6b). Hence, air with relative humidity cools slower
than surroundings and will always be warmer than ambient environment.
a b
c d
e f
Figure 7.6: Diagrammatic illustration of (a) absolute stability (b) absolute instability
138 (c) conditional stability (d) wet neutral (e) dry neutral (f) external stability
Conditional stability Meteorology
During conditional stability, ELR falls in between the SALR and DALR (figure 7.6c).
The DALR is on the left side i.e. cooler side while the SALR is on the right side i.e. the
warmer side. Hence, it can be concluded that the saturated parcel of air is unstable
and dry parcels are stable.
Wet neutral
In wet neutral conditions, the ELR matches the SALR (figure 7.6d). Hence, the
saturated parcels of air will be neutral. The dry air parcels will be stable as they are on
the cool or left side of the ELR.
Dry neutral
When ELR matches the DALR, the dry parcels of air are neutral (figure 7.6e). The
saturated parcels are unstable as they on the warmer side.
Extreme stability
Negative ELR shows that warm air moves on the top of cold air. This is known as
Temperature inversion. Both parcels are on the left side i.e. cooler side therefore
none of the parcel will rise (figure 7.6f).
4. Explain various stability conditions?
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Turbulence
“Any irregular or disturbed flow in the atmosphere. In aviation, it refers to bumpiness
in flight”.
Types and Causes: Turbulence is based on its intensity classification light to extreme.
• LLT is abbreviated as Low-level turbulence
• TNT means Turbulence in and near thunderstorms
• CAT is Clear air turbulence
• While MWT is Mountain wave turbulence
Low-level turbulence- LLT occurs with the boundary of atmosphere where friction
and surface heating play important role. It is further divided in sub categories:
• Mechanical turbulence – LLT resulting from hinderance of airflow from
any obstruction or friction. It causes speed of wind to slows down in the lower
139
Climatology and layer of atmosphere which results in turning of air over turbulent eddies.
Meteorology Fluctuations in winds and vertical velocities is due to mechanical turbulence.
• Thermal turbulence – Dry convection results in thermal turbulence. It occurs
in good weather conditions during daytime.
• Turbulence in fronts – “LLT produced when moving frontal boundaries are
combine with convection and strong winds”.
• Wake Turbulence – wake turbulence is the turbulence of solid body at the
rear end which is in motion with respect to fluid.
Turbulence in and near thunderstorms (TNT) – “Turbulence which occurs within
developing convective clouds and thunderstorms, in the vicinity of thunderstorm tops
and wakes, downbursts, and gust fronts”.
• Turbulence within thunderstorms – These types of turbulence occurs more
frequently and they are intense. They can cause strong updrafts and downdraft
TNT which is the characteristic of clouds, it can be worse as they can cause
icing, lightning, heavy rain and possibly hailstorms.
• Turbulence below thunderstorms – microbursts, down storms and
downbursts are all the primary turbulence areas. Turbulence below
thunderstorms can produce wind shear, high turbulence, low visibility and heavy
rainfall.
• Turbulence around thunderstorms – “Turbulence is produced around the
thunderstorm when the cell acts as a barrier to the large-scale airflow”.
Clear air turbulence (CAT) – Clear air turbulence occurs in convective activity free
atmosphere.
Mountain wave turbulence (MWT) – “Turbulence produced in conjunction with
lee waves, which are gravity waves that occur when stable air flows over a mountain
barrier”. Mountain wave turbulence intensity depends upon the wind speed in the
adjacent mountains.
• Lee wave region – the upper layer of lee wave region lies within 5000 ft. in
tropopause where low level turbulence occurs occasionally.
• Lower turbulent zone - The lowest region of lee wave system extends from
ground to the top of mountains.
5. What is turbulence. List its various types?
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140
Diffusion Meteorology
Diffusion is a “physical process that refers to the net movement of molecules from a
region of high concentration to one of lower concentration”. Diffusion material can be
any gas. Solid or liquid and diffusion can occur from within these three states. The
important “characteristic of diffusion is the movement along concentration gradient”.
Moreover, the diffusion rate depends on the material and medium interaction. For
example, diffusion between gases occurs more frequently. Similarly, the smell of
ammonia gas also diffuses quickly in the ambient air. Diffusion plays important role in
chemical and biological processes. Biological phenomenon’s in body facilitated by
diffusion. However, various chemical processes are driven by diffusion which is the
important principle behind many reactions.
a) Factors affecting diffusion
There are various factors which affects the rate of diffusion. Some of these factors are
enlisted below:
Temperature- As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the system also
increases. As the energy increases hence, the rate of solute and solvent movement also
increases resulting in increased collisions. For instance, the ice evaporates at faster
rate on warmer day as each molecule of ice moves with higher energy and quickly
escapes the solid state of ice.
Area of interaction- The smaller surface area results in low diffusion rate. For example,
iodine is sublimed on the stove, fumes of purple colour appear and mixed with
atmospheric air however if sublimation occurs in narrow crucible, the fumes appear
slowly and then readily disappears. It means they are confined to low surface area
resulting in lesser diffusion.
Size of particle- The rate of diffusion of small molecules is higher than the larger
molecules at a given temperature. It also depends on the surface area and mass of the
particle.
Concentration gradient - concentration is defined as the number of solute molecules
that can be found within a given volume. Generally, the greater the concentration
gradient, the greater the rate of diffusion
b) Types of diffusion
Simple – “Simple diffusion is merely the movement of molecules along their
concentration gradient without the direct involvement of any other molecules”.
Facilitated - “it requires the presence of another molecule (the facilitator) in order for
diffusion to occur”.
6. What is diffusion. What are the factors which affect diffusion?
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141
Climatology and Adiabatic and Isentropic Process
Meteorology
Lapse rate is the atmospheric variation in temperature in lieu with height. For instance,
there is a 6-degree C temperature drop down with every kilometre depending on the
location. The concentration of atmospheric water vapours determines the value of
lapse rate. Dry adiabatic lapse rate means that the air cools at 10-degree C at every
kilometre distance. However, moist adiabatic lapse rate is the cooling of air at below
6-degree for every kilometre. Adiabatic means that no external energy is involved in
air cooling or warming.
Isentropic processes are processes in which no change in entropy occurs i.e. ds=0
while adiabatic processes show no transfer in heat i.e. dQ=0. Adiabatic process may
be reversible/irreversible. Suppose, the energy gained by the system via heating is
given by ÎQ where system temperature is denoted by T and entropy is given by dS.
Hence, in case of irreversible process, ÎQ=0 but ÎQ‘“TdS. Alternatively, all variables
are equivalent in case of reversible process. Therefore, it can be represented as
ÎQ=0=TdS. So, this process can also be called as isentropic.
7.8 THERMODYNAMIC DIAGRAMS

The atmospheric features such as wind, temperature, pressure and moisture can be
analysed by thermodynamic diagrams. A weather balloon fitted with an instrument
having a radio transmitter. This radio transmitter transmits data on the surface of earth
which is then received by a receiver for soundings or vertical measurements and it is
known as rawinsonde. Rawinsonde have additional features of direction as well as
wind speed determination.
a b
c d
142
Meteorology
e f
Figure 3.7: Diagram showing (a) vertical axis (b) horizontal axis (c) sloping solid lines
(d) horizontal small angled dotted lines (e) saturation mixing ratio (f) pseudo or wet adiabatic
The vertical axis denotes the level of pressure (figure 3.7a). The initial level for
vertical axis is 1050mb and on moving upwards along the axis, it decreases. The
isobars run parallelly straight along horizontal axis. Exponential decrease in pressure
with increasing height is reflected by the spacings.
The Horizontal Axis denotes increase in temperature in degree C towards right (figure
3.7b). “These isotherms run straight up and down”.
At approximately 45°, sloping solid lines represents “constant potential temperature
(è) or isentropes”. These can also be called as dry adiabats (figure 3.7c). The labelling
is done on every 10°K ranging from 273K at 1000mb. if air is lifted adiabatically, air
will cool for every kilometre at 10°C.
Lines which denotes above sea level height in km having a standard pressure of
1013.25mb. these are horizontal small angle dotted lines (figure 3.7d).
Inclined Solid Lines at a Minor Angle from the Vertical: ”These lines indicate lines of
constant saturation mixing ratio, ws, indicating the maximum amount of water vapor
the air can hold, given in grams of vapor per kilogram of dry air” (figure 3.7e).
Sloping Dashed Lines: ”These lines are pseudo, or wet adiabats, also known as lines
of equivalent potential temperature, e. Following these lines is identical to lifting a
parcel wet adiabatically. At lower temperatures, less vapor is condensing releasing
less latent heat; hence the line’s slope approaches that of the dry adiabat” (figure 3.7f).
7.9 T-PHIGRAM AND MIXING HEIGHT

Tephigram
One among various features of thermodynamic diagrams is the Tephigram which is
useful in plotting radiosonde soundings in order to analyse the atmospheric temperature
and humidity (Figure 3.8). Tephigram can be used initially for local weather forecasting
of clear skies, rain or thunderstorms. On the basis of area between rise in air parcel
along moist or dry adiabatic and the Tephigram is used in local forecasting.
The principle characteristics of Tephigram to analyse radiosonde sounding are as follows:
The temperature in Tephigram is marked at the bottom ranging from -900.C to 500.C
and can increase up to 100.C while at the absolute temperature is demarcated. It 143
Climatology and means that vertical lines are equivalent temperature lines or can be considered as
Meteorology isothermals.
While along the vertical lines or on the right, the scale of potential temperature ranges
from 260 K to 370 K and increases up to 10 K. Moreover, on the left entropy ranges
from 960 to 1310 Jkg-10.C-1.
Figure 7.8: Tephigram
Mixing height
The height of air vertical mixing and suspended particles is known as mixing height.
The profile of atmospheric temperature determines the height. At a given rate, the
parcel of air uplifts from earth is called dry adiabatic lapse rate. The parcel of air
continues to rise till it is warmer than surroundings. It will stop by slowing down on
getting colder than ambient temperature. It is the point where air parcel temperature
exceeds the curve which denotes vertical profile of temperature and measures mixing
height.
7. What is mixing height?
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144
Specific Gas Constant Meteorology
Specific gas constant of a given material is required in calculations which involves gas
dynamic network. It is calculated using following equation:
Where R = 8.314 Jmol-1K-1 represents universal gas constant

M = molecular weight of material
The specific gas constant is temperature independent
Characteristics of specific gas constant (R)
• Non-Universal
• The value of the gas constant is considered by a specific gas which is used.
• This can be defined as a ratio of universal gas constant by molecules weight of the
substance.
• In terms of R, a ideal gas law is,
Where, P = absolute pressure of gas

V = volume occupied by the gas
m = mass of the gas
T = absolute temperature of the gas
Enthalpy and Entropy

Enthalpy
The study of relationship between heat/energy and work is defined as thermodynamics.
One of the main parameters in thermodynamics is enthalpy. Enthalpy is the content of
heat in a system and enthalpy is change is the heat which enters and leaves the system
during a reaction. The occurrence of any given reaction depends upon if there is an
increase in the enthalpy of the system means when energy released it is being added or
decrease.
The phrases “internal enthalpy” and “enthalpy of the system” are two phrases with
similar meaning. Likewise, the phrases “external enthalpy” or “enthalpy of the
surroundings” refers to the energy of those molecules which are not involved in the
reaction.
To summarize:
• Enthalpy is referred to as the heat content of the system.
145
Climatology and • In a reaction, change in enthalpy is approximately equal to the heat evolved and
Meteorology generated while a reaction is occurring.
• During a reaction, when a system release energy, its energy content decreases and
it has less energy with it.
Let’s see why the energy of molecules changes during a reaction:
During a reaction, chemical bonding changes. Some bonds present in reactants are
broken down while in products few new bonds are being formed. To break the bonds
amount of energy is needed to breaking the bonds when new bonds are forming, with
release of energy. Whether reaction proceeds in forward or backward direction among
this bond making and bond-breaking steps:
• Exothermic reactions are the reactions which involves more heat evolution during
new bond formation than old bond breaking.
• An exothermic reaction targets over stronger bonds than the weaker bonds.
• Extra energy is required during exothermic reactions in order to break bonds than
to make bonds.
Entropy
“Entropy is the measure of thermal energy per unit of temperature of a system which is
not available for any useful work”. Entropy is also considered as the randomness of
the system. Changes in the spontaneous direction can be measured by entropy.
Characteristics of the entropy
• Entropy of universe in spontaneous processes increases.
• As mass increases, entropy also increases.
• When liquids and solids dissolve in water, entropy of the system increases.
• Gas dissolution in water leads to decrease in entropy.
• Brittle and hard substances have low entropy.
• Chemical complexity increases entropy.
8. Give the formula to calculate specific gas constant. Give various characteristics of
specific gas constant
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9. What is Entropy. Give its characteristics?
146 .....................................................................................................................
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7.10 LET US SUM UP

Meteorological studies make us to understand the phenomenon occurring in the
atmosphere. All these phenomena are very important in our day to day life. In this
chapter, we have studied about different processes related to temperature, moisture,
wind, pressure, radiations etc. Phenomenon such as greenhouse effect is the fundamental
process responsible for the warming of earth surface and makes life possible on earth.
Also, various thermodynamic processes have been discussed in the chapter for
understanding the atmospheric chemistry between all these variables.
7.11 KEYWORDS
Thermodynamic : It is the study of relationship between heat and
other energy forms.
Stability : Lowest energy state of a system or chemical
equilibria with its environment.
Radiation : Radiation is the energy that travels in the wave or
particle form.
Isotherms : Isotherms are the lines of constant or equal
temperature.
Convection : When a matter (air or liquid) travels away from
the source on heating and carries thermal energy
along. This kind of heat transfer is convection.
Photochemical : Chemical action of radiant energy or especially
light.
S.C. Solomon, R.G. Roble, in Encyclopaedia of Atmospheric Sciences (Second
Edition), 2015
Terminal Questions
1. What is Meteorology?
2. Explain the composition of atmosphere?
3. What is Planetary albedo?
4. Describe the phenomenon of Green House Effect?

READINGS
S.C. Solomon, R.G. Roble, in Encyclopaedia of Atmospheric Sciences (Second
Edition), 2015
Dr. James G. Speight, in Environmental Organic Chemistry for Engineers, 2017
147
Climatology and Wielicki, B. A., R. D. Cess, M. D. King, D. A. Randall, and E. F.
Meteorology Harrison, 1995: Mission to planet Earth—Role of clouds and radiation in climate. Bull.
Amer. Meteor. Soc., 76, 2125–2153.
Hall, A., 2004: The role of surface albedo feedback in climate. J. Climate, 17, 1550–
1568.
Qu, X., and A. Hall, 2005: Surface contribution to planetary albedo variability in the
cryosphere regions. J. Climate, 18, 5239–5252
https://scied.ucar.edu/shortcontent/stratosphere-overview
https://web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/FALL/thermodynamics/notes/node42.html

Your answers should include the following points
1. With altitude, air pressure and density decrease in the atmosphere. The pattern of
temperature profile is constant hence it provides a useful metric to distinguish
atmospheric layers. So, we can divide Earth’s atmosphere into five layers:
Exosphere (700- 10,000 Km)
Thermosphere (80- 100 Km)
Mesosphere (50- 80 Km)
Stratosphere (12- 50 Km)
Troposphere (0- 12 Km)
2. Relative humidity is “the amount of water vapour present in air expressed as a
percentage of the amount needed for saturation at the same temperature”.
3. The solar constant is a flux density measuring mean solar electromagnetic
radiation (solar irradiance) per unit area. It is measured on a surface perpendicular
to the rays, one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (roughly the distance from
the Sun to the Earth).
4. Stability (or atmospheric stability) refers to air’s tendency to either rise and create
storms (instability), or to resist vertical movement (stability). The simplest way to
understand how stability works is to imagine a parcel of air having a thin, flexible
cover that allows it to expand but prevents the air inside from mixing with the
148
surrounding air. Imagine that we take the balloon and force it up into the atmosphere. Meteorology
Since air pressure decreases with altitude, the balloon will relax and expand, and
its temperature will therefore decrease.
• If the parcel of the air is warmer than the surroundings then it will rise and less
dense. This air is unstable and can cause storms.
• If the parcel of air is cooler than the surroundings then it will be denser and
sink towards the surface. This type of air is stable and results in clear skies.
• If the parcel of air is of same temperatures as surroundings then the parcel will
not move and the air is neutral.
5. Turbulence can be defined as small-scale, short-term, random and frequent changes
to the velocity of air. In other words, when there are rapid changes to either the
air’s speed or its direction of movement or both, conditions are said to be turbulent.
Based on its intensity, turbulence can be classified from light to extreme as:
• LLT is abbreviated as Low-level turbulence
• TNT means Turbulence in and near thunderstorms
• CAT is Clear air turbulence
• While MWT is Mountain wave turbulence
6. Diffusion is the net movement of molecules or atoms from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration. Factors affecting diffusion are:
• Temperature- As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the system
also increases. As the energy increases hence, the rate of solute and solvent
movement also increases resulting in increased collisions. For instance, the ice
evaporates at faster rate on warmer day as each molecule of ice moves with
higher energy and quickly escapes the solid state of ice.
• Area of interaction- The smaller surface area results in low diffusion rate.
For example, iodine is sublimed on the stove, fumes of purple colour appear
and mixed with atmospheric air however if sublimation occurs in narrow crucible,
the fumes appear slowly and then readily disappears. It means they are confined
to low surface area resulting in lesser diffusion.
• Size of particle- The rate of diffusion of small molecules is higher than the
larger molecules at a given temperature. It also depends on the surface area
and mass of the particle.
• Concentration gradient - concentration is defined as the number of solute
molecules that can be found within a given volume. Generally, the greater the
concentration gradient, the greater the rate of diffusion. The height of air vertical
mixing and suspended particles is known as mixing height. 149
Climatology and Answers to Check Your Progress 7
Meteorology
7. The height of air vertical mixing and suspended particles is known as mixing height.
The profile of atmospheric temperature determines the height. At a given rate, the
parcel of air uplifts from earth is called dry adiabatic lapse rate. The parcel of air
continues to rise till it is warmer than surroundings. It will stop by slowing down on
getting colder than ambient temperature. It is the point where air parcel temperature
exceeds the curve which denotes vertical profile of temperature and measures
mixing height.
8. Specific gas constant of a given material is required in calculations which involves
gas dynamic network. It is calculated using following equation:
Where R = 8.314 Jmol-1K-1 represents universal gas constant

M = molecular weight of material
Characteristics of specific gas constant (R) are:
i) Non-Universal
ii) The value of the gas constant is considered by a specific gas which is used.
iii) This can be defined as a ratio of universal gas constant by molecules weight of
the substance.
iv) In terms of R, a ideal gas law is,
Where, P = absolute pressure of gas

V = volume occupied by the gas
m = mass of the gas
T = absolute temperature of the gas
9. “Entropy is the measure of thermal energy per unit of temperature of a system
which is not available for any useful work”. Entropy is also considered as the
randomness of the system. Changes in the spontaneous direction can be measured
by entropy. Characteristics of the entropy are:
• Entropy of universe in spontaneous processes increases.
150 • As mass increases, entropy also increases.
• When liquids and solids dissolve in water, entropy of the system increases. Meteorology
• Gas dissolution in water leads to decrease in entropy.

• Brittle and hard substances have low entropy.
• Chemical complexity increases entropy.
1. Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric
chemistry and atmospheric physics, with a major focus on weather forecasting.
2. Atmosphere mainly comprises of 78.08% Nitrogen, 20.95% of Oxygen, 0.934%
Argon and 0.035% carbon dioxide. Other constituents of air consist of noble
gases like Xenon, Neon, Krypton and Helium are also present along with other
trace gases (CH4, CO, N2O, HNO3, NH3 etc). The air present in the atmosphere
may also contain 0.1 to 5% water by volume with normal range of 1 to 3%.
3. Planetary albedo is the “division in atmospheric reflection and surface reflection
components by shortwave fluxes at the top and surface of the atmosphere in
association with simple radiation model”.
4. A natural process which makes the earth’s surface warm is known as greenhouse
effect. When radiations from sun strike the atmosphere of earth, greenhouse gases
absorb and re radiates some of the radiations while rest are redirected back to
space. The energy absorbed by the atmosphere and surface of earth maintains
temperature of 33 degrees C warmer at earth which makes life possible on earth.
Step 1: solar energy strike earth’s surface, some radiations get reflected back to
the space.
Step 2: the remaining solar radiations are absorbed by oceans and land to heat up
the earth.
Step 3: heat radiates towards space from earth.
Step 4: GHGs trap some of the radiations in the earth’s atmosphere to sustain life.
Step 5: anthropogenic activities like land clearing, fossil fuel burning and agriculture
results in increment of GHGs in atmosphere.
Step 6: due to extreme heat trapping by GHGs results in rise in earth temperature.
151
Climatology and
Meteorology UNIT 8 HYDROMETEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE
Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Hydrometric Networks and Catchment Morphology
8.2.1 Important Definitions
8.2.2 Components of Hydrometric/ Hydrological Network Design
8.2.3 Impact of Climate change on Hydrology and Importance of Hydrometric
Networks
8.3 Precipitation
8.3.1 Occurrence of Precipitation
8.3.2 Types of Precipitation
8.3.3 Measurement of Precipitation
8.4 Evaporation and Evapotranspiration
8.4.1 Evaporation
8.4.1.1 Measurement of Evaporation
8.4.2 Evapotranspiration
8.4.3 Types of Evapotranspiration
8.4.4 Factors Affecting Evapotranspiration
8.4.5 Estimation of Evapotranspiration
8.5 Soil Moisture
8.5.1 Estimation of Soil Moisture
8.6 River Flow
8.7 Rivers, Lakes and Groundwater
8.7.1 Rivers
8.7.1.1 Classification of Rivers
8.7.2 Lakes
8.7.2.1 Classification of Lakes
8.7.3 Groundwater
8.7.3.1 Types of Groundwater
8.8 Occurrence of Surface Water and Groundwater

8.8.1 Surface Water
8.8.1.1. Sources of Surface Water
8.8.2 Methods of Streamflow Monitoring

8.8.3 Groundwater
8.8.3.1 Zones of Underground Water
8.8.3.2 Aquifers and Their Types
8.8.3.3 Sources of Underground Water
8.9 Movement of Water on the Surface and Below the Surface

8.9.1 Hydrological Cycle
8.9.2 Behavior of Rivers Due to Silt and Sediments
152
8.9.3 Movement of Groundwater Hydrometeorology
8.9.3.1 Darcy’s Law for Determination of Groundwater Velocity and Climate
8.9.3.2 Groundwater Yield
8.10 Let Us Sum Up

8.11 Keywords
8.0 INTRODUCTION
There is a growing interest in water planning and management in India due to the
scarcity of the valuable resource. Due to the shortfall of freshwater, there is a need for
monitoring of the source streams to get both qualitative and quantitative data. To
facilitate this, we need hydrological/ hydrometric network design depending on the
purpose for which it would be utilized in future such as for precipitation quantification,
flood estimation etc. For designing these networks, a person needs to follow and
understand the concepts of hydrology such as precipitation and evapotranspiration
mechanisms.
Precipitation and evapotranspiration are two important components of the hydrological/
water cycle and are also important from the viewpoint of irrigation water requirement.
If precipitation is less and evapotranspiration is more, then external sources of water
are required for crop production. These quantities are to be measured through different
hydrological instruments and techniques to estimate how much are the gain and loss of
water from a field. An understanding of amount of water available as soil moisture to
the root zone is also essential, as this water is absorbed for the plant’s nourishment
from this zone. From hydrological point of view, we also need to understand the
occurrence and movement of both surface water and groundwater. How much water
can be obtained from which source and alternatively which mechanisms can be
employed for obtaining freshwater from these sources is of primary concern? Life on
Earth is getting difficult as we are running out of these water sources. For conserving
water, the first step is to understand the available freshwater sources, their flow regimes,
and the quantity available. Thus, study of hydrology is important for understanding the
concepts and tools that can be employed for the quantification of components of
hydrological cycle.
8.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• explain the importance of hydrometric monitoring;
• describe the key hydrological concepts such as precipitation, evapotranspiration
and soil moisture;
• explain the different types of freshwater bodies such rivers, lakes and groundwater;
and
• discuss the concepts behind the occurrence and movement of surface and
groundwater.
153
Climatology and
Meteorology 8.2 HYDROMETRIC NETWORKS AND
CATCHMENT MORPHOLOGY
India being a developing economy must focus on conserving all-important resources
especially water. Effective water management leads to reduction in costs and energy
required for its treatment. For water management, hydrologists/planners mostly lay
stress on the rivers as they are source of freshwater along with groundwater. So,
gaining records of river flow helps in better flood risk estimation and hydropower
generation (Dixon et al, 2013). It also helps hydrologists to quantify processes like
precipitation that are acting upon a catchment area. Thus, hydrometric monitoring
forms the basis of framing and operation of policies that assist in making decisions
regarding growing of river gauging networks. It is important to have a designated
design of hydrometric network in place if proper hydrometric monitoring is to be
carried out. These hydrometric networks may be categorized as surface water network,
groundwater network or water quality network depending on the purpose. Before
understanding the network design and other hydro meteorological phenomena, we
need to understand some basic definitions.
8.2.1 Important Definitions

• Hydrometry: The measurement and study of components of hydrological cycle
such as groundwater, surface water, rainfall, flow components (such as discharge
and velocity) and associated water quality (Mishra and Coulibaly, 2009).
• Hydrometric networks: Hydrological or Hydrometric network is a set of gauges
(scales) or stations that are used to collect data for different components of
hydrological cycle. The design and operation is conducted to address a single or a
set of compatible objectives such as knowing the indicators of hydrologic alteration
and streamflow records in order to know the spatial variation in catchment
characteristics (World Meteorological Organization, 1994). Another example could
be of a flood-forecasting network which might essentially be composed of stream
and stage (or water depth) gauges, precipitation measuring units, soil cover, and
meteorological stations besides other parameters.
• Hydrometric station: It is the cross section of the river where gauges are setup
to measure the water surface level (in meters) and flow of river (in m3/s).
• Catchment: It is an area on the land surface across which water flows as a stream
and ultimately flows out through a single outlet point. Catchment morphology means
consideration of the physical characters of catchment such as topography, vegetation,
soil, climate, and human effects apart from water content of the catchment (EPA
Catchments Unit, 2016).
8.2.2 Components of Hydrometric/ Hydrological Network

Design
A hydrometric network is composed of river gauging stations fixed in a river basin for
measurement of depth and discharge of river. These networks are sources of
hydrological data that is required for planning, design and management of river water
system.
154 There is a basic structure, which is followed while designing the hydrometric network
as shown in Figure 8.1. A bottom up approach is followed as smaller steps of Hydrometeorology
Socioeconomic analysis, optimization theory, sampling theory etc. are taken to complete and Climate
the hydrological network.
Fig. 8.1: Components of hydrometric network design (Adapted from Moss, 1983)
• Hydrology: It is the branch of geophysics dealing with all elements of the

hydrological cycle such as is distribution, properties and circulation .It widely covers
all the process that occurs on, over and inside the earth surface in vapor, liquid and
solid state. Hydrology is the stepping-stone for building a hydrometric network.
• Socio-economic analysis: Without the interest of policy makers and society, a
hydrological network can neither be created, nor can it function. Policy makers
should invest in construction of a network by understanding its importance. There
is a need to analyze how the networks would benefit the society by creation of
employment opportunities and would protect them in case of floods and droughts
by provision of timely forecasts.
• Optimization theory: It is also known as Operations research and is composed

of algorithms based on a set of decision variables such as number of gauges and
their observation frequency that apparently contribute to come to a logical
conclusion for a hydrological problem. The designer should identify the appropriate
algorithm based on the utility of the network for concluding for his problem.
• Probability: Though research pertaining to hydrology is abundant in nature, some
uncertainty still prevails in specific areas of flood forecasting. For these areas,
hydrologists use probability to evaluate the return frequency of floods by monitoring
the data for about 100 years.
• Sampling theory: Recurrent samples of data are collected for each parameter
and there might be some differences in the data points obtained. In order to quantify
these differences, hydrologists use a set of equations derived from the concept of
sampling theory. These equations are statistical equations such as equation for
obtaining variance of average of ‘n’ randomly chosen observations. The difference
in data points can be estimated by obtaining the value for variance. If variance is
large, there is more variability in the data points and if it is 0, there is no variability.
• Correlation and Regression analysis: Correlation is a statistical technique that 155
Climatology and checks the linear relationship occurring between two or more variables. If the
Meteorology magnitude of correlation coefficient comes out to be 1 or -1, it shows a perfect
linear relationship between the variables. If the magnitude is 0, it indicates no linear
relationship. Regression analysis is used for determining the parameters of a relation.
For example, if one needs to relate the data at one meteorological station with
another, regression can be used.Regression analysis also relates hydrological
parameter such as mean annual stream flows to the physical or climatic
characteristics of the catchment. This leads to increased efficiency of the data
programs.
• Bayesian analysis: The Bayesian approach relies on the principles of probability
but in case of hydrometric network design, is used to estimate the variance in
sampling theory or the correlation coefficient as both of these parameters are not
known with certainty. Therefore, it is kept as a separate component from probability.
While probability is mostly used in flood or drought forecast, Bayesian analysis is
used in quantitative prediction of uncertainties in variance/ correlation coefficient.
For defining these uncertainties quantitatively, Baye’s theorem is used according to
which,
Where, = Probability density of a set of parameter values given a set of

data
= Probability density of data set given the parameter set
= Probability of parameter set prior to observing the data
= Probability of data set prior to it being observed
The analyst based on his experience estimates parameter probability while the rest can
be evaluated analytically or numerically.
• Decision theory: The theory that acts, as a framework for analyzing and designing
networks is known as decision theory. In this theory, there is exploration of effects
of data on various parameters involved in a complex hydrological problem. The
effects can be studied, and decisions can be taken accordingly for the current
problem.
Any change made to the structure of the design process leads to a change in the final
network design. If any of these components is inappropriate or the data is not available
for a particular situation, that component can be removed. This helps in optimal designing
of the network. Although, it is essential to understand that if one component is required
and is skipped due to inability to deal with it, the results obtained are of a sub-optimal
design in which all factors are not included.
8.2.3 Impact of Climate change on Hydrology and Importance

of Hydrometric Networks
There have been several reports on impact of climate change on water resource sectors
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001). Climate change and its effects
have been more phenomenal since the onset of last century. It has also been predicted
that because of this phenomenon, there would be greater shifts in the seasonality of
stream flows leading to more floods and precipitation (Dettinger et al., 2004). It is a
156
well-known fact that Climate change has led to varied distribution of rainfall over the Hydrometeorology
river basin, causing a further change in the flow regime of the rivers. Thus, it is important and Climate
to design precise hydrometric networks to ensure generation of early flood warnings
and focused conduction of drought mitigation programs. Moreover, in order to
understand cyclic pattern of stream flow, rainfall distribution and study of groundwater,
we need the help of well-designed hydrometric networks.
8.3 Precipitation
Precipitation can be defined as the formation of tiny water droplets due to the
condensation of atmospheric water vapor which then falls under gravity in different
forms. Some forms of precipitation are drizzle, rain, snow, and hail.
Precipitation takes place when the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor.
This water vapor present in the atmosphere condenses due to low temperature and
precipitates to cause rain. Rainfall is the third important phase of the water cycle after
evaporation and condensation and is alternatively termed as precipitation. Different
forms of precipitation are detailed out in Figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2: Different Forms of Precipitation (Adapted from Hassani, 2018)
8.3.1 Occurrence of Precipitation

Excess moisture in the atmosphere with specific conditions of temperature and pressure
leads to the occurrence of precipitation. The process of condensation in the atmosphere
is initiated by the cloud condensation nuclei like dust particles. Weather conditions like
supersaturated air and low atmospheric pressure leads to condensation of water vapor
on the surface of these nuclei to form tiny water droplets. The clouds with these tiny
droplets are carried by the wind holding water droplets in suspension. Precipitation
occurs when these tiny droplets aggregate with each other to form larger drops that
can fall down. Mainly two theories about the formation of precipitation are known.
These two theories explain how water droplets formed in the clouds,fall on to the
earth’s surface as rain.
1. Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen Process: This process was first explained by
Alfred Wegener in 1911, which was further modified by Tor Bergeron in 1933 and
then detailed by Walter Findeisen in late 1930s. Since this procedure explains
intermingling of chilled water with ice, it is referred to as cold rain or ice crystal
process. It is known that the vapor pressure of chilled water is greater than that of
ice, at the same temperature. Thus, the water vapors move towards the lower
157
Climatology and vapor pressure of ice crystals and get deposited there and freeze to form a large
Meteorology crystal. These large ice crystals become heavy and are dropped. While dropping,
these ice crystals experience warm temperatures and melt to form water droplets
that fall as rain. This phenomenon is observed more at colder places.
2. Collision-Coalescence Theory: It explains that the large and small droplets of
water present in the clouds collide with each other due to convectional currents in
the cloud. The tiny droplets that are formed remains suspended in the clouds until
they get large enough to fall vertically. The large droplets of water fuse with these
tiny droplets to form a larger droplet. Ultimately, these droplets become large
enough to stay suspended in the clouds and thus drop down. Immediately after
dropping, the larger droplet again splits into new tiny droplets by friction and
convectional currents. These newly formed tiny droplets fall on the ground as rain.
8.3.2 Types of Precipitation

Precipitation is any form of water, either liquid or solid, that falls from the atmosphere
reaching the earth’s surface. The different types of precipitation are:
1. Rain: Rain is the precipitation in the form of liquid that falls from the clouds in the
sky. It is the most important component of the hydrological cycle that recharges
most of the freshwater bodies on the earth’s surface. The falling droplets with a
size of 0.5 mm or larger are defined as rain and droplets less than 0.5 mm are
defined as drizzle. The intensity of rainfall can vary spatially and temporally.
Classification of rainfall based on its intensity is described in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Classification of Rainfall
Rainfall Classification Intensity (mm/hr)
No Rain 0-1
Light Rain 1-5
Moderate Rain 5 - 10
Heavy Rain > 10
(Source: Adapted from Endarwin et al., 2014)
Three different types of rainfall have been identified by the meteorologists based on
the process of cloud formation. These three types of rainfall are classified as follows:
• Convective rainfall: This type of rain is caused by the process of convection in
the atmosphere and occurs mainly in the form of showers. This type of precipitation
shows a variation in its intensities. It is generally of the smaller areal extent with a
diameter of less than ten kilometers.
• Orographic Rainfall: Orographic rainfall occurs where the mountains act as the
barriers in the path of moisture-loaded air. Once the moisture loaded air strikes
the mountain, it rises leading to its condensation and precipitation. Thus, rainfall is
greater in the windward side of the mountain in comparison to the leeward side or
rain shadow area of the mountain.
• Cyclonic Rainfall: Low-pressure area in the atmosphere having circular wind
movement is known as a cyclone. The cyclonic rainfall is caused by the motion of
moist air parcel to the low-pressure area mainly due to the pressure difference.
The three types of rainfall are explained diagrammatically in Figure 8.3.
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Hydrometeorology
and Climate
Figure 8.3. Types of Rainfall (Adapted from Hassani, 2018; Sumbono, 2019)
2. Snow: Snow being a solid type of precipitation, mainly consists of snowflakes and
tiny spikes of ice. It occurs when the atmospheric conditions are sub-freezing or
temperature is below the freezing point. The process of snow precipitation is called
snowfall.
3. Sleet: Sleet occurs when atmospheric conditions are freezing and is generally a
mixture of snow and rain. It is also called as ice pellets. Sleet consists of tiny
semitransparent ice-balls which are smaller than hailstones.
4. Freezing Rain: Freezing rain occurs when the parcel of warm air in the lower
atmosphere is thick, leading to raindrops remaining in the liquid state. The rain
drops freezes as it comes in contact with any cold surface like ground, cars or
trees etc.
5. Hail: Hail is a type of solid precipitation that is related to extremely unstable
atmospheric conditions that arises because of thunderstorm or turbulence.
Hailstones are the large balls or irregular mass of ice with a size varying from 5 mm
to 15 cm in diameter.
6. Drizzle: Drizzle is a term used for very light rain. Drizzle droplets are generally
smaller than 0.5 mm in diameter.
8.3.3 Measurement of Precipitation

1. Liquid precipitation
Rainfall is generally measured in millimeters (mm) or centimeters (cm) with the
help of an instrument called rain gauge. For its measurement, rainfall is collected in
a container and the height of water collected is measured.
2. Solid precipitation
The amount of solid precipitation is generally measured with a snow gauge. Snow
is collected in a container and the height of snow collected is measured in
centimeters (cm).
8.4 EVAPORATION AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

8.4.1 Evaporation
Evaporation is known as the process by which water converts from a liquid state to a 159
Climatology and gaseous or vapor state. In atmospheric terms, it is known as the motion of water
Meteorology molecules from various water bodies to the surrounding unsaturated air. Evaporation
is the major pathway of the water cycle through which water moves from the liquid
state back into the atmosphere as water vapor. It is estimated that about six hundred
calories (in terms of latent heat) are required to convert one gram of water to vapor
state.
Nearly 90% of the moisture in the atmosphere is due to the evaporation of water from
the water bodies and the remaining 10% is added by the process of plant transpiration.
Major environmental factors that affect the rate of evaporation in the atmosphere are
displayed in Figure 8.4.
Fig. 8.4: Major environmental factors that affect the rate of evaporation in atmosphere
(Adapted from Majid Husain, 2016)
All the environmental factors mentioned in the above figure affects the rate of
evaporation either proportionally or inversely.
• Amount of water available: Availability of water is directly proportional to the
rate of evaporation. This is the reason rate of evaporation is higher over the oceans.
• Temperature: Higher the temperature of air or the evaporating surface, greater is
the rate of evaporation. As known, warmer air has more water holding capacity
than cold air and can thus carry more moisture.
• Humidity: Higher the humidity lower is the rate of evaporation. The water holding
capacity of air at any particular temperature is limited depending on the moisture it
is already carrying. As a result, drier air is capable of evaporating more water than
moist water.
• Wind speed: Wind speed is directly proportional to the rate of evaporation i.e
greater the wind speed, greater is the rate of evaporation.
• Area of water surface: Larger the area of exposed water surface higher is the
rate of evaporation.
• Air Pressure: If the pressure of air is low over the water surface, it leads to a
higher rate of evaporation.
• Salinity of Water: Higher the salinity of water lower is the rate of evaporation.
8.4.1.1 Measurement of Evaporation
A Scientific instrument known as atmometer or evaporimeter is used to measure the
rate of evaporation generally expressed in millimeter (mm)/day, from any moist surface
160 of the atmosphere.
8.4.2 Evapotranspiration Hydrometeorology
and Climate
Evapotranspiration is the integrated process of surface water evaporation, soil moisture
evaporation, and transpiration of water from the plant’s aerial parts. It is the outpouring
step of the water cycle and plays a major role in the management of the earth’s water
budget. Components of the ecosystem that contribute to evapotranspiration are known
as evapotranspirators and the rate of evaporation is usually expressed in millimeters
(mm)/unit time. Process of evapotranspiration is displayed in Figure 8.5.
Fig. 8.5: Process of Evapotranspiration (Adapted from Alvarado, 2015)
8.4.3 Types of Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration can be classified as follows:
1. Potential Evapotranspiration (PET): It is the measurement of the capability of
the atmosphere to outpour water from the earth’s surface by the process of evaporation
and transpiration when an abundant water source is available. It is measured in terms
of water depth and has the unit of (mm/unit time). Potential evapotranspiration along
with precipitation data is used to calculate water balances of any ecosystem. PET can
be estimated by using the equation given by Thornthwaite in 1948. The equation is as
follows:
PET = 16 (L/12) (N/30) (10Td/I) á (1)
Where,
PET is the estimated potential evaporation (mm/unit time)
Td is the average daily temperature in oCelsius
N is the number of days
L is the average day length in hours
á = (6.75×10-7) I3 – (7.71×10-5) I2 + (1.792×10-2) I + 0.49239
á = An empirical constant defined by I
Further, I = Annual heat index
2. {\displaystyle T_{m_{i}}}Actual Evapotranspiration: It is the actual quantity

of water removed from a surface due to the process of evaporation and transpiration.
The ratio of actual and potential evaporation can be used as an indicator of aridity.
Crop water requirement to attain maximum productivity can be calculated by
potential and actual evapotranspiration by using the following formula.
161
Climatology and Crop Water Requirement = Potential Evapotranspiration – Actual
Meteorology Evapotranspiration CropCrC
8.4.4 Factors Affecting Evapotranspiration

Major factors that affect evaporation are displayed in Figure 4.6.
Fig. 8.6: Factors affecting evapotranspiration (Adapted from Shahid, 2018)
8.4.5 Estimation of Evapotranspiration

Estimation of evapotranspiration is achieved either through direct or indirect method.
Direct Method
Direct method is used to measures the decrease in water level over a specific period
for a sample of water kept in an apparatus of specific dimensions. This method is used
to directly estimate the loss of water from land or crop surface to the atmosphere.
• Lysimeter: Lysimetery method is the direct method used for the estimation of
evapotranspiration. A lysimeter is a device used to evaluate the amount of actual
evapotranspiration, which is liberated, by plants, generally crops or trees. By this
method evapotranspiration is calculated by documenting the quantity of precipitation
that is received by an area and the quantity lost through the soil, the quantity of
water lost by evapotranspiration. A weighing lysimeter consists of the following
parts:
1. Lysimeter Tank: It is a steel tank, which contains the sample of the soil to be
studied. This steel tank is placed on the weighing balance such that the upper edge
of the tank is near to the ground level. This tank is divided into two columns by the
perforated plate. The upper one is called soil column and the lower one is called
empty column. A drainage pipe inserted in the hollow chamber is used to drain the
percolated water.
2. Retaining Tank: It is a larger tank in which lysimeter tank is placed, so that the
lysimeter and weighing balance can be separated.
3. Dummy tank: It is a smaller tank placed near headwork to prevent over heating
of lysimeter tank.
4. Weighing Machine: Weighing machine installed in the lysimeter has the weight
capacity of two thousand kilograms.
Diagram showing the construction of laysimeter is displayed in Figure 8.7.
162
Hydrometeorology
and Climate
Fig. 8.7: Lysimeter Apparatus(Adapted from Luo et al. 2003)
• The equation used for the calculation of evapotranspiration by lysimetery method

is as follows:
ET = P + (I - D) + S (2)
Where,
ET = Evapotranspiration (mm)
P = Precipitation (mm)
I = Irrigation water
D = Excess water drained from bottom of the apparatus
S = Increase or decrease in storage of soil moisture
1. Indirect Method
Indirect methods can be categorized under empirical method as they need meteorological
data to estimate the evapotranspiration with the help of field observations, statistical
analysis, and mathematical equations. Catchment water balance and energy water
balance are the two important indirect method used for estimation of evapotranspiration.
• Catchment water balance: Evapotranspiration can be estimated with the help
of water balance equation which is as follows:
ET = P – ÄS – Q – D (3)
Where,
ET = Evapotranspiration (mm)
P = Precipitation (mm)
ÄS = Change in storage (mm)
Q = Stream flow (mm)
D = Groundwater recharge (mm)
• Energy water balance: The actual evapotranspiration can be estimated by using
energy water balance by the following equation:
ëE = Rn - G - H (4)
ëE = energy needed to change the water from liquid to gaseous phase(W.m-2) 163
Climatology and Rn= Net radiation balance (W.m-2) between the incoming shortwave plus longwave
Meteorology radiation and outgoing longwave radiation
G = Soil heat flux (W.m-2) per unit of surface and time
H = Sensible heat flux (W.m-2) or the heat exchanged by a body/ thermodynamic
system in which the heat changes the temperature of the system
Energy balance of any region can be calculated by using instruments like a soil heat
flux plates, scintillometer or radiation meters. The Catchment water balance does not
include the interception through the vegetation cover. As evapotranspiration losses
mainly occur through vegetation surface, the energy water balance concept is useful.
8.5 SOIL MOISTURE

Soil contains a definite quantity of water that is held in the pore spaces between soil
particles generally defined as soil moisture. Generally, pore spaces between the soil
particles are filled by air or water. The soil is completely dry when its pores are filled
with air only and is considered saturated when the pores are filled with water. Some of
the factors that affect the soil moisture are the amount of precipitation, temperature,
organic matter, depth of soil its characteristics, and capacity to hold water. As fertile
soils and water are important parameters for agricultural development, therefore,
estimating soil moisture is important.
Soil moisture scientifically is the water that lies above the water table. This is also
known as the unsaturated zone. This zone is further divided into three sub zones as
shown in the Figure 8.8.
1. Capillary Fringe zone
2. Intermediate zone
3. Soil zone
Fig. 8.8: Different soil moisture zones/ unsaturated zones below the ground
(Adapted from Meinzer, 1923)
Just above the water table, there is a zone known as capillary fringe zone that ranges
from a distance of about 0.3-3m. The groundwater seeps up from the water table by
capillary action in order to fill the pores. Thus, this zone is helpful for taking the moisture
164 upwards in case of low rainfall conditions.
The region between capillary fringe and soil zone is known as intermediate zone. The Hydrometeorology
moisture content is nearly constant in this zone except in the period of accretion of and Climate
water beneath the ground through rainfall. This zone is used to store the rainwater and
slowly release it to the water table. But, if at any point in time, the height of capillary
fringe is more and reaches upto the soil zone, there is an absence of intermediate zone.
Below the ground surface lies the soil zone, which houses the roots of the vegetation.
This zone facilitates the plants to absorb moisture to carry out photosynthesis. The
root zone has varying moisture content that can range from nearly saturated conditions
to minimum moisture content after a period of long drought.
8.5.1 Estimation of Soil Moisture

The component of soil moisture is generally small in comparison to other components
of the water cycle. Nevertheless, it is of primary importance to many hydrological,
biological and biogeochemical phenomena. It plays an important role in controlling the
exchange of water and heat between the land surface and the atmosphere through
evaporation and transpiration. Consequently, it is an important factor for the development
of weather patterns and precipitation. Information related to soil moisture can be used
for watershed management, early warning of droughts, and prediction of crop yield.
Watershed structures can be built on soils to improve the infiltration thereby increasing
the soil moisture, which in turn leads to better watershed management. If the soil
moisture levels are too low, it can result in drought like conditions and can thus serve
as an early warning sign of droughts. Also, an improved crop yield can be predicted
by increased quantity of available moisture. However, there should be optimum dosage
of moisture present in the soil depending on the crop sown. More or less amount of
moisture can result in fewer yield.
Estimation of soil moisture can be done by the following methods:
1. Direct Method: In this method, moisture content in the soil is measured in terms
of wetness of the soil. These methods are used when accurate instruments are not
available and measurements are to be done in an economically viable manner. Examples
are Gravimetric method and volumetric method.
• Gravimetric Method: In this method soil samples are collected from the desired
depth and stored in the airtight containers. Thereafter, the soil samples collected
are weighed and oven dried at 105°C following which soil samples are gradually
cooled at room temperature in a desiccator (so that moisture in the room does not
adds up) and weighed. The difference in the weight of the soil represents the
moisture content in the soil and can be calculated by using the following equation.
Moisture content on weight basis = wet weight – dry weight × 100 (5)
dry weight
• Volumetric method: In this method soil samples are collected with core sampler
of known volume. Then the soil is oven-dried to estimate the water content present
in it by using the following formula:
Moisture content* = % moisture content by weight × % bulk density by
volume * (gm/cm3) (6)
2. Indirect Method: In this method, measurement of water content in the soil is
carried out with the help of meters/ probes which are used at the site. Here, the 165
Climatology and principle of measurement is quantifying water potential or water stress/ tension generated
Meteorology due water is adhering to the soil particles. Few examples of Indirect method are
tensiometer, gypsum, and time-domain reflectometery.
Tensiometer: It is a device used to estimate soil moisture tension. It consists
of sealed water- filled tubes covered with a porous ceramic tip at the base and
a vacuum gauge at the apex.The tensiometer is placed in the soil up to the plants’
root zone depth. Water moves between the tensiometer tip and adjacent soil until it
attains equilibrium, and tension created due to moisture difference between soil and
tensiometer tip is recorded by the gauge as shown in Figure 8.9.
Fig. 8.9: Parts of Tensiometer (Adapted from Thalheimer, 2003)
• Gypsum blocks: Also known as electrical resistance blocks, they measure

soil water tension. They consist of two electrodes implanted in a gypsum block
mutually connected to lead wires that lengthen
further to the soil surface. Finally, a portable meter takes reading of moisture content
as shown in Figure 8.10.
Fig. 8.10: Gypsum block assembly (Adapted from Kolodziejski, 2018)
• Time Domain Reflectometry: This is a device that directs an electrical signal

through steel rods embedded in the soil and evaluates the return signal to estimate
166
water content present in the soil as depicted in Figure 8.11. Signals from the dry Hydrometeorology
soil are returned faster in comparison to moist soil. and Climate
Fig. 8.11: Steel rods embedded in soil and detection of return signal
(Adapted from Skierucha, 2011)
8.6 RIVER FLOW

River flows or river discharge depend upon the water cycle and climatic conditions.
The variation in river discharge due to different seasons/ origin is known as river regime.
The rivers that originate from upper reaches/ high altitudes, receive water from melting
of glaciers in summer season and from the tributaries that join together. Three river
regimes are classified based on origin of river that give one maximum and one minimum
discharge peak in a year (Zeiringer et al, 2018):
1. Glacial regime
2. Nival regime
3. Pluvial regime
In glacial regime, a very high discharge is observed in summer season as the ice caps
melt at high altitudes and contribute to a larger flow. The discharge becomes weak
from end of autumn to early spring. Also, some distinct diurnal melting peaks are
observed because the air temperature warms up and melts the glaciers during afternoon
hours. Glacial regimes typically lead to very high flows.
Nival regimes occur at slightly lower elevations. Seasonal discharge peaks are observed
by melting of snow present either in mountains or plains in spring. There is high variability
in daily flows and extensively high variability over the course of the year. Short and
violent floods are observed in the month of April and May that follow spring thawing
of winter snows.
Pluvial regime is the result of heavy rainfall/ flood like conditions, which may arise at
any time throughout the year. This type of regime causes higher discharges in winter
and spring as there is lesser evaporation loss. Comparatively, there is low discharge in
summer and variability is greater throughout the year. Even if there are some rains in
summer, the losses due to evaporation are high and so, the discharge is less. The flows
that are observed are weak as compared to other two regimes as only the events of
heavy rainfall add to the discharge which are limited to few days.
Understanding of Flow regimes is important for knowing the discharges of rivers and
to learn about the riverine ecosystems. Aquatic organisms are ectothermic and get 167
Climatology and effected by flow regime and surrounding temperatures of rivers. Thus, the flow regimes
Meteorology have a strong influence on the riverine species and their ecosystem.
1. What is the difference between direct and indirect method of soil moisture
estimation?
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2. Define the terms:
(a) Hydrometry
(b) Glacial regime of river flow
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8.7 RIVERS, LAKES AND GROUNDWATER

8.7.1 Rivers
Rivers are water bodies that originate from mountains, flow towards the terrains and
ultimately end up joining the oceans.They flow along well- defined channels and carry
with them the surface runoffs generated through precipitation/ melting of snow.Along
with the water, silt and sediment load is also present in the river.
8.7.1.1 Classification of Rivers
1. On basis of topography
• Rivers in Hills (Upper Reaches): These rivers start their journey from mountains/
high altitudes and flow through the hilly regions before reaching the plains. These
river reaches are steep and have swift flows.
168 • Rivers in Alluvial Plains/ Flood Plains: These rivers flow in the lower reaches
in a zig-zag fashion also known as “Meandering”. The rivers move from one bank Hydrometeorology
to another and carry sediment load in their course. and Climate
• Tidal Rivers: These are the tail reaches of the rivers that adjoin the oceans and
are affected by the tides. The ocean water mixes with river water during high
tide and goes back to ocean during low tide. Rise and fall of river is observed
because of this pattern.
2. Based on Flood hydrograph
• Flashy Rivers: These are the rivers in which the rise and fall of water is very
rapid and we can observe a steep peak on flood hydrograph suddenly.
• Virgin Rivers: In arid regions, sometimes the river water may dry out due to the
excessive heat and evaporation before joining some other river/ ocean. These
rivers that occur for a short span of time and dry out before joining any other
water body are known as virgin rivers.
3. Indian Classification
• Himalayan Rivers: These are the rivers which originate from Himalayas and
then flow through alluvial plains. Water is derived from precipitation during monsoon
and winter and from snow melting in summer. Thus, these are almost perennial
rivers and can be utilized as water source throughout the year. Some examples of
these Himalayan rivers are Ganga, Brahmaputra, Sutlej, Beas etc. The hydraulics
of these rivers is complex and frequent meandering is observed in them.
• Non-Himalayan Rivers: These are non-perennial rivers that mainly obtain their
water from rainfall during monsoon and baseflow from groundwater during other
times. They flow through the non-alluvial plains and are much less problematic as
there is less meandering and occurrence of floods. Some examples of these rivers
are Chambal, Mahanadi, Narmada etc.
8.7.2 Lakes
The word lake originated from the old English word ‘lacu’ which means pond or pool.
A lake is an extensive hollow area in the earth’s crust, filled with water and surrounded
by land. The size of lakes usually ranges from 2 hectares to 8 hectares. Generally,
most of the lakes have freshwater as they are fed and drained by rivers. Lakes are
either classified as ‘Natural’ or ‘Man-Made’ (Artificial). Natural lakes are usually
found in mountainous regions, rift zones, and regions with continuing glacial activity.
Most of the lakes are not permanent over geologic time scales, as they get slowly filled
with sediments carried by the feeding river. Man-made lakes are constructed by human
beings for various purposes like generation of hydroelectric power, domestic and
industrial water supply, aesthetic, and recreational purposes and are also known as
artificial lakes.
According to limnology (Study of lakes), lakes are generally divided into 3 zones:
1. The Littoral Zone: Littoral zone is the sloped area adjoining land or shore
areawhere sunlight can penetrate up to the bottom of the lake. In this zone,
there is adequate light for rooted plants to grow. However, beyond this zone,
rooted plants are not present.
2. The Limnetic or pelagic zone: It is the open water area where light does not 169
Climatology and penetrate to the bottom. The limnetic zone is further divided into two separate
Meteorology sections. The upper section near the surface of the water is the Euphotic Zone or
Epilimnion also known as the warm water region. This portion of water receives
huge amount of sunlight and ends where the sunlight fails to penetrate the water.
Below the euphotic zone is the Profundal Zone or Hypolimnion which is the
cold-water region. The profundal zone is situated below the thermocline where
sunlight does not penetrate. The size of this zone depends on the turbidity of the
lake.
3. The Benthic Zone: This zone mainly comprises of the bottom part of the lake
where hardly any sunlight can reach. It mainly consists of the organic sediments
and soil. This is the zone where bacteria decompose algae, aquatic plants, fish,
and animal waste to generate organic matter. Diagrammatic representation of the
zones of a lake is displayed in Figure 8.12.
Fig. 8.12: Zones of a Lake (Adapted from Ramachandra and Solanki, 2007)
8.7.2.1 Classification of Lakes

Different types of lakes present can be classified based on several factors like mode of
origin, thermal stratification, and richness in nutrients. This is illustrated in Figure 4.13
and is detailed out further as follows.
Fig. 8.13: Classification of Lakes (Adapted from Balasubramanian, 2017)
1. Lakes Based on Mode of Origin

Based on mode or origin lakes are majorly classified as follows:
• Tectonic Lakes
Tectonic lakes are the hollows created on the earth’s crust by the lateral and
vertical movements of the tectonic plates due to folding, tilting and faulting activities.
The largest tectonic lake is the Caspian Sea, located between Europe and Russia
and the deepest is Lake Baikal, Siberia, Russia.
170
• Volcanic Lakes Hydrometeorology
and Climate
Volcanic lakes are lakes that occupy crater or the funnel shaped basin encircling
the vent created by volcanic activity. Crater lakes are formed when the crater of
a volcano is filled with water. Lake Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia is the largest
volcanic lake.
• Glacial Lakes
Glacial lakes are created by the erosive action of glaciers and continental ice
sheets. Glacial lakes are formed when a moving glacier erodes the soil around it,
leaving a cavity on the land. The melted water generated from the glacier fills up
the cavity, to form a lake. Great Lakes in North America are the largest glacial
lakes.
• Fluvial lakes
The flow of a river is generally not linear. It meanders all over its course due to the
variations in the terrain of the earth surface. As the river flows, fluvial lakes are
formed by the running water. Oxbow lake is a type of fluvial lake, which is crescent-
shaped and gets its distinctive shape because of meandering. Asia’s largest
freshwater oxbow lake is Kanwar Lake in Bihar India.
• Landslide lakes
Landslide lakes are lakes formed due to the blocking of a valley by either rockslides
or mudflows. These lakes are formed when landslide causes blockage of the river
moving through the valleys. Landslide lakes are common in mountain regions.
Quake Lake situated in southwestern Montana in the United States is an example
of Landslide Lake.
• Aeolian lakes
Aeolian lakes are produced by the erosive action of the winds resulting in creation
of depressions on the land’s surface. Groundwater may ooze out in these
depressions to form a lake. They are more common in arid regions. Great Basin of
Utah, USA is an example of Aeolian lake
• Anthropogenic lakes
Anthropogenic lakes are artificially created lakes produced by human activity.
Artificial lakes are produced by constructing a concrete dam across a river valley.
Guru Gobind Sagar Lake situated in Himachal Pradesh; India is an example of an
artificial lake in India.
• Meteorite Lakes
Meteorite lakes are also known as crater lakes. These lakes are created by
destructive impacts of meteorite or asteroids. Lonarcrater lake in Maharashtra,
India is an example of meteorite lakes.
2. Lakes Based on Thermal Stratification
Thermal stratification is the process of dividing the lakes into zones with each zone
having exclusive properties like changes in water temperatures and density. Thermal
stratification is a major factor controlling the distribution of dissolved and suspended 171
Climatology and matter in the lake ultimately governing the type of flora and fauna. Based on
Meteorology temperature difference, the three layers of lakes are classified as:
a) Hypolimnion: It is the lowermost layer present at the bottom of the lake with
colder and heavier water.
b) Metalimnion: It is present between the Hypolimnion and Epilimnion acting as a
transition zone between the two.
c) Epiliminion: It is the topmost layer with warmer and lighter water. Diagrammatic
representation of the thermal stratification of a lake is displayed in Figure 8.14.
Fig. 8.14: Thermal Stratification of the Lake

(Adapted from Mehmood and Somashekar, 2012)
3. Lakes Based on Mixing Cycle of Water

This classification is mainly based on the circulation pattern of the lakes which is
mainly controlled by the temperature of its water. The major changes in the water
column of any lake occur mainly due to the heating of water from solar radiation,
and its cooling due to convectional heat loss. The density of water changes rapidly
with the change in temperature. The highest density in water is observed at 4 °C.
When the temperature of the surface waters is near 4°C, the density-based
separation of water into layer reaches a level where wind can easily trigger the
vertical circulations and mixing of the water. These circulations help to maintain a
stable temperature all through the water column. Using this classification, lakes
can be divided into three main categories: holomictic lakes, meromictic lakes, and
amictic lakes.
• Holomictic lakes: These are the lakes that have a uniform temperature and
density from top to bottom at a specific time during the year resulting in
complete mixing of water.
• Meromictic Lakes: These lakes have layers of water that do not intermix due
to the variation in the salinity of different layers.
• Amictic Lakes: These lakes have water with its surface covered with ice all
through the year which prevents the mixing of the water.
4. Types of Lakes Based on their richness in nutrients
Based on richness in nutrients lakes can be classified as:
• Oligotrophic Lakes: These are the nutrient-poor lakes. They are young and
172 deeper lakes which are generally clear and have a low primary productivity.
• Mesotrophic lakes: These lakes have intermediate characteristics of Hydrometeorology
oligotrophic and eutrophic lakes. These lakes have moderate level of nutrients and Climate
generating beds of submerged aquatic plants.
• Eutrophic lakes: These lakes are rich in nutrients especially nitrogen and
phosphorous, with a good plant growth and possible algal blooms.
• Hypertrophic lakes: These lakes are extremely rich in nutrients. These lakes
have typically devastating algal blooms and low transparency due to the
excessive overgrowth of algae or aquatic flora.
8.7.3 Groundwater
While lakes are a surface water source, groundwater is the reserved subsurface water
that occurs beneath the water table in soils and various geological formations that are
fully saturated. These saturated formations are known as aquifers. Through these
aquifers, we can trap groundwater.
8.7.3.1 Types of Groundwater
Ground water can be of four types based on the origin:
1. Connate Water of Fossil water: This type of groundwater is filled in the voids
of the sedimentary rocks. Due to the sedimentary rocks, the water traps some
minerals through the sediments. Thus, this type of groundwater has some ionic
components.
2. Juvenile water: This type of groundwater is released to the atmosphere through
a volcanic eruption. This is also known as Magmatic water as this groundwater
has rich volatile fluids that are derived from magma.
3. Meteoric Water: This type of groundwater reaches the water table from
precipitation and is the primary source of drinking water. The rainwater seeps
down through the pores present between the soil and spaces present between the
rocks.
4. Rejuvenated water: This type of groundwater is also known as metamorphic
water and is released because of compaction of loosely packed rock sediments
followed by metamorphism/dehydration of minerals. The term rejuvenation is used
as the water that goes inside the ground comes back on earth surface as pure
water.
1. Write a note on the Indian classification of rivers.
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173
Climatology and 2. Write a short note on the different zones of a lake.
Meteorology
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8.8 OCCURRENCE OF SURFACE WATER AND

GROUNDWATER
8.8.1 Surface Water
8.8.1.1. Sources of Surface Water
Surface sources appear at any site naturally. Both surface and groundwater sources
are important for community water supply needs. Mostly, surface sources are used for
water supply as the water bodies occur on land and it is much easier to obtain water
from surface as compared to underground. The types of surface sources from which
water can be obtained are:
1. Rivers: Rivers are natural water bodies that may result from runoff water from
land due to rainfall or from melting of snow from mountainous regions. They generally
have a well-defined channel/ path and have been classified in detail in 4.7.1.
2. Streams: Water travels from high altitudes by melting of glaciers and snow and
moves on to the land surface. Water seeps through the pores of the soil and
ultimately reaches the groundwater table where all the pores are saturated/ filled
completely with water. If there is available land with its surface lying below the
groundwater table, there exists a hydrostatic pressure on the soil and the water
flows through the depression occurring on this piece of land. This is known as a
stream. Streams may be further classified as Torrents, Intermittent streams and
springs.
Torrents are the streams that carry surface runoff though land. Torrents continue
to flow till precipitation occurs and the generated runoff lasts. If there is frequent
rain during the rainy season, the water table is raised for some time. The excess
water flows from soil to a ditch and leads to formation of intermittent streams.
These streams become dry after the rains. Springs occur when the water table is
higher than the depressed ground level. This is a permanent phenomenon and
thus, springs are perennial streams.
3. Lakes: Lakes are usually formed when rainwater gets trapped in natural
depressions occurring on the land surface. They may also get the water supply
from groundwater as base flow. This water may be used as a freshwater source
whenever required or when rivers are not available. Details of lakes have been
given in section 8.7.2
4. Reservoirs: It is a manmade structure created by obstructing narrowest point of
valley by construction of a dam/ weir. The water in this storage/ reservoir can be
utilized for various purposes such as water supply, irrigation or electricity generation
by providing suitable hydraulic structures.
174
8.8.2 Methods of Streamflow Monitoring Hydrometeorology
and Climate
There are four different methods that are used to quantify the surface water flow
depending on variables such as velocity, discharge, sediment load etc. These are
described in the following flowchart (Figure 8.15).
Fig. 8.15: Methods of Streamflow monitoring (Adapted from Dobriyal et al., 2017)
1. Direct measurement method: Also known as Timed volume or volumetric

streamflow method, it is mostly used for small and narrow catchments. In this
method, a large empty container is taken, and its volume is noted. The time required
to fill that container helps in calculation of average flow rate. The rate of flow is
measured for about five times and then the average value is noted. The width and
depth of catchment is also recorded in triplicates.
2. Velocity-area method: This method is used to establish stage-discharge
relationship, which means that by measuring the depth, width, and velocity of flow
of water, discharge can be calculated. At different time intervals, streamflow is
estimated by measuring the depth and velocity of water. This method needs several
measurements for velocity as the backwaters influence the movement of water in
the stream. The backwater effect must be taken into consideration while calculation
of velocity of stream.
• Float method
A float (an object having low density) can flow for a known distance in stream.
The distance travelled by the object divided by the time taken gives us the stream
velocity. Apart from speed, the cross- sectional area of the catchment is calculated.
Product of these two calculated components gives the discharge of the stream.
(7)
where, Q=discharge of the stream/ catchment

v= stream velocity
A= cross-sectional area of the stream/ catchment 175
Climatology and More readings of floats should be noted to reduce the error. This method does not
Meteorology require high skills and is inexpensive. However, due to turbulence, there might be
differences in measurement of velocity at different cross-sections rendering the
method inaccurate at times. This method is applicable only for small streams.
• Dilution Gauging method
The principle behind this method is the rate of diffusion of a chemical or radio-
isotope tracer. Chemical tracers such as NaCl can be introduced in the stream
and its concentration is observed till the point it is fully mixed in the stream. Its
conductivity at different points can be detected through an electrical conductivity
meter or ion electrode. The distance between the introduction of tracer and
measurement points is known as mixing length (L). The stream flow (Q) is calculated
as:
(8)
where, M= mass of the salt (gms.)

A= area under the graph of concentration over time
Area under the graph can be calculated by:
(9)
where, Ct is the concentration of injected salt at time t and tintis the time interval
between successive data points. The concentration is calculated by:
Ct=(ECt - ECo). CF (10)
Where, ECt is the Electrical conductivity at time t and ECo is the initial conductivity.
CF is the concentration factor that varies linearly between Electrical conductivity
and salt concentration.
Skilled technicians are needed for this method for the initial dose preparation of
salt/ tracer. This method is applicable in case of turbulent flows.
• Trajectory method
In this method, the flow of the stream is diverted into a pipe of known dimensions.
The rate of flow is measured by measuring pressure at the outlet of the jet. As
water flows under different forces in a particular path, this method is known as
Trajectory method. This method can only be used for streams whose flows can be
diverted through a pipe. This method involves complicated calculations and skilled
manpower.
• Current meter method
In this method, the stream cross section is distributed into vertical subsections.
The width and depth for each subsection is measured and area is calculated. The
current meter measures velocity directly at each section by immersing it in water.
The velocity it measures is directly proportional to rate of rotation of its rotor at a
fixed time. Product of velocity and area is taken at each subsection and their sum
leads to the calculation of total discharge through a stream (Shown in Figure 8.16).
176 These meters are accurate but costly and are suitable at hilly terrains.
Hydrometeorology
and Climate
Fig. 8.16: Current meter method showing the vertical subsections of stream
(Adapted from Herschy, 1998)
• Acoustic Doppler current profiler method

This method is applicable for rivers possessing a width of 300m or more and
where the turbulence is more, and construction of any discharge-measuring device
is not feasible. The difference in time for sound pulses sent obliquely across the
river in opposite direction is measured for continuous measurement of stream
velocity (Shown in Figure 8.17).
Fig. 8.17: Image showing the Acoustic Doppler current profiler method
(Adapted from Mueller and Wagner, 2013)
• Electromagnetic method
In this method, velocity is measured continuously at a point by using electromagnetic
meters. Apart from velocity readings, stage/ height of water in the stream at that
point is also measured for calculation of stream discharge. The principle involved
in this method is Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic induction in which an
electromotive force in induced in water. The EMF measured is directly proportional
to the average velocity in that cross section. This method can only be useful where
the streamflow is diverted into a pipe such as in case of Trajectory method.
3. Formed constriction/constricted flow method:
This method is not influenced by backwaters as in case of velocity-area method.
In this method, we don’t need to measure the velocity as the shape and size of
these constrictions are fixed. Using the formulas based on their shapes, it is easy to
calculate the discharge. These are used for small streams, as it is difficult to construct
such structures on large streams. 177
Climatology and • Weirs method
Meteorology
In this method, a weir or a check-dam is constructed through reinforced concrete
or sometimes wood at any cross section of the stream. The weirs that are broad
crested can only calculate instantaneous flows. Sharp crested weirs are constructed
in various shapes such as triangular/ V-notch, rectangular and cipoletti/ trapezoidal.
A V-notch weir is displayed in Figure 8.18. There are different discharge calculation
equations for each of these weirs that include flow rate, water head and width of
the crest. This method cannot be used in flat streams and can only be used when
some slopes are available in order to create a drop between upstream and
downstream water surfaces. This method is expensive and it takes time for
construction of the weir. There is a need to measure the flow rate before the
construction, as sizing has to be done accordingly. If the construction is done
properly, this method proves to be an accurate method for measuring stream
discharge.
Fig. 4.18: V-notch weir (Adapted from Cording et al, 2017)
• Flume method
In this method, an artificial open channel section known as a flume is constructed
that restricts area and increases velocity of the stream. The height of water is
measured by creation of a stilling well. Stilling well is a chamber that is temporarily
connected to main flow of water in the flume by a small connector. This connector
dampens the body of water in the stilling well while it still allows the steady rise and
fall of water to follow in the channel. This is an accurate method but gets affected
due to siltation. These are practical only in case of small streams and the construction
is much more difficult than the weirs.
4. Non-contact measurement methods:
There are streams that are either not accessible or over which structures cannot
be set up for discharge measurement. In such cases radars are used which are
non-contact sources and give real time measurements during all types of flows.
• Remote Sensing method
Ground measurements can also be used to measure the water surface area through
remote sensing platforms such as satellite data. Once the water surface area and
height is measured using satellite images, it helps in the calculation of discharge.
The pixels in the satellite images give the details of width and depth of the stream.
The satellites utilize sensors for taking the ground details. Passive sensors record
natural energy/ sunlight reflected from earth. Sometimes, sensors provide
illumination, which is then reflected by earth surface. Such sensors are known as
178 active sensors. This method is an expensive method, but in some cases gives
critical hydrological data that cannot be obtained by using other methods. This Hydrometeorology
method is used in case of larger streams. and Climate
• Particle Image Velocimetry

It is a laser optical measurement technique in which liquid or solid particles are
illuminated by laser light by adding tracer particles in the stream. These particles
flow with the local flow velocity and are illuminated by two superimposed laser
light sheets. Light is scattered by these particles, which are detected by two frames
on Charge Coupled Device camera sensor. The projection of the velocity vector
on the light sheet is used to calculate details of small areas. Velocity is calculated
by dividing the particle displacement by time interval between the images. This
method provides high-resolution velocity information on a flat surface but is
expensive and requires specialized manpower. This method can only be used in
case of flat terrains, as undulations would result in disruption of the needed
projections.
8.8.3 Groundwater
Major part of rainfall/ precipitation is infiltrated below the soil. When the soil at a
particular depth below the surface becomes saturated with water after crop utilization,
transpiration and evaporation needs, that water is termed as groundwater (FAO, 2002).
This saturated zone is of variable thickness and depends on the physical and chemical
properties of the constituents of the soil such as clay or sand etc. Most of the irrigation
water supply is from groundwater. Groundwater hydrology deals with occurrence,
spread and movement of water below the earth’s surface.
Water is stored in the voids or pores present in the soil. When all the voids get filled up
with water, the soil comes under the state of saturation. To get an estimate of the voids
present in the soil matrix, term porosity is used. Porosity is the ratio of volume of voids
to the total volume of soil sample as shown below:
(11)
Where, P is the porosity; VV is the volume of voids and VS is the volume of soil sample.
Any change such as compaction and shrinkage of soil may lead to a change in the
volume of voids and the porosity. Therefore, sometimes it is better to use void ratio
instead of porosity for estimating the saturation level. Void ratio is similar to porosity
with the only difference being that instead of total volume of soil (that includes air and
water), volume of soil solids is used.
8.8.3.1 Zones of Underground Water
Fig. 8.19: Different zones of Underground water (Adapted from Santosh, 2007)
179
Climatology and When the water through precipitation goes below the earth’s surface, it can be
Meteorology categorized into different zones that are:
1. Zone of rock fracture
2. Zone of rock flowage
The zone in which the rocks remain in a plastic state (i.e when the rocks are stressed
beyond their elastic limit leading to deformity in their shape and size) and in which
interstices (voids/ cracks) are absent is known as Zone of rock flowage (shown in
Figure 8.19). The depth of this zone cannot be predicted but can vary from few
meters to several miles. Water present in this zone is known as internal water and this
cannot be utilized for any hydrological purpose, as it is difficult to trap it from the
plastic state of rocks.
The zone of rock fracture lies above the zone of rock flowage and in this the rock
stress are within the elastic limits. Interstices such as voids and cracks are observed in
this zone. Quantity of water stored in the voids can be calculated from porosity
measurement. The depth of this zone varies from 100-1000m or more. In case of
sedimentary formations where there are more voids, water can be found till greater
depths of about 1800m. The zone of rock fracture is composed of two zones. One is
zone of saturation, which occurs below the water table. The other zone that occurs
above the water table is known as zone of aeration.
The zone of saturation lies under hydraulic pressure and it is this region that can be
utilized for trapping water below the ground. The hydraulic pressure is responsible for
creating flow in the hydraulic system from low pressure to high pressure. Therefore, it
is the most important region from hydrological point of view.
For about 300m from the ground surface, zone of aeration is observed and here water
exists due to molecular attraction. Water moves under gravity throughout this zone.
8.8.3.2 Aquifers and Their Types
An aquifer is a stratum or a geological formation, which holds sufficient water and is
generally composed of permeable material. Aquifers can vary in depth or thickness
and are classified as follows:
1. Unconfined or Non-artesian aquifers: If an impermeable stratum known as
aquiclude does not cover a permeable stratum, such aquifers are known as
unconfined/ Non-artesian aquifers (shown in Figure 8.20).
2. Confined or Artesian aquifers: When an aquifer is covered on its upper surface
by aquiclude (an impermeable layer), it is known as a confined aquifer or an
Artesian aquifer (shown in Figure 8.20).
180 Fig. 8.20: Confined and unconfined aquifer (Adapted from Huinink, 2016)
3. Perched Aquifers: During infiltration of water, sometimes water is trapped over Hydrometeorology
a local impermeable layer of clay in alluvial formations and these are known as and Climate
perched aquifers. These layers of a few centimeters thickness can produce water
table like conditions in the unsaturated zone of the main unconfined aquifer. They
are temporarily formed when rainwater infiltrates under the ground and thus are
different from the permanently formed confined and unconfined aquifers. They are
not able to sustain water supply for a long time (shown in Figure 8.21).
Fig. 8.21: Perched Aquifer (Adapted from Sen, 2014)
8.8.3.3 Sources of Underground Water

Surface water and groundwater resources are utilized to tap freshwater. Although
groundwater has better water quality, it is sometimes difficult to tap water from it.
Some of the sources of groundwater are:
1. Open wells: These wells are also known as draw wells and are dug in soft
foundations such as sand and gravel. As they are constructed by digging, they are
also known as dug wells. These are open and can be recharged through rainfall.
The diameter of these wells is 1-2m and depth is about 20m
2. Tube wells: In cases where water is present in deep pervious beds, a hole is
usually bored to trap the water from that stratum. These wells with a small diameter
ranging from 8-60cm and greater depth of more than 30m are known as tube
wells.
3. Artesian wells: There are conditions when a permeable stratum is confined within
impervious stratum such as rocks or clay. Artesian wells are the wells dug up to
these permeable strata, which is associated with great pressure of water as shown
in Figure 8.22. In such wells, there is no necessity of a pump to bring the water to
the surface, as the pressure is high.
Fig. 8.22: Representation of an Artesian well (Adapted from Shekhar, 2017) 181
Climatology and 4. Infiltration galleries: When water is available for a considerable distance below
Meteorology ground level (i.e below the riverbed), horizontal pipes can be laid below the ground
for trapping of water. Such network of pipelines is known as infiltration gallery.
These can utilize much more water as compared to vertical wells and this water
can be collected at various points by interception of rainwater. To prevent clogging
of these pipes, inverted filters can be provided. Such a gallery is used for water
supply of Conjeeveram, located in south-west direction from Madras, from river
Begabathi.
5. Infiltration wells: These wells are also known as sunk wells as these wells are
masonry/ concrete structures which are sunk in porous soil or an aquifer to trap a
large quantity of water as shown in Figure 8.23. These are proposed at places
where one can find an unconfined aquifer such as in riverbank or lakebed. Generally,
these structures have availability of water all through the year. Greater Chennai
Corporation had announced to construct Infiltration wells at every 30m across a
301km drain to integrate 16 water bodies in nearby areas.
Fig. 8.23: Diagram of an Infiltration well (Adapted from Yoo et al., 2016)

1. Differentiate between Unconfined and Confined aquifers.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2. Explain any two methods of streamflow monitoring.
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.....................................................................................................................
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8.9 MOVEMENT OF WATER ON THE SURFACE AND

BELOW THE SURFACE
8.9.1 Hydrological Cycle
To understand the movement of water on and below the surface of earth and to ensure
182 its effective management, there is a need to understand the hydrological/ water cycle.
Water occurs in three states in nature-as solid, liquid and gas. It occurs as solid in the Hydrometeorology
form of hail or snow and gas as water vapor. The quantity of water remains constant, and Climate
but its form is always changing from one state to another. These interrelationships can
be observed through the Figure 8.24.
Fig. 8.24: Hydrological Cycle with the interrelationships between different states (Adapted
from Ward, 1984)
Sunlight generates heat that is responsible for conversion of water from surface of
oceans, lakes and other water bodies to water vapor. This process is known as
evaporation. The plants take up water from their root, which is then taken up to the
leaves. Some amount of water is utilized in the process of photosynthesis and some is
released/ transpired by the plants as water vapor to the atmosphere. The water vapor
generated through these two processes enters the atmosphere. In the atmosphere,
due to low temperature, the droplets condense (condensation occurs) and turn into
clouds. The water then returns on earth surface as rainfall. Further, the water falling on
land infiltrates into the soil or becomes surface runoff and enters back into the water
streams, small puddles or ponds. While on the land, some of the precipitation may
accumulate on plant leaves or buildings/ other structures from where the water
evaporates back to the atmosphere.
The infiltrated water is the water available to plants in their root zone, which they can
utilize. Some amount of this water escapes from the surface of plant through transpiration
and some escapes through evaporation. If more of water is available i.e. infiltration
exceeds the field capacity, the water may move beyond the root zone and reaches
groundwater. Thus, groundwater, besides other sources, also plays a major role in
maintaining water level in wells, rivers or lakes as it seeps into them and maintains
some quantity of water. The level of water available in these streams during dry periods
is referred to as Base flow.
Runoff is responsible for peak flows of the river as this water from the land enters the
river basins. It is also beneficial for crop production and supply of groundwater as it
slowly infiltrates into the ground and reaches the root zone. However, when in excess
it may cause floods or damage to property, can erode the soil and cause siltation in
rivers. 183
Climatology and 8.9.2 Behavior of Rivers Due to Silt and Sediments
Meteorology
The rivers carry a large quantity of sediments due to mechanisms such as surface
runoff and soil erosion. Sediments besides other problems can increase the stream
levels causing floods; can lead to silting of reservoirs and cause meandering of rivers.
Meandering is the phenomenon in which rivers leave their original course and start
following new courses. In between the change of its course, it can cause destruction of
structures that come in between. Some of these special patterns of rivers due to presence
of silt and sediment load are:
1. Straight reaches
2. Bends
3. Meanders
In straight reaches, the cross-section of the river is in form of a trough, having high flow
velocity in the middle section. Due to this high velocity, the surface level is slightly
lower in the middle and higher at edges. As a result of this transverse gradient, transverse
rotary currents are developed. It should be mentioned that these reaches are few in
number in Alluvial Rivers. Two Indian rivers where straight reaches can be observed
are Ganga and Narmada.
In Alluvial rivers, there is scouring on concave side and silting on convex side which
leads to formation of bends. This silting and scouring in bends may continue due to
action of centrifugal force exerted upon the water during its flow. There is greater
pressure near the convex edge and thus, water moves from convex towards concave
side. Due to high pressure, rotary currents are created that cause erosion on concave
edge and deposition on convex edge. Once a bend forms, the flow tends to make the
curvature larger and larger.
Fig. 8.25: Upstream, Middle and Downstream of a bend (Adapted from Kasvi et al, 2017)
In Figure 8.25, the high velocity core of bend is situated near the inner bank initially
184 and slowly shifts towards the outer bank due to the bend curvature.
During floods, there is tremendous amount of silt in the rivers. If this silt exceeds the Hydrometeorology
quantity required for stability, the river starts building a silt slope by deposition of silt and Climate
on its bed. Through this, the river becomes an aggrading type river. Aggrading river
means the one, which starts elevating. This aggrading of silt consequently leads to
meandering. The slight deviation from axial flow generates more flow towards one
bank than towards the other. This process continues, creating curvatures in flows
producing meanders (Figure 8.26). Concave bank goes on eroding whereas convex
bank goes on silting.
Fig. 8.26: Meandering river (Adapted from Santosh, 2007)
8.9.3 Movement of Groundwater

Water table is non-uniform and has high and low points based on the land slope. As
there is a need to approach equilibrium, water below the ground moves from these
high points to the lower points. The rate of water movement depends on the permeability
of the porous medium and on hydraulic gradient, which is the ratio of difference in
elevation between the two points and the distance between them. These factors are
also important for determining the groundwater velocity by using Darcy’s Law.
8.9.3.1 Darcy’s Law for Determination of Groundwater Velocity
Henry Darcy investigated the flow of water in a vertical, saturated and homogenous
sand filter as shown in Figure 8.27. His conclusions were further used for calculating
groundwater velocity.
Fig. 8.27: Darcy’s apparatus (Adapted from Alabi et al, 2016)
According to this law, discharge (Q) is directly proportional to the head loss (Hl) i.e.
the energy dissipated due to friction (measured in cm in cgs system) and the area of 185
Climatology and cross-section (A) (measured in square cm in cgs system) of the soil and inversely
Meteorology proportional to the length of the soil sample (taken by measuring the available L) as
shown in diagram:
(12)
But Hl/L represents the head loss rate or the hydraulic gradient (I).
Therefore,
or (13)
Where, K is proportionality constant that changes according to the soil type and other
properties of the soil. This is known as Permeability or coefficient of permeability. The
clayey soil has K value around 10-6 whereas for soft sand, it is around 10. The viscosity
of water also plays a role in permeability estimation. Equation (14) relates viscosity
with intrinsic variability. Value of intrinsic permeability coefficient Ko can be obtained
by:
(14)
where, is viscosity of water and g is acceleration due to gravity (981cm/sec2 in cgs

unit system).
Eq. (13) can be rearranged as:
Q/A (15)
or (16)
where, v is the discharge velocity but not the actual flow velocity occurring through the
voids of soil medium as there is some interference of the particles.
If Av is the area of the voids, then as per continuity equation (volume flow rate being
constant), Av.va=A.v, where va is the actual velocity of flow of water through the soil.
We get, (17)
When A is large in comparison, we can assume that the ratio of the area of the void
(Av) to the total area (A) is the same as the ratio of volume of the voids (Vv) to the total
volume (V), i.e. equal to porosity (P).
Hence, Av/A=P (porosity)
186
Substituting this value in Eq. (17), we get Hydrometeorology
and Climate
(18)
Knowing the value of v from Eq. (17) and dividing it by porosity P, the actual flow
velocity of water through the soil can be obtained.
Transmissibility: Rate of flow of water through a vertical stripof the aquifer of unit
width (1ft) and full depth (d), under a unit hydraulic gradient and at 20°C temperature
is known as transmissibility and is usually measured by coefficient of transmissibility
(T) calculated as follows:
T=K. d (19)
Where, K is the coefficient of permeability as described earlier.
8.9.3.2 Groundwater Yield
There is a need to know the occurrence of groundwater especially for a region that is
dependent on it entirely. The occurrence and yield is dependent on the geology and
hydrology of the area along with the chemical characteristics of the soil holding the
water. The quantity of water and for how long a well would yield water needs to be
known. For this information, there is a need to understand the following terms:
• Specific Yield: It is the ratio of groundwater obtained by gravity drainage from an
aquifer (Vwg) to the total volume of material that is dewatered (Vm). Dewatering
means the draining of water from that formation. Specific yield is usually expressed
as percentage.
(20)
• Specific retention or Field capacity: Itis the ratio of volume of water held
against the pull of gravity (Vwag) to the total volume of material such as clay/sand
that is drained (Vm). Specific retention is also expressed as a percentage.
(21)

1. Define transmissibility.
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.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2. Explain what is meant by meandering river.
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187
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Climatology and TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Meteorology
1. Explain any three components of Hydrometric network design.
2. Define different zones of groundwater.
3. In a field test, a time of 6hours was required for a tracer to travel through an
aquifer from one well to another. The observation wells were 42m apart and the
difference in their water levels was found to be 0.42m. Compute:
• The discharge velocity
• The coefficient of permeability (K) given the porosity of soil medium is 20%
• Value of coefficient of intrinsic permeability for the aquifer given the viscosity of
water is 0.01cm2/s.
8.10 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have discussed that there is an ever-increasing pressure on freshwater
resources such as surface and groundwater bodies because of the continuous rise in
population. Thus, there is a need for continuous monitoring of these resources through
hydrometric/ hydrological simulation tools. This can help the water managers for
conducting an analysis of future scenarios and take necessary decisions.
The water bodies function through the hydrological/ water cycle and there is always an
imperative need to study the trends of its various mechanisms such as precipitation
and evapotranspiration. This unit gives an insight into various theories of formation,
types and techniques of quantitative estimation of the above phenomenon. Precipitation
and evapotranspiration are two important factors in terms of agriculture and act as
links between water cycle, ecology and climate system as a whole. Another important
aspect for crop productivity is soil moisture. So, the soil moisture zones and their
estimation methods have been discussed.
Most important freshwater bodies are rivers and lakes. The regimes and classification
of rivers have been covered to understand how they originate and where they tend to
flow. The hydrology of river flow, such as their behavior due to presence of sediments
has also been identified. Similarly, lakes have been classified based on their origin,
thermal stratification, mixing cycle of water and richness of nutrients. The zones in the
lake have also been identified. For groundwater, flow velocity through use of Darcy’s
law has been explained. Thus, the study of these laws for estimating groundwater
velocity, the interaction mechanisms of water in different forms with the environment
and their estimation tools help us in predictions related to precipitation, floods and
droughts and in framing some policies related to water management.
8.11 KEYWORDS
• Climate Change: Statistically important alterations in either the average climatic
conditions or in its variability, that continues for decades or longer largely because
of the increased levels of greenhouse gases such as CO2, methane etc. in the
atmosphere.
188
• Monsoon: Word “Monsoon” is derived from the Arabic word Mausim, meaning Hydrometeorology
‘season’. It refers to the seasonal prevailing wind of the Indian Ocean and southern and Climate
Asia that blows from south-west between May and September and from the
north-east in winter. This wind brings about heavy rains in summers and is known
as the wet monsoon does not bring much rain in winter and is known as the dry
monsoon.
• Baseflow: It is the groundwater that is discharged to nearby streams such as
rivers or lakes. If the groundwater table is at a higher level than the bottom of
nearby stream, sometimes between the storms and runoff events, this groundwater
table can send the flows towards that stream known as baseflow.
• Rift zones: Rift zones are the areas where the volcano is splitting apart. These
are large zones of the earth in which plates of crust move away from each other.
• Rockslides: A rapid movement of rock fragments sliding over inclined surfaces
such as mountains is known as rockslides.
• Thermal stratification: It is a phenomenon in which three distinct zones are
formed in a lake, due to the difference in temperature of the water. A warm zone
known as Epilimnion is formed on the top followed by Metalimnion acting as a
transition zone and Hypolimnion which is the cold zone present at the bottom.
8.12 REFERENCES & SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
Alabi, O. O., Ajah, D. T., &Abidoye, L. K. (2016). Mathematical Modeling of
Hydraulic Conductivity in Homogeneous Porous Media: Influence of Porosity and
Implications in Subsurface Transport of Contaminants. Electronic Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, 89-102.
Cording, A., Hurley, S., & Whitney, D. (2017). Monitoring methods and designs for
evaluating bioretention performance. Journal of Environmental
Engineering, 143(12), 05017006.
Dettinger, M., Redmond, K., &Cayan, D. (2004). Winter orographic precipitation
ratios in the Sierra Nevada—Large-scale atmospheric circulations and hydrologic
consequences. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 5(6), 1102-1116.
Dixon, H., Hannaford, J., & Fry, M. J. (2013). The effective management of national
hydrometric data: experiences from the United Kingdom. Hydrological Sciences
Journal, 58(7), 1383-1399.
Dobriyal, P., Badola, R., Tuboi, C., &Hussain, S. A. (2017). A review of methods for
monitoring streamflow for sustainable water resource management. Applied Water
Science, 7(6), 2617-2628.
Gilbert M. Masters, Introduction to Environmental Engineering and science, 2nd Edition,
Prentice Hall of India Private Limited.
Herschy, R. W. (1998). Velocity-area method. Encyclopedia of hydrology and water
resources, 668-670.
189
Climatology and Huinink, H. (2016). Unconfined aquifers. Fluids in Porous Media.
Meteorology
Kasvi, E., Laamanen, L., Lotsari, E., &Alho, P. (2017). Flow patterns and
morphological changes in a sandy meander bend during a flood—spatially and
temporally intensive ADCP measurement approach. Water, 9(2), 106.
Kolodziejski, J. (2018). Low energy wireless solution for soil moisture
monitoring (Doctoral dissertation, Rutgers University-School of Graduate Studies)
Majid Husain, Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 4th Edition, Rawat Publications.
Meinzer, O. E. (1923). Outline of ground-water hydrology.
Mishra, A. K., &Coulibaly, P. (2009). Developments in hydrometric network design:
A review. Reviews of Geophysics, 47(2).
Moss, M. E. (1982). Concepts and techniques in hydrological network design (No.
551.48). Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization.
Moss, M. E. (1983, August). Design Of HydrologicalNetwork. In Proceedings of
the Hamburg Symposium.
Mueller, D. S., Wagner, C. R., Rehmel, M. S., Oberg, K. A., &Rainville, F.
(2009). Measuring discharge with acoustic Doppler current profilers from a
moving boat (p. 72). Reston, Virginia (EUA): US Department of the Interior, US
Geological Survey.
Ramchandra and Solanki (2007). Ecological assessment of lentic water bodies of
Bangalore. ENVIS Technical report: 25, Environmental Information SystemCentre
for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
Santosh, K. G. (2007). Irrigation engineering and hydraulic structures.
ªen, Z. (2014). Practical and applied hydrogeology. Elsevier.
Skierucha, W. (2011). Time domain reflectometry: temperature-dependent
measurements of soil dielectric permittivity. by V. Zhurbenko. InTech, Rijeka, Croatia,
369-386.
Susana Alvarado (2015), Evapotranspiration: What I Study, Youngzine available online
at https://youngzine.org/article-expert/environment/evapotranspiration-what-i-study
Thalheimer, M. (2003). Tensiometer modification for diminishing errors due to the
fluctuating inner water column. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 67(3), 737-
739.
Ward, R. C. (1984). On the response to precipitation of headwater streams in humid
areas. Journal of Hydrology, 74(1-2), 171-189.
World Meteorological Organization. (1994). Guide to hydrological practices.
Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization.
Yoo, C., Ku, J. M., Jun, C., & Zhu, J. H. (2016). Simulation of infiltration facilities
using the SEEP/W model and quantification of flood runoff reduction effect by the
decrease in CN. Water Science and Technology, 74(1), 118-129.
190
Hydrometeorology
8.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS and Climate

1. The difference between Direct and Indirect method of soil moisture estimation
are:
Sl. No. Direct Method Indirect Method
1 Soil moisture is measured Soil moisture is estimated by
in terms of wetness measuring water potential or water
stress with the help of probes
2 On-site estimation is not possible On-site estimation is possible
3 Method can be used when any Accurate measuring instruments or
accurate measuring instrument is probes are required for estimation
not available
4 Economical method Expensive method
5 Examples are gravimetric method Examples are tensiometer, gypsum
and volumetric method and time-domian reflectometery
2. The term hydrometry is derived by joining two Greek words i.e hydro (water)
and metron (measure). It is the science related to the monitoring the different
constituents of water cycle like precipitation, aspects of groundwater and flow
aspects of surface water as well as their flow.
• River regime can be defined as the river discharge variations in different seasons.
In glacial regime, a very high discharge is noticed in summer as a result of ice melt.
Simultaneously, a low discharge is noticed from the end of autumn to the
commencement of spring. Generally, the amplitude of this monthly variation
of discharge is >25. River regime is important because it affects energy of a river
and formation of different landforms.
1. Based on Indian classification, Rivers can be classified as follows:
• Himalayan Rivers
• Non-Himalayan Rivers
2. Based on the inland water studies, lake can be divided into three distinct zones as
follows:
1. The Littoral Zone
2. The Limnetic zone
3. The Benthic Zone
191
Climatology and Answers to Check Your Progress 3
Meteorology
1.
Unconfined aquifers Confined aquifers
These are also known as Non-Artesian These are also Known as Artesian
aquifers. aquifers.
In unconfined aquifers, aquiclude does Confined aquifers are covered on
not cover a permeable stratum. their upper surface by aquiclude
and are inclined so that it gets
exposed at some higher altitude.
2. Two methods for surface water flow measurement are:
• Direct measurement method: A large empty container with known volume is
noted and time taken to fill it completely is estimated. The width and depth of the
cross-section is also noted. Mostly this method is used for small and narrow
catchments.
• Float method: This is a type of streamflow measurement technique that comes
under the category of velocity-area method. A float (an object having low density)
is allowed to flow for a known distance in stream. The distance travelled is divided
by the time taken to give the value of stream velocity. Apart from speed, the cross-
sectional area is also calculated. Product of these two calculated components
gives the discharge of the stream. This method cannot be applicable in case of
turbulent streams and is used in case of small streams only.
1. Transmissibility is the ability of an aquifer to transmit water. It can also be defined
as the effective hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer and is usually measured by
coefficient of transmissibility (T) calculated as follows:
T=K. d
Where, K=Coefficient of permeability
d= depth of aquifer
2. A meander is a series of regular twisting curves, bends or loops present in the
channels of a river. Rivers flowing above the gently sloping ground starts to curve
back and forth, with highest erosion in the outer portion of each curve and sediment
deposition in its inner portion. This type of river is called meandering river.
1. Hydrometric networks are sources of hydrological data that is required for planning,
design and management of river water system. To design these networks, some
components that play an important role are:
192
• Hydrology Hydrometeorology
and Climate
• Socio-economic analysis
• Probability
2. Groundwater is the water reserved below the ground between the rocks. Based
on the occurrence and vertical distribution, there are two hydrological zones that
are present below the ground.
• Unsaturated Zone
• Soil Water Zone
• Intermediate Zone
• Capillary Zone
• Zone of saturation
3. Velocity of groundwater=va=S/t=42m/6h
=4200/(6x60x60) cm/sec
=0.194cm/s
The discharge velocity=v=P.va=0.2x 0.194cm/sec=0.0388cm/sec
Hydraulic gradient between the wells=I=HL/S=0.42m/42m=1/100
Using, v=K.I,
K=100x 0.0388cm/sec=3.88cm/s
Therefore, coefficient of permeability is 3.88cm/s
Intrinsic permeability coefficient, Ko=(K.viscosity)/g
Ko=(3.88cm/s x 0.01cm2/s)/981cm/s2
=3.96x10-5cm2
Since, 9.87x10-9 cm2=1darcy,
Ko=4007darcys
193
Block 3
HYDROLOGY
Prof. Shachi Shah,
Prof. B. Rupini,
Dr. Surendra Singh Suthar,
New Delhi
SOS, IGNOU
Prof. Nidhi Rai
Dr. Pulak Das
BHU
SOITS, IGNOU
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. Jaswant Sokhi
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. Neera Kapoor
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. P.K. Biswas
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. S.K.Yadav
SOITS, IGNOU

Unit 9, 10, 11 & 12
Dr. Onkar Chauhan,
Retd. Scientist,
CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography,
Dona Paula, Goa-403004
COURSE COORDINATOR
CONTENT EDITOR
FORMAT EDITOR
PRINT PRODUCTION
March, 2021
ISBN: 978-93-90773-70-1
New Delhi-20
Welcome to the M.Sc. Environmental Science programme of IGNOU. This is the
third block in the course on Earth processes and it deals with hydrology. The block
has four units, and the details of each unit is explained in the following paragraphs.
Unit 9 introduces the learners to the concepts in oceanography. Further, the

physiography of oceans, the origin and evolution of ocean basins; Shelf and deep-sea
sedimentation have been explained with suitable diagrams. Finally, the unit explains the
various physical, chemical, and biological aspects of sea water.
Unit 10 deals with ocean currents. The leaner will get a thorough understanding of
ocean currents and circulation, Waves properties and motion. Detailed explanations
are given on the tidal currents and their characteristics. Finally, details on air-water
interface exchange, gas solubility and circulation models have been explained.
Unit 11 deals with hydrology. The unit discuses on the distribution of water in the
earth’s crust and the hydrological cycle. Further, the types of groundwater, residence
time and vertical distribution of groundwater have been explained with suitable diagrams.
In the end the various types of aquifers, springs, and their classification are also given.
Unit 12 deals with hydrogeology. This is the last unit in this block. The geological
control of groundwater, the classification of rocks with reference to their water bearing
properties have been discussed. The unit also describes the occurrence of groundwater
in the different geological terrains of India. Finally, Darcy’s law and its validity, the
determination of hydraulic conductivity and groundwater tracers has been touched
upon.
on the various hydrological processes.
Hydrology
200
Introduction to
UNIT 9 INTRODUCTION TO OCEANOGRAPHY Oceanography
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Physiography of Ocean
9.2.1 Physiographic Subdivision of Ocean
9.2.2 Subdivision of Ocean
9.2.3 The Continental Margin of the Ocean
9.2.4 Oceanic Margin
9.3 Origin and Evolution of Ocean Basins
9.4 Shelf and Deep Sea Sedimentation
9.5 Physical, Chemical and Biological Aspects of Sea Water
9.5.1 Physical Aspects
9.5.2 Chemical Composition of the Seawater
9.5.3 Biological Characteristics of Ocean
9.6 Let Us Sum Up
9.7 References and Suggested Readings
9.0 INTRODUCTION
The earth is divided into several plates. Each plate has two parts, i.e., continental and
oceanic. The continental section comprises the land segment. It may be subdivided in
(i) continental shelf (ii) slope and (iii) rise. On the shelf one finds remnant topographic
features of land that have submerged because of sea level rise. The deep regions of
ocean comprise oceanic plate. These regions have formed because of generation of
new ocean at a convergent or a divergent boundary. During the antecedent cold climate
phase over the earth, a sizeable amount of water got locked in the ice sheets and in the
glaciers, and this has reduced the level and spatial extent of the oceans.
The plate tectonic determines the arrangement of continents and oceans and plays a
vital role in destruction or expansion of the ocean. The new plate has a very young age
at the mid-oceanic ridge, and it become older in the regions that have drifted away.
The sedimentation over the ocean is regulated by the supply of detritus from rivers,
winds, and from biological productivity. Slumping supplies sediments over the rise.
The oceanic plate receives negligible amount of sediments from land.
The chemical and physical processes regulate biogeochemical cycle of the ocean. The
ocean has a layered structure. The density of seawater increases with depth. The
salinity of the sea water declines in halohaline. Temperature decreases in thermocline.
The physical, chemical and biological properties of the ocean are described to provide
a glimpse of the influence of these on the processes of the earth that regulate the global
climate.
201
Hydrology
9.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to;
• Explain the physiographic subunits of the ocean;
• Describe the formation of oceans at a divergent plate boundary and destruction of
plates at convergent plate boundary;
• Explain the sedimentary process at the shelf, slope, rise and in the deeper region;
• Discuss thermal and euphotic structures of the ocean and salinity variations in the
ocean; and
• Describe the diverse life of the upper and deeper regions of the ocean.
9.2 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF OCEANS

The earth has formed as a molten mass of gasses billions of years back. The cooling of
the earth has released gases and water vapour and that has formed atmosphere and
water over the globe. It is believed that during the formation of the core, mental and
crust of the earth, the water has migrated from the deeper region of the earth to the
crust. About 96% of the water on the globe is stored in the ocean, and it has a horizontal
extent of several hundred km. Ocean covers about 71% area of the globe. It has a
variable vertical extent (average depth 3.7km). The physiography of the ocean is
therefore very important because it determines the quantity of water that can be stored
in the ocean. Exchange of water from the ocean to other reservoirs determines the
extent of submergence of the continental margin under the ocean.
9.2.1 Physiographic Subdivision of Ocean

The physiography of the ocean is regulated by the ongoing geologic processes of the
earth. The most of the oceans is very young compared to the age of the earth. It is
because the ocean is created at the divergent centers and it is consumed at the
convergence centers. The continued destruction of the ocean and reorganization of
continents have reshaped the oceans. The present reorganization of continents started
with the breakup of Pangaea, the supercontinent. The ocean crust, therefore, does
not have age older than 200 million years. The physiographic features of the ocean
therefore vary over the time. A brief glimpse of subdivision of the ocean is provided
below:
9.2.2. Subdivision of Ocean

The submerged region of the continents is classified as continental margin while the
oceanic crust that has formed due to tectonic processes at the divergent boundary is
known as oceanic region. The tectonic and hydrological processes (that regulate the
amount of water in the ocean) have shaped the physiographic features present on the
floor. Based on the processes of their formation and extent of submergence, the margin
of the ocean may be subdivided into two distinct categories, i.e., continental and ocean
margins. The continental margin is the portion of the existing continent that is now
submerged in the sea. It essentially is the land region that has a low density (average
density 2.7 g/ cm3). Being produced by the volcanogenic processes, the density of the
202
oceanic plate is 2.9 g/cm3. The continental section has a thickness of several km while Introduction to
the oceanic plate is very thin (Fig. 9.1). Oceanography
9.2.3 The Continental Margin of the Ocean

This region comprises three main zones, i.e., (i) continental shelf, (ii) continental slope
and (iii) the continental rise (Fig. 9.1). Adjacent to the land –ocean boundary, the
submerged shallow flat region of the continent is termed a shelf region. The spatial
extent of this region is highly variable. It varies from few to several hundred km depending
upon the tectonic setting of the region. Generally for an active margin, the spatial
extend of continental margin is very short. For example, the continental margin of the
state of California, USA is only one km
The landward migration of sea is known as transgression of the sea.
The landward
migration of sea is
known as
transgression of
Fig. 9.1. The subdivision of the ocean the sea.
because it is an active margin. The width of shelf of the Siberia is, however, 1290 km.
The depth of the shelf is also highly variable. It varies from 80 to 200 m. The shelf of
an active margin has deeper depth.
Because the shelf is an extension of the continental land mass, it has all the physiographic
features of land. Even though not visible, the shelf has small hills, basins and remnant of
channels of old rivers that were following over the shelf when it was subaerially exposed.
We must remember that the shelf is the the region of the earth that has periodically
submerged or has been aerially exposed depending upon regression or transgression
of the sea in response to a change in the earth’s climate. The earth has experienced
several regression and transgression cycles. The most recent is 20 kilo (k) years old.
It has been archived that about 20k years back the global sea level was about 120
meters less than the present level of the sea. At such time sea - land boundary was
about 60-300 km oceanward. One may note here that at that time the present shelf
was exposed land, and it was not part of sea. Size of oceans on the globe was,
therefore, reduced during this period. As the sea level has gradually increased during
past 14.5k years, the shore has migrated towards the land and has submerged
considerable amount of land. This has shifted the shoreline and the mouth of the rivers
inland. If one explores the shelf region by the underwater sensors, one will discover
203
Hydrology many buried channels of rivers on the shelf. The channels of old rivers are manifestation
of antecedent sea level.
The east and the west coast of India has a passive margin. The width of the shelf along
the east and the west coasts of India is highly variable. The west coast has a much
wider shelf in the northern region that extends to some 300 km in the Bombay Offshore
Region. The vast shelf width in this region has been attributed to the tectonic setting of
the region. The shelf narrows down from north to south along the west coast. The
width of the shelf along the eastern margin of India also varies from the north to south.
It is narrow at the southern tip (about 60 km).
We have learned that the actual boundary of land and sea keeps shifting. Since we are
in the transgression cycle, the shoreline has shifted towards land. It may be borne in
the mind that sea may recede during transgression phase and shore at those times may
shift again to the edge of the continental shelf.
The continental self has a gentle dipping (slope 1:1000), and it attains a depth of about
120-140 m at the shelf break in India. Some shelves are even and have a gentle slope,
but some are steep. The sea bed of the shelf may vary from even to rugged. The
sedimentation processes regulate the ruggedness. A large supply of terrigenous flux
creates an even shelf. Relict features and mounds associated with reefs, small hills and
depressions on shelf may build uneven shelf. The slope and evenness of the shelf is
therefore related to the tectonic nature, physiographic setting and mechanism of detritus
supply. The East Coast of India has a high concentration of rivers that discharge an
enormous amount of sediments into the shelf. This supply has buried the antecedent
hills and channels on the shallow regions of the shelf (< 50 m water depth). Formed by
the biogenic or volcanogenic processes, isolated or a chain of bathymetric perturbations
(known as seamounts) of low height (less than 50 m) occur on the shelf. It also has
channels of the paleo rivers that are now submerged or buried under the modern
sediments.
Paleo-rivers are
the extinct rivers Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
that were
following over the b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
shelf prior to Why there are variations in the physiographic features of the shelf?
increase in the
level of sea. .....................................................................................................................
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The continental shelf terminates at shelf break, a region where the slope of the shelf
increases several-fold. The shelf break may be abrupt or gradual depending upon the
tectonic nature and sedimentation during the last or antecedent episodes of sea level.
The continental slope is the region that dips steeply (60) and connects continental shelf
with the base of the slope (Fig. 1).The depth of continental slope is highly variable and
it extends down to 2000 - 2,500 m. It has several sea mounts and that may rise to
several hundred meters above the slope. These mounts are a manifestation of either
tectonic activities or are formed by the volcanic activities. The seamount with the flat
top is termed as Guoyt. The base of the slope has deposition of a pile of the sediments
204
(known as turbidities). Most of these are deposited by the down-slope movement of Introduction to
the sediments started at the shelf edge during the episodes of sea level changes or by Oceanography
the slope failure because of a change in the depositional environment. Along the Indian
Coast, the east coast has shallower depth at the base of the slope due to a large supply
of sediments by several perennial rivers such as the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. The
slope has a much-reduced depth off the northern region of the west coast. The West
Coast of India has a higher number of seamounts on the shelf.
What is the physiography of continental slope?
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At the base of the slope, a high bathymetric region is termed as continental rise. This
region is the boundary between an ocean and a continental plate. For the legal
demarcation of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of a country, the thickness of
sediments at the continental rise is very important. A 1% sediment thickness is the
criteria to extend the EEZ of any country beyond a legal limit of 200 nautical miles
(nm). India has claimed a larger region, i.e., over 200 nm based on a large supply of
sediments by its rivers over the continental plate.
9.2.4 Oceanic Margin

The oceanic plate occurs at > 3000 m depth. This region is comparatively very young
as it is formed rather recently at the divergent ocean spreading centre by the volcanic
processes. We know the oceanic plate to be very flat, and it has a gradient of 1:10000.
However, some region of the plate has a chain of hills of varying height (formed by the
volcanogenic processes) and we know this region as mid-oceanic ridge. This is the
place where two ocean plates are moving apart. Some hills are several km tall and
give rise to a chain of islands in the ocean. Hawaii is one of the examples of oceanic
islands. The Laccadive Islands of India is another example. These islands were formed
during the northward migration of Indian Plate after its recent break up during Early
Jurassic Period (201 million to 174 million years ago). The trench (a negative bathymetry
formed because of subduction at a converging margin) is the deepest region of the
ocean. The Mariana Trench is the deepest region of the world, and it has a depth of
about 11km.
What is the gradient of the oceanic plate?
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205
Hydrology .....................................................................................................................
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9.3 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF OCEAN BASINS

The age of the earth is about 4.54 billion years. The oldest continental crust on the
earth is about 4.0 billion years. However, you will find in the Figure 9.2 (prepared by
Encyclopaedia Britannica; https://www.britannica.com/science/ocean-basin/Evolution-
of-the-ocean-basins-through-plate-movements) that the age of the ocean basin is ~
200 million year, and these age becomes younger (recent - 2 million years) over the
mid-oceanic ridges. From the forgoing example, it is evident that the land is younger
than the earth, and oceanic crust is very young. A student may wonder why is there a
variation in the age of different rocks on the land and in the ocean. The age of the
continental crust is lesser than the earth because the land mass has formed by cooling
of the magma at some later stage. The map of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (Fig. 9.2)
confirms that at the mid-oceanic ridges a young oceanic plate is forming. This poses a
question on the date of the origin of the ocean. Because of degassing of the magma,
water molecules have formed over the earth. Dr. Graham Rider has found sedimentary
rocks that have the age of 3.9 billion years, though the age of the igneous rock is found
to be about 4.0 billion. We may infer, therefore, that water was existing on the earth in
the initial stage. Considering the quantum of degassing and oldest ages of sedimentary
rocks, it is also clear that the ocean may have come in existence some 3.9 billion years
back. A student of earth science may find it unusual that even though oceans have
formed on the earth in the early stage, no ocean is older than 200 million years. The
answer to this riddle lies in the persistent destruction and regeneration of ocean. To
understand the generation and destruction of the material of the crust, first, we shall
briefly grasp some of the fundamentals of plate tectonics. The material of the land is
made of sial (that is silica and aluminum, density 2.7) and is lighter compared to sima
(material comprises of silica and magnesium; density > 2.85). The sial is mostly a
continents crust, while the sima is found below sial on the oceanic crust. The continents
by virtue of a low density have higher elevation due to isostasy.
It may be noted here that as per the plate tectonic, the lithosphere of the earth may be
divided into seven major plates. These plates are African plate, Antarctic plate, Eurasian
plate, Indo-Australian plate, North American plate, Pacific plate and South American
plate. Each of these, except the Pacific Plate, has oceanic and continental crusts. It is
believed that the arrangement and the geographical distribution of the landmass and
the oceans of the globe are regulated by movements of these plates. We have learned
that the crust of earth consists of oceanic and continental plates. We have also learned
that oceanic plates are newly formed region and are much thinner though denser that
the continental plates. The continental plates are old regions that have been the
continents or the land masses of the globe. From the above description it is also
learned that the ocean crust is very young at the mid-oceanic ridges in the Atlantic
Ocean though it becomes older as it moves away towards continents. As per the
theory of the plate tectonics, it is also known that mantle plumes are driving force to
move plates of the lithosphere (as shown schematically in Figure 9.3).
206
Introduction to
Oceanography
Fig. 9.2: Age of the oceanic plates (as provided in the Encyclopedia Britannica).
At the divergent boundaries, the plumes emanate from the mantle at the mid-oceanic
ridges (Fig. 9.3). We have learned in the previous section that the volcanic activities at
mid-oceanic ridges generate new plates and positive bathymetry by accumulating
volcanic mater. The age of the oceanic plate at the mid-oceanic ridges and at the distal
locations close to the continental rise, therefore, provides a clue that there is a constant
generation of the new ocean at the divergent boundary, and the newly formed plates
move away from the place of origin. The oldest age of an oceanic plate, therefore,
gives a clue on the time of initiation of formation of a new ocean. However, we have
yet to find the answer to the question “what has happened to the old ocean?”
The answer to this riddle is also provided in the plate tectonics. It has been learned Divergent and
that most of the plates are made of continental and oceanic plates, and these have convergent
divergent and convergent boundaries. At the convergent boundary or subduction zone, boundaries
the plate is consumed as one plate subducts under the other plate (Fig. 9.3). The determine the
destruction of the oceanic plate at a subduction zone explains that the oceans are points of the
constantly lithosphere where
the mental plumes
are emanating or
sinking. At the
divergent
boundary, the
mantle plumes
bring the molten
material that forms
new oceanic crust.
At divergent
boundary, one
plate subduct
under the other and
this process
destroys a plate.
The formation and
destruction of
plates are ongoing
phenomena since
the birth of earth.
Fig. 9.3: Schematic diagram of formation and destruction of oceans at divergent and
convergent boundaries. The Mantle plumes and their advection are also shown. 207
Hydrology undergoing destruction. The rearrangement of plates is an ongoing phenomenon and it
has changed the position of continents and ocean several times in the history of the
earth. By the rearrangement of seven plates, individual ocean has expanded or shrank
during the past. Some oceans are now a land mass. For example, the Indian Ocean
has formed due to the breakup of a massive landmass known as the Gondwana Land.
The fractionation of the Gondwana Land with multi-directional drifting of the India, the
Australia, the Africa and the American plates has led to the opening of the Atlantic, the
Pacific, and the Indian Ocean. Southward drifting and rearrangement of a section of
the Gondwana Land has brought the Antarctica to its present position over the Southern
Pole, and that has led to the formation of the Antarctic Sea. It may also to be noted
here that at the present the Atlantic Ocean is widening while the Pacific Ocean is
shrinking.
Why the ocean has a younger age than the continents?
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9.4 SHELF AND DEEP SEA SEDIMENTATION

As described in the previous section, the sedimentary processes are unique over the
shelf as well as over the deep regions of the ocean. The shelf, being the extension of
continents over the sea, has a variable environment of deposition and sedimentation.
Being next to the land –ocean boundary, rivers discharge their load into the continental
shelf. The erosion of the land by the forces of the sea also contributes detritus to
ocean. The sediments that are supplied into sea from land are termed as allogenic.
Most of the sediments over the inner shelf are allogenic. These sediments are also
called terrigenous.
The redistribution of these detritus by the littoral and shelf currents is also very important.
Two modes of advection is derived over the shelf. The movement of detritus parallel
to the shore is termed as alongshore. This advection is carried out by the regional or
local currents. For example, the eastern and the western boundary currents in the
entire ocean carry detritus in alongshore direction. The alongshore transport is therefore
regional in nature. The other mode of transfer is across-shelf movement. This advection
carries the sediments from the inner shelf to the deeper region of the ocean. The
alongshore winds have a cross-shelf component (if these are inclined to shore). These
Bed load is winds generate across shelf currents. Off the mouth of the rivers, the plumes of the
advection of rivers are carried for several hundred km. Such plumes carry a considerable amount
detritus along the of suspended matter into the outer shelf by the way of across-shelf transfer.
sea bed. The sediments are also carried along or across a shelf in the form of bed load. The
direction of such sediment movement depends on the characteristics of bottom
circulation. The re-suspension of sediments by high winds causes a large magnitude of
208 bed load advection. These sediments are, however, coarser than the sediments that
are carried in sea water as suspension. The movement of sediment at the sea-bed is by Introduction to
a layer that has a very high density (nepheloid layer). Oceanography
Besides, detritus on the shelf are also supplied by the wind. Deserts and flood plains of
rivers have unconsolidated sediments. Wind picks up the sediments from the deserts
or the arid plains. Winds laden with the dust are known as dust storms. The dust
storms carry a considerable amount of detritus in the tropics. In India, the Thar Desert
is known for its dust storms and sediment contribution into sea. Similarly, other deserts
also contribute a significant amount of sediments. Because the aerosols (dust particles)
can be sustained in suspension for a longer time in the atmosphere, these are carried
inter-ocean by winds. It may be borne in mind that the winds can supply sediments to
a shelf or to deeper regions (oceanic plate) of ocean.
The other source of detritus to the ocean is through volcanic activities. The oceans Volcanogenic
receive sediments though volcanogenic processes at the sea bed. It may be borne in detritus are clastic
mind that the sediments contributed by the volcanogenic processes have very coarse sediments that are
grain size and these are termed as pyroclastic. The sediments that are discharged by discharged into
the volcanoes in the atmosphere are also found to be deposited in the sea. These atmosphere by
sediments become a distinct thin layer only in the deeper region of the sea. In the way of a volcanic
region of high sedimentation, the specific contribution of volcanogenic processes is eruption. These
noticeable only in the vicinity of the coast that has lava flows. sediments travel
across the globe
The other major source of sediments over the ocean is authigenic supply. The unicellular in the upper
organisms live in sea waters. Upon their death, the skeleton of these animals is deposited atmosphere.
on the sea bed. In India, we find very high marine productivity along the SW continental
margin of India. The shelf in that region has dominant deposition of remains of the
skeleton of the organism. Authigenic
sediments form
If one looks at the pattern of sedimentation, the shelf has several specific features. The within ocean due
inner shelf has channels filled with sediments. These channels were active when the sea to biological
level was lowered. The deep incision off the mouth of the River Indus and the Ganga production.
and Brahmaputra feed deeper fan in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The outer
shelf receives fewer detritus compared to the inner shelf because the across-shelf
movement is weaker than alongshore advection. The surface of the outer shelf, therefore, Turbidites are
has more roughness. Because the deeper waters have more productivity because of thick, homogenous
upwelling or the presence of reefs, authigenic carbonate sediments are found over the deposition of
outer shelf. In India, the outer shelf is covered with relict carbonate detritus. detritus. They are
The continental slope has a much reduced supply of the detritus. However, in India, mostly found at the
the waters over the slope of the SW continental margin are productive. The slope of base of slope or in
the most of the productive regions has a high amount of carbonate and organic carbon. a fan.
Once buried, these deposits are an excellent source for production of petroleum
product. The other source of sediments to the slope is through gravity transfer from At the regions that
the outer shelf. The slumping over the slope is episodic, and it is triggered by sea level have very high
fluctuations or by slope failure. The gigantic waves such as tsunamis and storm surges marine
also cause slope failure and slumming in the sea. The continental rise is mostly covered productivity, silica
with a thick pile of sediments. These sediments occur in the form of turbidites. or calcite ooze on
the shelf and in
The deeper ocean receives very little supply from land. The sediments thickness over
the deep ocean is
the oceanic plate is, therefore, tiny. These sediments are carried over the deeper water
found.
in suspension by across shelf advection. Windblown dust and volcanogenic sediments
also occur over all the oceanic crust. In the vicinity of mid-oceanic ridges, the pyroclastic
209
sediments are found in abundance.
Hydrology The biological productivity is another source of the sediments in the deeper regions of
the ocean. The deposition of the shells of the dead organism is termed as ooze. These
oozes are of two types. The ooze that has carbonate shells is termed as calcareous
ooze. The ooze with the skeleton of opal/silica is called radiolarian ooze.
It shall be bone in mind that the CaCO3 dissolves below a certain depth known as
carbonate compensation depth (CCD). CCD has varied in geological past. It is ~4- 5
km deep now. Therefore, there shall be no carbonate deposition below this depth.
Because of this, most of the sediments in the deeper region (> 5 km water depth) are
comprised of siliceous ooze.
Along the Indian Coast, the sediments from the rivers such as the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra are found to have inter-basin advection (from the Bay of Bengal into the
SW continental margin of India that is located along the Arabian Sea). The studies
have documented deposition of detritus from the Bay of Bengal into the Arabian Sea.
As has been described earlier, the occurrence of intense biogenic activities has given
rise to a sizeable amount of carbonate and silicate shells at the shelves of India. The
shelves of India were aerially exposed during the last transgression (retreat) of the sea,
and there were massive reefs and bioherms over the outer shelf. The age of these
sediments is about 11-08k years. Such an environment has contributed a sizeable
amount of authigenic carbonate sand over the mid-outer shelf. Submerged and exposed
reefs over the islands of India have also been archived. It is very prominent at
Lakshadweep and Andaman Islands. These regions have a high deposition of carbonate
sands.
What kind of sediments is found over the deeper region of the ocean (oceanic
plate)?
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9.5 PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL

ASPECTS OF SEA WATER
9.5.1 Physical Aspects
The water in the ocean/sea is heavier than the fresh water on the continents. Seawater
has a density of 103 g/cm3. The amount of salt (salinity) and temperature of seawater
regulate its density. The density of sea water varies between 1.02 to 1.50 g per cm3.
The fresh water supply from the rivers and the melting of the continental and sea ice
influence the density of local waters. For example, during the rainy season (during
June - September) a large fluvial discharge of the rivers into the Bay of Bengal reduces
the density of sea water at a regional scale. Evapotranspiration also influences density.
210
A higher rate of evaporation leads to loss of water in the form of vapour and that Introduction to
increases density of sea water. Oceanography
The density of the seawater is crucial for vertical movement of sea water. The ocean
has a layered structure. In the ocean, we find lighter density in the mixed layer. The
density increases with the depth. The pycnocline is the second layer of the ocean,
which has a higher density than the surface layer. The deeper regions of the ocean
have higher density (Fig. 9.4).
The vertical variations in the temperature are presented in Figure 4. One finds a top
warm layer with a uniform temperature. This layer is termed as a mixed layer. The
water temperature below the mixed layer reduces rapidly with depth. This layer is
known as the thermocline. The water of the deeper layer also show a reduction in the
temperature, but the rate of decrease of temperature in the deeper layer is very low
(Fig. 9.4). The temperature of the water is a very important parameter to regulate
evaporation and vertical movement of water in the ocean. Associated with a low
temperature, below the thermocline, the sea water has high density. This leads to
floating of warm waters of upper surface over denser cold waters. Also, the water is
cold near the poles because of prevailing climate. This water also has a higher density,
and it sinks. It also aids the formation of cyclones. Because of a high sea surface
temperature (SST), the Bay of Bengal has a frequent formation of cyclones.
What is the role of sea surface temperature (SST) on salinity and density of any
parcel of sea water?
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9.5.2 Chemical Composition of the Sea Water

The seawater has a thermal conductivity of 0.6 W/mK at 250 C at a salinity of 35 g/kg
(35‰ (parts per million)). The pH of the sea water ranges from 7.5 to 8.4. Sea water
contains almost all the elements. The major constituents of the sea water are: Oxygen
(85.84%), Hydrogen (10.82%) Chloride (1.94%), Sodium (1.08%), Magnesium
(0.1292%), Calcium (0.04%), Potassium (0.04%), Sulphur (0.091), and Carbon
(0.0028). Sodium, chloride, magnesium, sulphate and calcium are the most abundant
dissolved ions. The salinity of sea water varies between 31-36‰. The salinity is not
uniform. The highest saline region of the world is the Red Sea.
A large influx of fresh water from the rivers and from the melting of the ice into the sea
reduces its salinity. Sir Edmond Halley was the first researcher to propose the reason
for the salinity variations in the sea. He postulated that the proceeds of the continental
weathering transported by the rivers contribute salt into the sea. The evapotranspiration
of sea also increases the salt contents (similar to one found in enclosed lakes or inland
water bodies such as the Caspian Sea). However, recent studies have shown that
211
Hydrology contribution of salts specifically that of sodium, through volcanogenic and hydrothermal
activities are also important processes that contributes to salinity enhancement of sea
water.
Fig. 9.4: Typical vertical profiles of temperature, salinity, and density in the ocean
The solubility of salts in the seawater also depends on the temperature and pressure.
In the ocean, the atmospheric pressure increases with depth (the increases for every
10 m is 1013.25 hP). Because the temperature of the ocean at the deeper level is low,
it also increases the dissolution of gases and salts and alters their physical and chemical
properties. The residence time of various salts in the sea is highly variable. Sodium and
chloride have a much longer residence time compared to calcium. Over the time, the
average salinity of the sea has remained same. This has been attributed to three
processes:
1. The input of the anion and cation estimated to be equal because there is continuous
precipitation of salt by chemical as well as biogeochemical processes.
2. When sea water moves inland by the tidal forcing or during storm surges, sodium
chlorite and calcium sulphate precipitate in warm or arid region of the marginal
seas. The Rann of Kachchh is one such example where a large amount of sea salt
is precipitated due to the cyclic influx of seawater and prevailing warm, arid climate.
3. The precipitation associated with super-saturation of salt in the sea. Gypsum and
carbonates are the salts that precipitate in the shallow seas. Also, silica and carbon
are extracted from sea water by biogenic processes, specifically by phytoplankton,
the microorganism that fixes these in the presence of sunlight through photosynthesis.
Corals, sponges, lobster and several other living animals including fish continuously
extracts skeletons containing CaCO3, phosphate and several other metals from
seawater through primary and secondary productivity.
Vertical variation in the salinity of the seawater is shown in Figure 4. As indicated
earlier, average salinity of seawater is 35.5‰. The salinity of seawaters, however,
varies locally depending upon the amount of evaporation, influx of freshwater from
rivers or from the melting of sea ice. Formation of ice also enhances salinity of sea.
Alike temperature, the salinity of the surface waters of the ocean remains constant in
the upper mixed layer. Below the mixed layer, the salinity reduces, and this layer has
been termed as halohaline. Below halohaline there is very litter change in the salinity of
sea waters.
212
Check Your Progress 7 Introduction to
Oceanography
Which gas has maximum concentration in seawater?
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9.5.3 Biological Characteristics of Ocean
The information about the biological characters in the ocean waters is rather scanty
because an extensive section of the deeper region of the ocean remains virtually
unexplored. On the land, primary productivity, to a large extent, is light limiting, and
there is a well-defined food web. On the contrary, in the ocean, only top 100 m of the
water column is prominently sunlit (zone of sunlight penetration is maximum 1000 m in
rare cases). Yet the entire ocean including the deep, dark regions is found to have a
life. The primary producers in the ocean are of two types, i.e., photosynthetic (fixing
carbon using sunlight) and chemosynthetic (the organism that produces their food by
chemical processes). The former are planktons, mostly algae and cyanobacteria
(commonly called cyanophyta) that obtain their energy through photosynthesis. The
chemosynthetic community lives in the deeper region of the ocean that does not receive
any sunlight. The life here derives its food through chemical reaction around thermal
plumes emanating from the hydrothermal vents.
The tropic levels in the ocean are given in Figure 9.5. The autotrophic communities
(primary producers) are generally unicellular planktonic species that drift in the euphotic
zone and produce their food through photosynthesis. It also comprises of some species
of macroscopic algae termed as weeds. The depth of euphotic zone depends upon
several factors, important among these is cloud cover and the turbidity of the sea
waters. The waters with reduced or no turbidity are found to have a deeper euphotic
zone. The water over the oceanic plates has very little sediments, and the depth of
euphotic zone is more here. The depth of euphotic zone is also less off the mouth of the
rivers. Despite a higher turbidity that attenuates deeper penetration of the sunlight, the
primary productivity of these waters was found to be many-fold higher due to enhanced
supply of the nutrients from the land. The mangroves and beach grasses are the only
plants that are found in the submerged land of the coastal region.
Zooplanktons, the floating herbivorous consumers, are heterotrophic, and these occupy
the next level in the tropic diagram (Fig. 5). These organisms vary in size from < 2 to
200 µm and mostly feed on eutrophic species. Over 1500 species of fungi are known
from marine environments. These are parasitic on marine algae or animals, or are
saprobes on algae, corals, protozoan cysts, sea grasses, wood and another substrate,
and can also be found in sea foam. The carnivorous consumers of the higher order viz.
fish, squid, and large mammals (e.g. whales and dolphin) occupy the top of the pyramid.
Generally, at each level, only 10% of the energy from an organism is transferred to its
consumer. The rest is lost as waste, movement energy, heat energy and so on. As a
result, each higher tropic level supports a smaller number of organisms – in other
words, it has less biomass. This means that a top-level consumer, such as a shark, is
supported by millions of primary producers from the base of the tropic pyramid. 213
Hydrology Unlike the land, there are diverse species that dwell in the bottom of the sea or float
below the euphotic zone. The bottom dwellers are generally termed as benthic fauna,
and most of these are heterotrophic, though a very small community may be the primary
producer (chemosynthetic community). The life in the dark, deep ocean is sustained
from the supply of organic matter from the primary production in euphotic surface via
biological pump. The decomposers are active at each of the levels of the
Fig. 9.5: Tropic levels in the oceans.
tropic and these play a vital role in dissolving organic matter and the nutrients from the
remains of primary of secondary producers. Despite (i) a high pressure, (ii) no primary
producer, and (iii) a low temperature, life in the deeper layers of the ocean is sustained
from the rains of dead skeletons, organic remains, and dissolution of nutrients released
from the decomposition of the biotic components. We find the marine biodiversity to
be related to climate, the supply of nutrients and the availability of sunlight. A higher
supply of nutrients from land or upwelling may lead to a high primary productivity, and
it enhances the supply of organic matter into the deeper subsurfaces. Most of this
organic matter is consumed by heterotrophs or bacteria. A high marine production
leads to a large consumption of oxygen by sinking organic matter, which makes these
waters sub-oxic or anoxic through the process of eutrophication. The oxygen-depleted
waters are hazardous for marine life, specifically for the heterotrophs in the higher
tropic order.
214 Fig. 9.6: Biological characteristics of ocean water.

Marine habitats are broadly divided into two sections, i.e., coastal and open Ocean. Ocean Currents
Coastal habitat extends from the coast to the edge of the continental shelf. The region
beyond the shelf edge is termed as Open Ocean Habitat. The deep ocean fish is
termed as pelagic whereas shallow water species are known as demersal.
What is the tropic level of the ocean water?
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9.6 LET US SUM UP

Oceans have been storing water for 3.9 billion years, but their age is only 200 million
years. This is because the ocean is constantly being formed and destroyed. At a
divergent plate boundary, ocean forms. At the convergent plate boundary, the ocean
gets consumed.
The ocean has two physiographic units. Continental margins are submerged portion of
the continental plate. This region is further divided into shelf, slope, and rise. The
oceanic plate is newly formed ocean, and it occurs in the deeper regions. It has a chain
of bathymetric highs and low at the mid-ocean ridge and at subduction zones.
The sedimentation in the ocean is regulated by the supply of sediments from the
continents. The physiographic features present on the shelf get buried under the
sediments. If the supply of sediments is very high, shelf or slope region has an even
physiography.
The oceanic plate receives very low amount of sediments. These sediments are mostly
contributed by water column deposition. The other source of sediments is by biological
production. The shells of the primary producers rain over the ocean floor.
Ocean has layered structure. The upper most layer has a uniform, salinity, density, and
temperature, and it is known as mix layer. The temperature and salinity decline in the
ocean below mix layer. The salinity and temperature of deeper water of the ocean are
having least variability. The density of seawater increased with depth.
The primary producers in the euphotic zone are the only source of food for the secondary
produces. Secondary producers live on the supply of organic matter from the euphotic
zone.
Terminal Questions
1. What is a continental shelf?
2. What is the maximum age of oceanic crust?
3. What causes slumping in the ocean?
215
Hydrology 4. What is the role of the wind in supplying sediments into ocean?
5. In which layer the density of water reduces in the ocean?
6. What is the depth of euphotic zone in the ocean? What controls this depth?

READINGS
M. Grant Gross: Oceanography, a view of the earth. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs
1972
William A. Anikouchine and Richard W. Sternberg: The World Ocean, an introduction
to oceanography. McGraw-Hill, New York 1974
Joseph Weisberg and Howard Parish: Introductory Oceanography. McGraw-Hill,
New York 1974
Keith Stowe: Ocean Science. John Wiley and Sons, New York 2nd Edition 1979
J. Michael McCormick and John V. Thiruvatakal: Elements of Oceanography. Saunders
College Publishing, Philadelphia 2nd Edition 1981
John A. Black: Oceans and Coasts, an introduction to oceanography. Wm. C. Brown
Publishers, Dubuque 1986
Paul R. Pinet: Oceanography, an introduction to the planet Oceanus. West Publishing
Company St. Paul 1992
Alison B. Duxbury and Alyn C. Duxbury: Fundamentals of Oceanography. Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, Dubuque 1993
Harold V. Thurman: Essentials of Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 4th Edition
1993
6th Edition 1993
Tom Garrison: Oceanography, an Invitation to Marine Sciences. Wadsworth Publishing
Company, Belmont California 1993
Harold V. Thurman: Introductory Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 7th edition
1994
David A. Ross: Introduction to Oceanography. Harper Collins New York 1995
Matthias Tomczak and Gunther Krause: Do Marine Scientists have a Scientific View
of the Earth? Oceanography 8, 11-16 (1995).
1996
Douglas A. Segar: Introduction to Ocean Sciences. Wadsworth Publishing, Belmont
1998
216
Ocean Currents
1. Continental margin is an extension of land that is now submerged in the sea due to
a change in the sea level.
2. The maximum age of the ocean crust is 200 million years.
3 Sea level variability is the major factor that causes slumping from the shelf into the
rise. The storm surges and tsunami also cause slumming.
4. Winds supply sediments of deserts into the ocean. The volcanogenic sediments are
also transproted into the ocean by the wind. The wind is, therefore, the one of the
major agents that supplies sediments to the deeper region of the ocean.
5. Pycnocline is the layer in which the density of the ocean water increases
6. The depth of euphotic zone is generally 100 m. Sunlight is known to have penetrated
as deep as 1000 m in the seawaters over the oceanic regions.
It depends on the sun light and turbidity of sea waters.
Answers of Terminal Questions
1. The submergence of the shelf and associated sedimentation causes exposure or
burial of physiographic features. Tectonic setting and sedimentary environment is
different over each shelf. The physiographic features are also variable due to change
in these parameters.
2. The continental slope has a high slope (60). It has hills of varying size formed due to
antecedent volcanic activities. Some of these hills may also be formed due to
biological activities such as reefs during the time when the sea level was low.
3. The oceanic plates have a very high gradient (1:10000).
4 The ocean plate is consistently destroyed due to plate tectonics. The continental
plate does not undergo such destruction. Because of this, the ocean is younger
than continents.
5. A thin layer of clastic or biogenic sediments is found over the oceanic plates. The
region deeper than 4.5 km does not have any carbonate sediments because of
CCD.
6. The SST is linked with the salinity and density of sea water. A high SST leads to
evaporation, and this increases salt contents in sea water (enhanced salinity), and
its density
7. Oxygen has maximum concentration in seawaters
8. The tropic level is the arrangement of primary and secondary consumers with
respect to supply of food. It also depicts the source of food.
217
Hydrology
UNIT 10 OCEAN CURRENTS
Structure
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Ocean Currents
10.2.1 Upwelling
10.2.2 Downwelling
10.3 Waves properties and motion
10.3.1 Classification of the wave
10.3.2 Sea waves and swells
10.3.3 Disintegration of waves
10.3.4 Littoral Current
10.3.5 Tsunami
10.4 Tides
10.4.1 Classification of Tides.
10.5 Air Sea Exchange
10.5.1 Solar Radiation Absorption, Reflection, and Scattering
10.5.2 Infrared Radiation: Emission, Reflection, and Absorption
10.5.3 Turbulent Heat Transfer
10.5.4 Evaporation
10.5.5 Precipitation
10.5.6 Buoyancy Flux at Sea Surface
10.5.7 Ocean Surface Wave Generation and Decay
10.6 Ion Exchange
10.7 Gas Exchange at Sea Water Interface
10.8 Ocean General Circulation Models
10.9 Let Us Sum Up
10.0 INTRODUCTION
Ocean is a storehouse of heat, dissolved gases and almost all the salts and metals
present on the earth. It contains about 96.5% of the water. This water constantly
remains in motion (termed as ocean currents). The currents have lateral and vertical
movements of a water mass, and are regulated by thermal gradient, density and salinity.
Waves are a circular movement of the water with no lateral advection of water mass.
The waves are important for generating littoral currents. The littoral currents carry
suspended particulate matter along the shore. Supply of these sediments determines
the stability of a coastline. Any man-made structure that obstructs littoral drift may
cause erosion or deposition along the coast.
218
Tides are cyclic waves generated by celestial bodies. Because the moon is closer to Ocean Currents
the earth, it exerts more tidal force on the earth. The position of the moon and the sun
shifts during a lunar month. The interplay of solar and lunar forcing plays an important
role on tidal cycle. The tidal forcing is important for flushing of estuarine regions and
navigation into the inland seas and creeks.
Air-sea interaction is an exchange of energy and material between atmosphere and
sea. General circulation models (GCM) are simulations that help to understand of
dynamics of the ocean.
10.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will learn:
• The processes that induce the lateral or vertical currents;
• The wind regime over the globe;
• Role of the wind in generating currents in the ocean;
• Western and eastern boundary currents and their role in redistribution of heat from
equator to the pole;
• The processes that generate waves;
• The Tsunami;
• Tides;
• The factors that influence the tidal amplitude;
• What is air-sea interaction; and
• General circulation model of ocean.
10.2 OCEAN CURRENTS

The ocean has 96.5% of the water present on the earth. This water is never at rest.
Lateral or vertical movement of sea water is prevalent at the surface as well at the
depths of the ocean. It is termed as “ocean current”. The currents in the upper surfaces
(100 m) are more intense because of air-sea interaction. In shallow region, these are
along the shore. In the open ocean, however, currents form a giant gyre. These gyres
are cyclonic (anticlockwise) in the southern basin though these remain clockwise
(anticyclonic) in the northern region. The currents are produced and maintained by the
interplay of winds, gravity, Coriolis force, atmospheric pressure and vertical and lateral
salinity and density gradients. The main driving force, however, is the solar energy.
Because of the inclination of the axis of the earth, the solar radiation is not uniformly
received over the globe. The equatorial region receives a higher amount of solar energy
round the year. The north and south poles have a seasonal change in the duration of
day and night (longer during the local summer) and have less insolation compared to
the equatorial region. Therefore, the ocean has different thermal properties at the
equator and at the poles. Higher insolation at the equator turns this region warmer. The
ocean at the
219
Hydrology
Gyres are
cyclonic and
anticyclonic basin
scale currents.
These are present
in all the oceans.
Fig. 10.1: A generalized global patterns of easterlies and westerlies winds over
the surface of the earth.
polar regions, however, remain very cold or frozen. Such a thermal gradient leads to
advection of heat from the equator to the poles. For example, at the equator, warm air
has a vertical displacement because of prevailing low pressure. Similarly, because of
cold air at the poles, these regions have high pressure. This establishes vertical and
lateral movements of the air parcel over the globe. While moving towards the poles,
the Coriolis force also deflects the winds (as described in the next para). This leads to
the formation of regional cells of the easterly and westerly winds over the globe. A
generalized pattern of these surface winds is shown in Figure 1.
The surface currents are primarily driven by these winds. As the wind prevails over the
surface of the ocean, it moves water mass into its direction. Because of the Coriolis
force, any poleward movement of water mass gets deflected to its right (left) in the
northern (southern) hemisphere, and that gives rise to the formation of a giant gyre in
the basins. The coastal land mass of continent (boundary of the basin) then channelizes
and guides these meridional
Zonal currents are

E-W. Meridional
movements are
N-S.
Fig. 10.2: Schematic diagram of ocean currents.
and zonal advections into regional currents (Fig. 10.2). A poleward advection of water
masses is found in the western (eastern) margin of the globe in the norther (south)
hemisphere. These regional currents many-a-time are seasonal. The clockwise western
(eastern) boundary currents in the northern (southern) region are rapid and warm, and
these carry heat from the equator to the poles. Such currents keep the polar region
220
warm. The equatorward currents are found along the eastern (western) boundary in Ocean Currents
the northern (southern) hemisphere and these carry cold water.
A lack of thermal gradient at a region forms zonal currents. At the equator, for example,
the winds are easterly, and the temperature gradient is rather absent. These winds
generate equatorial currents and north and south equatorial counter currents (as shown
in Fig. 10.2). The circumpolar cold current around the Antarctica is another example
of zonal current which prevents the equatorward advection of cold water from the
southern pole to the equator (Fig. 10.2).
Check Your Progress 1 The poleward
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words. currents along the
western (eastern)
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit. boundary in the
northern (southern)
1. Why the currents in the open ocean form a gyre? hemisphere are the
..................................................................................................................... warm and rapid
currents. The most
..................................................................................................................... prominent Gulf
..................................................................................................................... Stream is an
examples of wind-
2. What shall be the direction of currents along the eastern margins in the Arabian driven currents.
Sea?
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10.2.1 Upwelling In the northern

Upwelling - a process that pumps deeper, cold water into the surface from the depth hemisphere, the
of the ocean, is an important vertical advection driven by the winds. The winds -that coastal waters get
prevail at an inclined angle to a shore, cause an alongshore advection of coastal waters. deflected to the
This process reduces sea-surface height (refer to Fig. 10.3). To compensate the right, while in the
reduction in the sea-surface height, there is an upward movement (upwelling) of deep, southern
cold, nutrient-rich water into the upper surface. Upwelling is an important process that hemisphere these
brings nutrients from the depth of ocean. The supply of nutrients from the ocean is a are deflected to
key factor that enhances marine primary productivity and production of O2 and the left by the
consumption of CO2 in seawater. Coriolis force

1. Why upwelling is important for the biological cycle of the ocean.
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221
Hydrology
Fig. 10.3: Upwelling in the shallow water
10.2.2 Downwelling
The vertical sinking (downwelling) of seawater is also an important process that is
regulated by the temperature and density of the sea. From the subtropics to polar
regions, the surface water cools during winter. The cooling at the poles produces
denser waters and
Fig. 10.4. Schematic diagram of downwelling in the ocean.
these sink to the bottom of the ocean (in the northern region of the Atlantic Ocean and
close to the Antarctica; Fig. 10.5). Such waters then move equatorward as bottom
currents in all the major oceans (please refer to Fig. 5 to identify these points). These
222 currents overturn (upwell) in the Pacific and in the Indian Oceans (note this in Fig.
10.5) making it a conveyor circulation as schematically shown. The conveyor circulation Ocean Currents
releases a large amount of heat into the atmosphere from the ocean (Fig. 10.5). This
process regulates short and long scale changes in the climate of the globe. Another
process that regulates downwelling is a high rate of evaporation. Removal of water in
the vapour form increases salinity and density of sea water. Waters which have high
salinity sink by virtue of their higher density.
Fig. 10.5: Great conveyor belt. Please note downwelled (deep) and upwelled (shallow) water
circulation in the oceans of the world. Please note the release of heat in the polar region.
Downwelling is very prominent in the Northern Arabian Sea. During winter, the surface
waters of the northern region of the Arabian Sea cool. Being denser, these sink. The
vertical movement of water leads to upwelling from the deeper sub-surfaces in the
peripheral area (please refer to Fig. 10.4). This process is unique to the Arabian Sea,
and it enhances the marine productivity of the Northern Arabian Sea during winter
season.
1. Why are the eastern boundary currents cold in the northern hemisphere.
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10.3 WAVES PROPERTIES AND MOTION

Waves are surface perturbation in the water mass in which the particles of the medium
are displaced in the direction perpendicular to the direction of energy transport. These
perturbations are like the one created in a rope (that is stretched out horizontally) by
moving
223
Hydrology
Fig. 10.6: The terminology used to describe waves.
its open end back and forth in a vertical direction. Waves are therefore a manifestation
of circular motion of surface water which is sustained by energy passing through it.
During the motion of the waves, there is no lateral movement of water.
The main terminology used in describing the wave is:
1. Wave height (vertical distance between crest – trough). In the deep waters (water
depth over 1/2 of the wave length) it is denoted as H”
2. Wave length (denoted as L” for deep water waves) is considered as a distance
between two crests or troughs.
3. Wave period is time taken by two consecutive crests to travel at a stationary
point. It is denoted as T” for the deep waves.
4. Wave propagation (direction in which wave is propagating between 0-3590).
5. Wave steepness =H/L
10.3.1 Classification of the Wave

In the ocean, the frictional force created by the winds over the water produces most of
the waves. Besides, isolated displacement of water by an earthquake, volcano or
slumping creates waves. If not obstructed by a margin of continent, waves have potential
to travel across the globe. The waves have been classified based on their length,
period and mechanism of their formation. Table 1 describes various types of waves,
their typical length period and the mechanism that regulates their formation.
Table 10.1: The typical characteristics and classification of waves.
Nomenclature Wave Typical Generated Generating
Length period by Force
Capillary wave < 2cm Very small Wind Surface
tension
Wind wave 60–150m < 30 sec The Wind over Gravity
ocean
Seiche Equal to the Variable but Atmoshpheric Gravity
(Standing size of the larger that pressure,
waves ) Basin wind waves storm surge
Tsunami 200km Variable but Earthquake at Gravity
(Harbour larger than sea floor,
waves) wind wave volcanic
5 min to eruption,
224 12 h landslide
Tides Half the 6 h – 24 h Gravitational Gravity and Ocean Currents
circum- attraction, celestial
ference rotation attraction
of Earth force
10.3.2 Sea Waves and Swells

We have learned that waves are generated by wind when it blows over a sizeable area
(known as fetch) of the ocean. The wind waves may have a height ranging from slight
ripples to 10 m. Following factors influence the formation of the wind waves:
1. Speed of wind relative to wave speed; the speed of the wind shall exceed that of
the wave;
2. The wind should blow over a large area (fetch) without significant change in its
direction;
3. Width of area affected by fetch;
4. Duration for which the wind has blown over a given fetch;
5. Water depth;
Fig. 10.7: Schematic illustration of the mechanism of the wind and swell waves formation
A large fetch and powerful winds that prevail for a longer duration generate higher sea
waves (Fig. 7). When directly generated and affected by local winds, the school of the
waves is called a wind sea, and it is comprised of many uneven waves. After the wind
ceases to blow, and the wind waves have left the fetch, their wavelength increases,
while their roughness is reduced. These waves are called swell. Swell waves comprise
wind-generated waves that are not significantly affected by the local wind (Fig. 7).
The speed of the waves is governed by the gravity, wave length, and the depth of
water. For the deep water waves, the speed is calculated from the following formula:
C=
where C= wave speed, L = wave length and T =wave period.

One may note that the period of the wave is inversely related to its speed.
The same equation may also be written as:
C=
225
Hydrology Where g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2) and ð =3.14. Because the g and
ð are constants, the equation can be written as
C=2.51
The speed of the deep ocean waves, therefore, is proportional to their wavelength.
The waves that have more length have a faster energy transfer. The depth of water has
no effect on the speed of the wave in the deeper region of the ocean because circular
motion of water is not influenced by the sea-floor.
Once the waves reach the shallow water (less or equal to half of their wavelength), the
circular movement of the surface water touches sea floor, and it is transformed into
elliptical motion. In the shallow waters the wave speed is therefore governed by the
following relation:
C=
Where g is the acceleration due to gravity and d=water depth.

In shallow water, therefore, the length of the wave does not determine the wave speed.
Here, the water depth determines the speed. It may be kept in mind that deep ocean
waves become slower once these reach into shallow water of the shelf. Their speed
further reduces during their journey from the shelf break to the shore.
1. What depth the wave with a wave length of 500 m will disintegrate?
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10.3.3 Disintegration of Waves

We have learned it that in the region shallower than ½ of wave length of waves, there
is an obstruction in the circular movement of water. This reduces the speed of waves
and enhances their height. Disintegration of the waves may, therefore, start even before
these enter the shelf. For example, the ocean waves with a wavelength of 400 m shall
be unstable in the region having a water depth of 200 m. Along the Indian coast, the
shelf break occurs between depths of 100-130 m. Any wave that has a length less
than 360 m shall retard over the Indian shelf. Because the continental slope has much
steeper gradient than the continental shelf, this effect is stronger over the slope region.
There are several hills and basins on the shelf and in the inland region. It has been
learned that the speed of the waves in the shallow region is regulated by the water
depth. This implies that the speed of the waves shall be more in the basins (depression)
compared to over a mound or a hill. On the continental shelf that has variable bathymetry,
there will a complex variation in the speed and height. Such variations lead to refraction
226 of the waves over the shelf (we will learn the significance of this in the next section).
Cyclone and depressions in the ocean generate enormous waves. The disintegration Ocean Currents
of these waves (enhancement in their height), thus, starts much earlier. The storm
waves therefore have more height and very high destructive effect.
10.3.4 Littoral Current

Waves break at the shore because of the disintegration of waves. A great majority of
the breakers (seen on a beach) result from the process and it generates “littoral currents”.
Littoral current (or long-shore currents) is an alongshore advection of seawater. The
currents direction of these is regulated by the direction of the waves. It has been
described in the previous section that the direction of the wave is regulated by the
winds. In most of the ocean basin, the direction of the wind is highly seasonal. For
India, the speed of winds is many-fold higher during the SW monsoon (June-September)
and their direction is from SW-W-SE. Winds are milder and their direction reverses
after the SW monsoon. The wave climate is, therefore, completely different during
each season. in response to the wind climate, longer and higher waves from SW-SE
prevail during the SW monsoon. These waves generate a strong littoral current.
Fig. 10.8. The schematic diagram explaining the littoral and rip currents.
Because of refraction of the waves (by the variability in water depth over the shelf),
littoral currents flow in cells. Two opposing currents at the point of convergence flow
offshore from the beach. The current that flows offshore is known as rip current
(Fig. 8). Because the cell of the littoral - rip currents is regulated by prevailing wave
conditions, it keeps shifting. Rip current is dangerous and often it carries a beach
swimmer into the deeper region of the sea.
Accretion or erosion of shore is regulated by supply of detritus. The sediments are
eroded or deposited on the beach depending upon the prevailing wave conditions.
High waves induce erosion on the beach, while the milder swells accrete beach. Most
of the beaches of India undergo a cycle of erosion-deposition. During the SW monsoon,
beach generally erodes. The milder waves during the rest of the year restore and
nourish a beach.
Littoral currents are the carrier of the sediments. The replenishment of sediments by
these currents is essential for accretion of a beach. Estimation of sediments budget
carried by the littoral currents is, therefore, very crucial for the coastal structures.
Anthropogenic activities that influence littoral current may change the overall 227
Hydrology characteristics of a shore. Construction of a groin or jetties (extending from shore to
sea) blocks natural supply of sediments carried in the littoral currents. Such obstruction
causes deposition of enormous quantities of sand in the down-drift side though the up-
drift side is starved of almost all sediments that are essential for the nourishment of a
beach. This leads to a massive erosion of shoreline or sever damage to the coastal
structures. Mariana Beach of Chennai is an example. The construction of a jetty for
the Chennai Harbour has led to the formation of a large beach south of the harbour,
while the northward region is now experiencing erosion. The wave characteristics,
therefore, form important parameters that determine the stability of coastal structures.
1. The littoral currents are from the north along the East Coast of India. The formation
of a jetty will obstruct sediments on which side?
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10.3.5 Tsunami
Tsunamis, “the waves of the harbour” are the most destructive, very large solitary
waves. These cause inland inundation and destruction of coastal establishment for
several km. These have a wavelength ranging from 10 km to several hundred km and
have a very long period (100-3000 sec). Unlike the storm surge, tsunamis are not
produced by wind. These waves are caused by a vertical displacement of water of
ocean by an earthquake, a large slumping, or by an eruption of the volcano on the
ocean floor. The tsunamis are, therefore, produced by the processes at the bottom of
the seafloor. For example, the tsunami that stuck the East Coast of the India on 26th
December 2004 was formed several hundred km away by an earthquake in the
subduction zone at a converging plate boundary in the deep ocean.
Tsunamis have very low amplitude in the deeper region, and therefore these travel long
distance is all direction from the epicenter of their origin, unnoticed. However, when
these arrive in the coastal waters, the shallow depth of a shelf induces enormous
amplification in their height. The occurrence of tsunami is an episodic phenomenon,
and it continues till the energy of these waves is fully dissipated. Considering a large
destruction by these waves, Government of India has installed a Tsunami warning
system in the ocean.
10.4 TIDES
Tides are semidiurnal (6 hourly) to diurnal (12 hourly) cyclic changes in the sea level.
Tidal waves are generated because of the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon.
As per the Newton’s Law, the gravitational attraction between two bodies is: (i)
proportional to the product of the masses of the two bodies and (ii) it is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
228
Ocean Currents
Fig. 10.9: Formation of the tidal bulge at the equator due to the attraction of moon.
This implies that the bodies with the greater mass and close to each other shall produce
a stronger attraction. Despite a smaller size, therefore, the moon has a two-fold higher
gravitational pull on the earth. This pull induces two bulges at the equator (Fig. 10.9),
and it produces an enormous wave (about the size of half of the circumference of the
earth) with low amplitude. To further understand this process, let us assume that the
earth is fully covered with water with no landmass. In such a scenario, water from the
poles will migrate to the equator to create a tidal bulge every 12 hrs due to gravitational
pull of the moon. This tidal wave then propagates around the earth. However, the
earth is not fully covered with water and it has continents which restrict free passage of
tides. We will describe the role of this obstruction in the later part of this section.
While the earth is rotating on its axis in 24 hours, the moon is also revolving around the
earth. The direction of revolving of the moon and the earth is the same. In order to
complete one lunar day, therefore, the earth has to move a bit more. The earth takes
24 hours plus 1/29.5 day or 24 h and 50 min. A lunar day is, therefore, longer than a
solar day. Because of this, every solar day the time of high and low tide has an increment
of 50 minutes.
Fig. 10.10: Celestial position of the sun and the moon during a spring tide.
10.4.1 Classification of Tides

Because the moon takes about 24 h 50 to revolve around the earth, theoretically there
shall be a 12h 25 min cyclic changes in the water level (one high water and one low
water) associated with the attraction of moon. Such a tidal cycle is called a diurnal
cycle. The term ebb-tide is used during low water, while the high water level is called 229
Hydrology as a flood-tide. If the earth was having no landmass, the bulge of water produced by
the moon (as explained earlier) would have diurnal changes at all the points of earth.
However, because of the obstruction in the passage of tidal wave by the continents,
there is a large variability in the tide cycle. Many regions have two low and high tides
every day. These tides are called semidiurnal.
Based on the amplitude of tides during a semidiurnal cycle, the tides are called
symmetrical or mixed (Fig. 10.11). If the amplitude of ebb and flood tidal phases is
same, the tides are classified as symmetrical. In a mixed tide, the ebb and flood phases
have different amplitude. The inequality in the tidal phases stems from the movement
of the moon in an elliptical circle. While revolving around the earth, the moon moves
between the Tropics of Cancer and the Tropics of Capricorn. When the moon is
located over the equator, the bulge also lies over the equator (Fig. 10.9). In this case,
the tidal phases are symmetrical. Such tides are also known as equatorial tides. The
location of the moon over the Tropic of the Capricorn (or over the Tropic of Cancer)
causes the tidal bulge to shift to the north or to the south of the equator. This generates
unequal ebb and flood phases. These tides are called tropic tides (mixed tides).
Fig. 10.11: Classification of tides
The position of the sun, the moon, and the earth also determines the amplitude of tide.
We have learned that the moon moves around the sun in an elliptical orbit. We also
230 know that the earth also moves around the sun in an elliptical circle. During the revolution
of each of these bodies around the earth, there are two positions (termed as apogee Ocean Currents
and perigee). At the apogee, the moon is farthest from the earth. At perigee, the moon
is closest to the earth. It has been pointed out that the force of attraction between two
celestial bodies is proportional to their distance. Therefore, the tidal amplitude also
varies in response to the distance of the moon from the earth. The moon completes
one perigee-apogee-perigee cycle every 25.5 days.
Fig. 10.12: The celestial position of the sun and the moon during a neap tide.
Tidal amplitude also varies because of the position of sun, earth and moon. At the
new or the full moon, every fortnight the moon-sun and earth are aligned in one direction.
The combined force of the sun and the moon produces a strongest bulge in the direction
of the sun and the moon (Fig. 10.10). The tidal amplitude during this phase is maximum,
and it is termed as spring tide (highest high tide and lowest low tide). During the period
between the full moon and new moon, the sun is located at an angle and not in a
straight line with respect to the moon (Fig. 10.12). The tidal amplitude therefore reduces
during a lunar cycle. The gravitational pull is minimum when the sun and the moon are
at right angle to each other. At this time, the tidal phase is called as neap tide or
fortnightly tides (lowest low tide and lowest high tide).
The tidal waves have a complex pattern over the shelf. In response to the bathymetry
or physiography of the shelf and slope, tidal amplitude changes considerably. In the
section on the waves, it is learned that the passage of waves into shallow water enhances
their height. This principle also applies to the tides. Over the steeper shelf there is a
rapid amplification of tides.
We know that the length of the tidal wave is very large. We have also learned that tidal
waves oscillate over shelf. The width of a shelf plays an important role for the
amplification of tides. This process is very complex. However, one may remember
that it is because of a relation between the wave length of tides and the width of a shelf.
If the width is 1/4th of the wave length, the nodes of the tidal waves synchronize. This
process causes amplification of tides.
The tidal amplitude also enhances in shallow inland waters because of depth and width
factors. The propagation of tidal waves in the funnel shaped physiography is favourable
for inland amplification. It may be visualized that in a funnel shaped physiography
width of a water body reduces and the narrower region (towards land) has to
accommodate the same amount of water. The water level therefore increases with
inland propagation of tide. This phenomenon induces enormous amplification of tides.
You shall be surprised to note that in Gulf of Kachchh the tides are ~ 2.65 m at Okha.
231
Hydrology These amplify to 7.27 m at Navlakhi (located in the inner region of the Gulf). Due to
amplification tides, the inland water bodies become navigational during the flood tide.
Sailors around the world have used this knowledge to navigate the narrow inland
channels. The Hoogly region of the West Bengal is also one of such regions in the
India, which is navigational for several tens of km.
World over, tidal range in shallow regions shows a large spatiotemporal variability.
Based on the tidal range, the coastal regions have been divided into three broad
categories. The regions are termed as micro tidal (tidal range < than 2 m), mesotidal
(tidal amplitude 2-4 m) and macro tidal (> 4m). In India Gulf of Kachchh, the Gulf of
Khambhat and the Sunderbans are the macro tidal regions. Rest of the coast of the
India is mesotidal.
1. What is the period of diurnal tides?
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10.5 AIR-SEA EXCHANGE

Air-water interface is the layer in which ocean and atmosphere interact. It is of the
paramount importance because at this interface the transfer of energy, heat, vapour,
gases and ions takes place between atmosphere and ocean. The characteristics of this
interface determine the quantum of gaseous flux, evaporation rate, and sinking of heat
in the ocean water or its advection from the ocean into the atmosphere. Table 2
describes the basic properties of seawater and atmospheric air.
Table 10.2: Density and specific heat in the ocean and in the atmosphere
Parameter Sea water Air
Density 1025 kg/m
3
3
1.2 kg/m
3
3
Specific heat 4.2´10 J/(kg K) 1´10 J/(kg K)
10.5.1 Air Sea Exchange

The parameters that are important and contribute to air-sea exchange are solar radiation,
air temperature, sea surface temperature, variations in the scalar winds, humidity,
atmospheric pressure, surface salinity and clouds cover. The role of these parameters
on air-sea exchange is described below:
10.5.1.1 Solar Radiation Absorption, Reflection and Scattering
The amount of solar radiation received on the earth differs. It depends on duration and
the angle of rays of the sun. The solar constant (S0) is the amount of solar radiation
received at the top of the atmosphere (TOA). It is 1378 W/m2 (range 1359-1384 W/
m2). All of this energy does not reach the earth. The absorption, reflection and back
232
reflection are the processes that regulate the solar budget of the earth. It is given in the Ocean Currents
Figure 10.13. This Figure suggests that out of 100 units received at TOA, 30% radiation
is reflected by back scattering (by the molecules of the gases ((6%), by clouds (20%)
and by the surfaces of the earth (4%)). The amount of reflection is highly variable and
uncertain because the cloud cover is seasonal and highly dynamic. The characteristics
of the surface also determine reflection. The trees have much-reduced albedo than the
ocean. Glaciers have very high albedo.
Albedo is the
measure of
reflection from a
surface
Fig. 10.13: Insolation budget of the Earth.
The incoming solar radiation is also absorbed before it reaches the surface of the
earth. It has been estimated that 19% of the insolation is absorbed (16% by the green
house gases (CO2, methane and water vapour) and 3% by clouds). Therefore, only ~
51% of the total solar insolation received at the TOA reaches the earth. It may be
noted here that this amount is not uniform over the globe. The green house gases play
a vital role. We all know that the concentration of green house gases is increasing in the
atmosphere because of anthropogenic activities, and there is an enhanced absorption
of solar insolation in the atmosphere. Seasonal cloud cover also influences the amount
of solar insolation over a region. In India, there is an intense cloud cover during the
SW monsoon. It reduces the influx of solar radiation during June-September. Figure
10.14 provides quantum the energy of the different systems over globe that take part
in air-sea exchange processes.
Fig. 10.14: Energy in the different systems of the earth 233

Hydrology 10.5.2 Infrared Radiation: Emission, Reflection and Absorption
The quantum of infrared radiation emitted from the earth is also shown in Figure 13. It
may be noted that 21% of the incoming radiation is emitted back to outer space by the
earth. About 15% of this outgoing radiation is absorbed by the green house gases
again. Other emission from the surface of the earth is emanation of sensible (7%) and
latent heat (23%). The sensible heat is more in the areas that have a high temperature.
In the ocean, the regions with high sea surface temperature emit more sensible heat.
Latent heat is regulated by the evaporation of the seawater. When strong cold or
warm winds blow over the sea, these exchange latent heat between the ocean and the
atmosphere.
The upper layer 10.5.3 Turbulent Heat Transfer

of the ocean with Even though the sun rays (shorter waves) can penetrate down to 1000 m (general
higher and depth of euphotic zone is 100 m) in the ocean, turbulence on the earth surface can
uniform circulate the heat in the ocean. Turbulent transfer of kinetic energy between atmosphere
temperature is and ocean may be carried out by tangential components (stress) and by normal
called as mix components (or normal pressure). Turbulence produced in the sea water causes vertical
layer. and lateral advection of heat. This process creates vertical stratification in the sea and
enhances the storage of the heat in the deeper sub-surfaces of the ocean. Higher is the
turbulence more is the vertical mixing of water mass.
10.5.4 Evaporation
Evaporation of seawater also consumes solar energy and it enhances transfer of latent
heat into the ocean. The equatorial regions of the earth always receive sunlight with no
seasonality, and it heats the ocean. The amount of evaporation and latent heat flux into
the atmosphere is, therefore, maximum in the equatorial region. The trade winds, which
are warm over the equator, pick up an enormous amount of vapour from the sea at the
air-sea interface. The poles are cold and have colder winds and sea surface temperature.
The amount of evaporation is, therefore, insubstantial in the polar and sub-polar regions.
10.5.5 Precipitation
The vapour exchanged at the air-sea interface condenses and precipitates. Higher sea
surface temperature (SST) of Tropical Ocean induces high evaporation and
precipitation. Rising air parcel over the equator carry latent heat from the ocean into
the atmosphere. Rising air undergoes adiabatic cooling, which causes heavy rainfall or
release of latent heat in the atmosphere. In the Bay of Bengal, it is found that the higher
SST breeds to low pressure/cyclone. The cyclones transfer a vast amount of latent
heat from the ocean into the atmosphere. The cyclone releases latent heat through
precipitation over the continents.
10.5.6 Buoyancy Flux at Sea Surface

The seasonal and differential heating and cooling of the sea surface is very important in
redistribution of energy within the ocean and its advection into the atmosphere. Cooling
or heating of sea surface, regulates density and buoyancy of seawater. Cooling increases
density of sea water and denser water sinks to a depth of ocean. This process aids in
vertical stratification of the ocean that absorbs heat from the atmosphere. Buoyant
water, however, have to store more heat. The localized buoyancy of the sea, therefore,
234 enhances the supply of vapour to the atmosphere.
Another process that contributes to the buoyancy is a large supply of fresh water from Ocean Currents
the rivers. The river water (density 1.0 kg/l) is lighter compared to sea water (density
1.025 kg/l). The fresh water also has much-reduced salinity. Lighter river water floats
over the dense seawater. In the Bay of Bengal, a sizeable amount of freshwater is
discharged by several perennial rivers. This reduces salinity of the bay by 7‰. The
layer of freshwater floats over the dense seawater and inhibits upwelling of cold water.
The surface waters of the bay therefore have higher sea surface temperature that
generates higher vapor flux from the sea into the atmosphere.
10.5.7 Ocean Surface Wave Generation and Decay

The ocean waves are another player in air-sea exchange. The winds that generate the
waves also transfer the wind stress. As described in the earlier section, winds carry the
energy. The circular movement of water leads to downward advection of heat. You
have learned that the length of the wave determines the depth of this circular moment
(half of the wave length). It implies that larger waves induce deeper mixing. Vertical
mixing increases the depth of the mixed layer or storage space within the upper layers
of the ocean. Propagation of the waves also moves kinetic energy from a deeper
region to the shore. The decay of waves also releases an enormous amount of kinetic
energy. All these processes aid in higher air-sea interaction.
10.6 ION EXCHANGE

The solar energy regulates ion exchange between air and sea. The exchange of the
ions of H and O is the most prominent. Ion exchange also carries out fractionation of
isotopes. Vapour has a higher amount of lighter isotopes compared to the seawater.
Similarly, the vapour also contains fewer salts. These processes have selectively enriched
ocean in salts and heavier isotopes.
The breaking of the waves also helps the exchange of salts between ocean and
atmosphere in the form of aerosols. We have learned that breaking of the waves
creates white caps. These caps have many bubbles which rise to the surface. These
bubbles produce a large flux of aerosols, which are sprayed into air. Production of
aerosols has also been reported in the deep sea during the cyclones/depressions. High
waves spray seawater that carries particles from sea to atmosphere. These aerosols
act as a nucleus around which the water particles condense in the air column.
1. What is the role of waves on mixing of the ocean?
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10.7 GAS EXCHANGE AT SEA WATER INTERFACE

The transfer of gases between ocean and atmosphere takes place by the (i) difference 235
Hydrology in the concentration of the gases in air and in water and (ii) and their exchange rate (to
remove the disequilibrium in the concentration of the gases between these two
components). To understand the dissolution of gas in ocean, we should know the
concentration of gases in the atmosphere. It is given in Table 3.
Table 3: Gases in the Atmosphere
Gas Concentration by volume
Nitrogen 78.08%
Oxygen 20.95%
Argon 0.934%
CO 2 280+ ppm (currently it is 403 ppm)
Neon 18.18 ppm
Helium 5.24 ppm
CH4 2 ppm
N 2O 0.5 ppm
The air-sea gas exchange is also regulated by thermal diffusion and irreversible
thermodynamics. For sake of simplicity, we will learn the basic principles that regulate
the exchange of gases at the air-sea interface.
The dissolution of the gases in water depends on the partial pressure of a gas (as
regulated by the Bunsen Solubility Coefficient) as described in the following equation:
Aw= âA AA
Concentration of
CO2 has been Aw = Activity of a gas in the ocean water,
increasing in the
atmosphere post âA = Bunsen solubility coefficient,
1850. It is AA=Activity of the gas in the air
currently 403
ppm. From this equation it may be inferred that partial pressure of a gas in the atmosphere
and its concentration in the water shall be linearly related.
The gas that has a higher activity in the atmosphere (Table 3) will also have a higher
dissolution in seawater. The molecular diffusion of gas regulates the transfer of gases
from atmosphere into ocean.
Besides the partial pressure of the gas, the temperature of the water mass also determines
the solubility. Colder water has a higher dissolution of the gases. As the temperature of
seawater increases, it keeps a lesser amount of gases. In the global warming scenario,
the sea surface temperature is expected to increase. This will lead to a reduced
dissolution of gases. Some expert expects a massive degassing of the ocean because
of global warming. We must however remember that dissolution of gases in sea water
is also regulated by the salinity (because of interference of ionic strength with the
solute-solvent attraction).
10.8 OCEAN GENERAL CIRCULATION MODELS

Oceanic motions are governed by the fundamental conservation principles of mass,
momentum, and energy, and are represented mathematically in the form of partial
differential equations, called the Navier-Stokes equations, comprising continuity
equation, equations of motion, and thermodynamic energy equation. These non-linear
236
equations are so complex that general analytical solutions are difficult or rather impossible Ocean Currents
to obtain, and one relies on numerical techniques to solve these equations. A computer
code that is employed to solve these equations numerically is usually referred to as the
Ocean General Circulation Model (OGCM).
The practice of ocean modeling has been exploding in line with the advent of In mathematics,
computational technologies. Observational shortage also led to gain momentum in discretization
ocean modeling. Space-borne measurements have global coverage with a time sampling concerns the
of a few days but are restricted to near-surface oceanic processes. Ships and buoy process of
observations are usually small. In such situations, numerical models provide a useful, transferring
global perspective of the oceanic processes. continuous
The present-day OGCM computes the state of the ocean using numerical functions, models,
approximations of fully non-linear stratified primitive equations, which are basically the and equations into
Navier-Stokes equations with approximations. This involves of the equations in space discrete
and time. The discretization in space is performed over a numerical grid called the counterparts. This
model grid, whose size is called the model resolution. The resolution of a model depends process is usually
on the process studied. The global (for the World Ocean) models use typically ~100- carried out as a
km grid size; while regional (particularly for a region, for e.g., the Indian Ocean or the first step toward
Arabian Sea) models have ~25 km or less grid size. The model time step depends on making them
its spatial resolution to ensure the stability of the numerical solution and also on the suitable for
process under consideration. Despite a very high resolution, some small-scale processes numerical
such as the turbulence cannot be well resolved because of our inadequate knowledge evaluation and
about them and are hence represented in the model using parameterizations, which are implementation on
basically empirical formulations derived from observations or theoretical relations. digital computers.
Numerical integration of the model equations is performed using time-stepping schemes.
There are several options, but the choice is made taking into account of several
constraints: the processes studied, numerical stability, the order of accuracy and the
computer time. Most commonly used is the leapfrog scheme, which is a centered finite
difference method, having a second order truncation error.
There are several inputs to an OGCM. First, the model requires ocean bathymetry Bathymetric map
(depth data) to be prescribed. The bathymetry incorporates information on the land- shows distribution
ocean boundary and the ocean bottom topography. As with any partial differential of depth over an
equations, the solutions of ocean model equations are got by prescribing the initial and area.
boundary conditions. Initial conditions are prescribed at the beginning of the simulation
and are derived either from observations or other (global) model simulations. Initial
conditions are the initial values of the oceanic parameters and could be for any data
(temperature, salinity, etc.) on the model grid, with some fields may be initialized to
zero values (for example, initial surface elevation or velocity field).
The boundary conditions for an OGCM are composed of kinematic conditions on the
normal velocity component and flux constraints for the momentum and tracers
(temperature, salinity). At the land boundaries, the normal component of the velocity
is zero. The tangential component of the velocity is also set to zero (no-slip condition),
although sometimes free-slip (no stress) and partial–slip (stress proportional to slip)
conditions are used. At the ocean surface, the vertical component of the velocity is set
to zero, and the sea level is calculated from the surface pressure. Additional constraints
on the momentum and tracer may also be imposed at the ocean surface. Open boundary
conditions are used when the model domain has open ocean ends. Though there is no
equivocal way of formulating the open boundary conditions, they are often specified in
237
Hydrology terms of the inflow or outward wave propagation, restoration of tracers to their
climatological values, or damping of ocean waves within the neighborhood of the open
boundary (often called sponge layer).
Most critical aspect of ocean modeling is the input from external forcing. For example,
for a stand-alone ocean model, the state of the atmosphere provides forcing to the
upper layer of the ocean. This atmospheric forcing includes ocean surface winds, heat
fluxes (short and long wave radiation, air temperature, specific humidity, etc.), and
fresh-water fluxes (precipitation, river runoff). A model may spin up with the specified
initial conditions and forcing fields to reach a steady (equilibrium) state. Several thousand
years of the simulation may be necessary to reach a true equilibrium state. However, a
few years of spin up would suffice depending on the context or process studied.
Another important aspect of modeling is the validation. The steady state solutions of
OGCM are validated with the observations. The model parameters are tuned so as to
get the most realistic simulations of the oceanic variability. The OGCMs are useful
both for the process studies that help to understand the mechanisms and for ocean
forecasting. The forecasting the ocean state, however, requires forecasted fields as
input. The present-day ocean models can go beyond physics and include biological
or biogeochemical components, which are represented by equations involving biological
sources and sinks. As with physical variables, appropriate initial and boundary conditions
are applied to the equations that simulate the biogeochemical processes. The main
aspects of OGCM are summarized below in Figure 15.
Fig. 15: Schematic of model development.
10.9 LET US SUM UP

Ocean water is constantly in motion in response to solar insolation, gravity, and winds.
The water and energy in the ocean are transmitted through ocean currents and waves.
The tectonic disturbances or slumping on the floor of the ocean generate a tsunami.
238 This is a very destructive wave.
Waves carry wind energy from the deep regions of the ocean to the shore. The breaking Ocean Currents
of wave releases wave energy. The waves generate littoral currents. The littoral currents
carry suspended particulate matter along the shore. Supply of these sediments is
essential for the stability of a coastline.
Tides are enormous waves generated by celestial bodies. The moon is the principal
force that regulates tidal amplitude over the globe. The interplay of solar and lunar
forcing plays an important role on tidal cycles and on its amplitude.
Air-sea interaction is an exchange of energy and material between atmosphere and
sea. The heat transfer between ocean and atmosphere regulates the temperature of
the globe.
General circulation models (GCM) are simulations that help to understand of dynamics
of ocean.
10.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

1972
New York 1974
1993
6th Edition 1993
1994
of the Earth? Oceanography 8, 11-16 (1995). 239
Hydrology Harold V. Thurman: Essentials of Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 5th Edition
1996
1998
Terminal Questions
1. What are ocean currents?
2. What is a gyre?
3. In what direction the wave moves water
4. What is the temperature of eastern boundary currents in the northern hemisphere.
5. What is an air-sea interaction?
10.11 ANSWER OF CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Because of the influence of Coriolis Force, north - south flow of currents is deflected
to the right in the northern hemisphere. The deflection of currents is to the left in the
southern hemisphere. This process forms a gyre in the basins of the ocean.
2. It shall be poleward or to the south.
3. The upwelling brings a large amount of nutrients into the euphotic zone of the
ocean. Nutrients are a basic requirement for photosynthesis of the primary
producers.
4. These currents flow from the sub-polar region to the equator. The SST of these
waters is very low because of a poor supply of heat from the solar radiation.
These currents therefore carry cold water from the poles to the equator.
5. At 250 m.
6. Southern side.
7. 12 hours 25 minutes.
8. The circular movement of the surface water by waves carries heat into the deeper
layers of ocean. The wave length determines wave-induced mixing. The depth is
half of the wave length in deeper regions of ocean.
1. Lateral or vertical advection of seawater is known as ocean currents.
2. Gyre is a clockwise or anticlockwise basin scale current system driven by the
thermal gradient between the equator and the pole.
3. In circular motion (with no horizontal movement).
4. These are cold currents.
5. Exchange of energy, water and other substance between ocean and atmosphere is
known as air-sea interaction.
240
Hydrology
UNIT 11 HYDROLOGY
Structure
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Distribution of Water in the Crust
11.2.1 Surface Distribution
11.2.2 Subsurface Distribution
11.3 Hydrological Cycle
11.4 Genetic Types of Groundwater
11.5 Residence Time of Water
11.6 Types of Aquifers
11.7 Springs and their Tlassification
11.7.1 Classifications of Springs
11.7.1.1 Classification Based on Temperature:
11.7.1.2 Classification Based on Flow
11.7.1.3 Classification Vased on Geomorphologic Control
11.7.1.4 Classification Based on Source of Water
11.8 Let Us Sum Up

11.0 INTRODUCTION
Water is essential for life. Water exchange among different reservoirs of the earth is
known as hydrological cycle. The evaporation/transpiration of water into atmosphere
and its condensation are the most important processes which supply fresh water on
land. The storage of water in lakes, in the crust (as ground water) and in ice sheets is
the most important source of water that has sustained agriculture and other activities
vital for our survival.
The water in atmosphere has the shortest residence time. This reservoir has water in
all the forms, i.e., liquid, vapour and solid (ice). The water in the ocean has maximum
residence time.
Genetically, the water may be categories as exogenic and endogenic. The exogenic
water is contributed by an atmogenic source. Endogenic water is generated in deeper
layers by magmatogenic processes.
The aquifers are of two types. Confined aquifer is sandwiched between two impervious
beds. The unconfined aquifer has a permeable layer at the bottom.
Spring is a natural flow of water on the surface of the earth. There are several kinds of
springs. The deep springs have water of juvenile origin (contributed through
241
Hydrology magmatogenic processes). The shallow springs are fed from confined or unconfined
aquifers.
11.1 OBJECTIVE
After studying this unit, you will be able:
• explain the distribution of water in different reservoirs of the Earth;
• describe the hydrological cycle;
• discuss the genetic classification of ground water;
• explain the residence time of water in the crust; and
• describe the type of aquifers and springs.
11.2 DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN THE CRUST

Fresh water has Ocean stores ~ 96.5% of the globe. The evapotranspiration of the ocean (or enormous
1% salinity of water bodies) contributes vapour to the atmosphere. The condensation of vapour in
seawaters. the form of ice or rains supplies freshwater. The distribution of water on the globe is
shown schematically in the Figure 11.1. We may note it that out of 3.5% water present
on the land, only 2.5% is fresh water. Many of the large inland water bodies such as
the Caspian Sea (the largest land lake) or the Aral Sea are saline. Saline water comprises
0.9% of the water.
11.2.1 Surface Distribution
About 1.2% of This water is unevenly distributed over the globe. It is stored in rivers, atmosphere,
the total living animals, plants, swamps, marshes, soil moisture, lakes, ground ice and permafrost.
freshwater Glaciers and ice caps (at the poles and at mountains) are the major store house of
present on the fresh water (68.7%). The seasonal melting of these regulates runoff of most of the
globe occurs as major rivers of the world. A part of this water also preserves as ground water. Here,
surface water we shall remember that most of ground water is also fresh water, but it is not considered
(Fig. 11.1). as surface water.
Atmosphere is the Check Your Progress 1
only reservoir that
has all three Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
phases of water.
1. Which reservoir has maximum fresh water?
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242
Hydrology
Fig. 11.1: Surface water distribution in the of the earth
11.2.2 Subsurface Distribution

We remember that the formation of water on the earth has been associated with
degassing at crust and mantle. It is an ongoing process. The water has long history to
be stored in the sub-surfaces of the earth. It becomes relevant, therefore, to evaluate
mode of occurrence of water in deeper sub-surfaces of the crust.
Fig. 11.2: Characteristics of unsaturated and saturated zones in the crust
The term “ground water” refers to the water present in the crust in all the physical
states in the sedimentary as well as in massive crystallized rocks. It is not part of
surface water as it occurs in the subsurface. Ground water stores about 1.7% of total
water of the globe. About 30.1% of freshwater on the earth occurs as groundwater.
About 23.4 million cubic kilometres (km3) water is stored as ground water. There
exists no estimation of the amount of water present as juvenile or sedimentogenic
water (you will learn the meaning of this term in later part of this unit) and its advection
pathways in the deeper subsurface of the crust.
The subsurface occurrence of ground water has been divided into two subclasses (as
schematically shown in Fig. 11.2). The upper zone is known as the zone of aeration. In 243
Hydrology this zone, the voids are partially filled with water and air. Below this zone, the zone of
saturation is present. In this zone, all voids are filled with water.
As schematically shown in Figure 11.3, zone of aeration has vadose water. This zone
has three sub-sections: (i) soil water zone, (ii) intermediate water zone and (iii) capillary
zone. The water that is retained in the soil is known as soil water. The thickness of the
soil water varies and is regulated by vegetation cover and soil type. The root system
determines the amount of water in the soil. This water may again we categories as (i)
hydroscopic, (ii) capillary and (iii) gravitational water.
(i) Hydroscopic water is mostly contributed by its absorption from the air. This is
found in the form of a thin film on soil particles and is regulated by environmental
parameters. The temperature and relative humidity are the two parameters that
control absorption of this water.
(ii) Capillary water is held by surface tension in the region that has atmospheric
(hydraulic) pressure < 1 atom. This water forms a continuous film, and it can be
used by the biosphere.
(iii) The gravitational water is also found in the aerated zone that has hydraulic pressure
< 1 atom. This water is different as it is not retained by capillary and hygroscopic
forces. It can be drained from the soil under the force of gravity and is contributed
into the deeper layers of the soil.
Intermediate water in some horizon occurs below capillary water. The distinction of
this water is not clear.
In the saturation zone of the crust, water is retained under hydraulic pressure, and it
lies between capillary zone and impermeable layer. The hydraulic pressure is always
more than one atom here. The vertical extent of saturation zone is shown schematically
in Figure 11.3. Please note that if there is no impermeable layer above the saturation
zone (or there is no capillary zone), the saturation zone shall lie between the water
table (pressure one atom) and the impermeable rock. You shall also remember that the
hydraulic pressure in the saturation zone determines the position of the water table. If
we ignore the capillary attraction in the upper surface of the saturation zone, the level
of the water (water table) shall lie at the layer that has one atom hydraulic pressure.
Fig. 11.3: Occurrence of water in the subsurface of the crust
According to the conditions of their occurrence, the sub-surface waters can be called
244 as free gravitational, solid state, vaporous, physically, or chemically bound, and in
super critical state. The free gravitational water is found in the pores, fractures, and in Hydrology
voids. We have learnt that this water percolates into the formation under pressure
gradient. It may be noted that any formation can be classified according to their ability
to store water. These may be called as water bearing, water permeable (loam sandy
clays) and water impermeable (compact rock with no fracture or clays). The details
characteristics of these shall be described under section entitled classification of the
aquifer in the later part of this unit.
We should consider all the waters as gravitational that flow in an aquifer by the gravity
in liquid form. We will learn later in this unit that water may exist in the vapour form
because of high temperature in many formations. The deep burial may also increase
the ambient temperature. In high temperature, the ground water gets evaporated and
exists in the vapour form. There are several other kinds of water that exist below the
impermeable layer of the aquifer in the crust. You will learn about these in details in the
classification of genetic water.
1. What is the role of atmospheric pressure in preserving water in the crust?
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11.3 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The exchange of water among different reservoirs of the globe is known as hydrological
cycles. The components of hydrological reservoirs are: (i) oceans (or other enormous
water bodies on the land), (ii) atmosphere, (iii) ground water, and (iv) runoff from land
(as schematically shown in Fig. 11.4). The insolation is the prime force that drives the
hydrological cycle. Heat supplied by the Sun regulates the evaporation of water bodies.
Water vapour is contributed into atmosphere by wind. Because of adiabatic expansion
of gases, air masses cools by vertical advection into atmosphere. This process leads
to condensation of water vapour around aerosols (formation of clouds). Water is
carried around the globe by winds till it gets precipitated as snow or rain. The
atmosphere is the only reservoir in
Fig. 11.4: Hydrological cycle 245

Hydrology which water is present as water, ice and vapour. The water that falls as snow preserves
as glaciers and ice caps. Rainwater is stored in lakes, swamps, rivers, etc. Rainwater
also gets stored in the sub-surfaces as ground water.
Runoff is the mechanism that transports the stored water on the land (from the area of
precipitation or storages) into ocean or large water bodies. Have you noticed that a
river carries water contributed from the rains, glaciers, or lakes for a long distance,
and it finally reaches the sea? During the cycle, some amount of runoff gets evaporated
in the tropical region and that contributes vapour to the atmosphere. The cyclic journey
of the water among the ocean - atmosphere - land - ocean or large inland water
bodies (like the Aral or the Caspian Sea) is known as water cycle or hydrological
cycle (shown schematically in Fig. 4).
Let us now examine quantitatively the amount of water exchanged among different
reservoirs. It has been estimated that about 1.2 m surface of the ocean gets evaporated
every year. This looks a small amount. However, we know that total volume of water
in the ocean is 3.61 x 1014 m2. If we want to know the amount of water vapour
contributed by the ocean, we shall multiply total water in the ocean (this figure) with
1.2 m (amount evaporated from the ocean). The total amount of evaporation then will
be 4.33x.1014 m3. If this entire water is precipitated over India, we shall have severe
flooding. You may recall the events of cloud burst or a heavy rainfall over Mumbai or
Chennai. We do not get the recurrence of such rainfall because most of the water
evaporated from the ocean precipitates over the ocean only.
We shall now introduce the concept of residence time to evaluate lock-in period of
water in different reservoirs of the earth. For a reservoir, the residence time of water is
determined as:
Students may note here that because of large annual scale variability, the residence
time of water is only an approximation.
The residence time of water in the ocean has been found to be 37,000 years. Despite
a considerable evaporation, the residence time of water in the ocean is large due to the
amount of water locked in the ocean.
The loss of water from the ocean is not uniform. It is related to the prevailing temperature
of the ocean. It also depends on the total precipitation over the oceans.
Local weather regulate the evaporation - precipitation (E/P) regime (Fig. 5). In the
tropics, evaporation is more compared to the polar regions. Tropical regions are
therefore more conducive for contributing vapour to the atmosphere (Fig. 5). The
polar regions have a low temperature, and therefore, these regions contribute less
vapour compared to the equatorial region through evaporation.
The evaporation-precipitation regime of the ocean is not the same. Even though the
solar flux regulates the evaporation regime, the properties of water are much different
because of thermal characteristics of sea waters. Seawater has a higher specific heat
than freshwater. Unlike the land, therefore, the ocean has capacity to store more solar
energy. Ocean also cools itself by advecting heat into atmosphere. Formation of cyclone
246 in the ocean is one such phenomenon. This process contributes an enormous amount
of vapour into the atmosphere in a very short time. A warm wind blowing over sea also Hydrology
absorbs heat from ocean. The sea surface temperature and wind characteristics are
therefore two important parameters that regulate the magnitude of evaporation from
the oceans.
We are aware that equatorial region of the ocean is always warmer than the polar El nino and La
regions. The Western Equatorial Region of the Pacific Ocean remains very warm nina events are
round the year and it is known as “Warm Pool” the hottest region of the world ocean. periodic events
This is the region which has El Nino phenomena. It contributes a large amount of during which there
vapour to the atmosphere and regulates the intensity of the Asian Summer Monsoon. are abnormal sea
Even though the atmosphere receives a large amount of water in the form of vapour, surface changes in
the residence time of water in the atmosphere is short (about ten days). The global the eastern region
wind system plays a vital role on supply and removal of water from the atmosphere. of the Equatorial
For example, trade winds (West-East Winds) are cool at the place of their origin. Pacific Ocean.
However, these winds become warmer as these moves towards the equator. Over
the ocean, these warm winds induce a large evaporation and the amount of vapour
in these winds increases during their journey from the tropics to the equator. At the
equator, the rapid rise of these moisture laden winds induces high precipitation.
Depending on the exchange cycle of vapour/precipitation between regions are classified Adiabatic cooling
as dominant evaporation or precipitation regions. Latitudinal variations in the E/P regime takes place when
are shown in (Fig. 11.5). We have learned earlier that the equatorial regions have high a parcel of air
evaporation. We also know that these regions have a high precipitation because of moves upward in
adiabatic cooling. This makes the equatorial region as a dominant precipitation over the atmosphere.
evaporation (P>>E) regime. A rapid adiabatic cooling (influence of orography) and
movement of cold air fronts in sub-polar regions induce a rapid condensation,
precipitation, or snowfall. Can you identify the specific region of India that has high
precipitation? Cherrapunji has extremely high precipitation
Fig. 11.5: Latitudinal variations in precipitation and evaporation regime

in the northern hemisphere.
247
Hydrology due to influence of the orography. Catastrophic cloud burst is another example of a
localised large condensation and precipitation of water associated with a sudden vertical
movement of air in the mountainous terrains like the Himalayas. The residence time of
water is much reduced in these regions.
In the earlier section, the amount of water in the surface of the earth has been described.
You find that the biosphere also has a considerable amount of (0.9%) water. We may
note here it that 10% vapours of the globe are contributed by the biosphere into the
atmosphere (through transpiration).
1. What is orography? Which region of India experiences orographic
precipitation?
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Water in rivers, ice caps, lakes and groundwater have variable residence time. The
residence time in the river depends on the rains in the catchment area. The geology of
the river basin is also important. For example, high gradient rivers have much shorter
residence time. Large rivers have longer residence time. The rivers with a thick alluvial
deposit also have an entrapment of water in their flood plains. These parameters are,
therefore, very important in governing the residence time of water in the fluvial cycle.
You find that the ice caps of the earth keep exorbitant amount of fresh water (~
69.4%). Have you wondered the reason thereof? It is because the polar regions have
a very low temperature. The input of solar energy to evaporate the water is also much
less in these regions. The prevalent P>>E is conducive for the growth of ice caps. The
water in the polar ice caps, therefore, has a large residence time. The Antarctica is
having the maximum amount of water in the form of ice and is known as the continent
of ice. The location of this region (at the South Pole) and the existence of circumpolar
current around the Antarctica have made it the most favourable region to store water
in the form of ice. The residence time of water in the Antarctica is several million years.
The water stored in the earth crust (ground water) also has a large residence time in
confined aquifers (in the porous rock sandwiched between impervious rock formations).
A favourable geological setting with a persistent recharge of a confined aquifer is
conducive for prolonged storage. The aquifers located very deep in the crust and the
thick aquifers in a vast alluvial plain (such as the Indo-Gangetic plain) also have a very
high residence time of ground water.
248
1. In which region the fresh water has maximum residence time. Hydrology
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11.4 GENETIC TYPES OF GROUNDWATER

We know that the degassing of the earth during an early stage of cooling has released
water and created hydrosphere over the globe. Some hydrologists such as V.I.
Vernadiski, therefore, thought water is a mineral. The genetic classification of the water
was therefore introduced in the hydrology. G.M. Karmenshki, was the first hydrologist
to classify the waters in 1947. The genetic classification of the waters is schematically
shown in Figure 6.
You may be reminded that there are two major sources of water in the crust. We
know that the downward percolation of water (precipitated from the atmosphere) is a
major source of groundwater. We are less familiar that some amount of water is also
contributed because of deep-seated processes that release water at the crust - mental
boundary (upward movement). This water is known as juvenile water. The amount of
water contributed from this process is tiny. However, the earth is receiving water from
this process for past several billions of years. It may be noted here that almost all the
water present on the globe has originated because of this process.
Based on these movements, genetic classification of water has been made. The terms The juvenile water
exogenic and endogenic are coined to classify these waters. The exogenic water forms due to
percolates downward into the crust. The endogenic water, however, percolates cooling of magma
upwards. at Mantle -crust
Based upon the mode of formation, waters have also been divided into four major boundary. The
types: age of oldest
sedimentary rocks
1. Infiltrogenic is 3.9 billion
years. The
2. Sedimentogenic
contribution of
3. Metamorphogenic juvenile water is
therefore the main
4. Magmatogenic source of all the
We may note here it that types 1 and 2 falls under exogenic category, while types 3 waters in all the
and 4 fall under endogenic category (Fig. 11.6). reservoirs.
1. Infiltrogenic Water
This water is mostly contributed from precipitation. You may see in Figure 4 that
percolating water moves down into the crust. Perhaps one is not aware that some
water also moves in the form of vapour within. Based on the processes of its contribution,
water in the crust is subdivided into (i) percolating and (ii) condensing waters (Fig.
11.6). The condensation of the vapour in the crust produces condensing water.
Depending upon the source, mode of its supply and salinity, infiltrogenic water may
also be subdivided into (i) meteoric and (ii) thalassogenic waters. Given below is a
detailed description of each of these waters: 249
Hydrology
Fig. 11.6: Genetic Classification of water.
(i) Meteoric Water

The origin of meteoric water is in the atmosphere. This water has an exceedingly small
salinity. This category of water is further divided into (i) atmogenic (ii) biogenic,
(iii) lithogenic and (iv) evaporation.
1. The atmogenic water is comprised the water that has been contributed from the
atmosphere. The rains and snow are the major contributors to this category of
water.
2. When the water of atmogenic origin falls on plants or on soil (that has humus) its
composition undergoes a change. This water is termed as biogenic water.
3. The filtration of water below the zone of aeration and a drastic modification in the
chemical composition of the water (addition of a considerable amount of carbonic
acid) is called the lithogenic stage. This water in the areas of high rainfall dissolves
most of the carbonate rocks and increases the fracture type permeability. In low
rainfall, an exorbitant amount of carbonate increases the salt content of soil.
4. The evaporation stage of the infiltrogenic water is common mostly in the arid
region, and this helps in increasing the salt contents in the water. Evaporation of
water from the pores of the soil has also been linked with the acidification of soil.
(ii) Thalassogenic water
The water of marine origin that is buried in the sediments during sedimentation is
known as thalassogenic water and it is saline. Some hydrologists classify this as
sedimentogenic water.
2. Sedimentogenic Water
Beside percolation, the water into crust is contributed when it is buried along with
sediments in a basin or in a lake. Hydrologists also call this fossil or relict water.
Based on the age of the formation and that of the waters in it, we can classify these as
250 syngenetic or epigenetic. In the syngenetic scenario, the age of water and the formation
is similar (or there is no contribution of water into the sedimentary formation after its Hydrology
formation). This water may be found in noticeably young sedimentary basins. The
epigenetic water is different. Here, the age of water is not like that of the formation. A
sizeable amount of this water is contributed subsequently through lateral or vertical
migration.
It is well known that the water moves laterally and vertically within the crust. Frequently,
there is a contribution of water into a formation because of exogenic or endogenic
processes. It may, therefore, be born in the mind that no water in the deep regions of
the crust is pure infiltrogenic or sedimentogenic. Most of the time, you will find a mixer
of these waters in a formation.
3. Metamorphogenic Waters
Metamorphogenic waters are deep-seated in the earth’s crust. The students of the The vertical
geology know that the burial of sediments in the crust produces metamorphic rocks. movement of
During the metamorphosism the rocks undergo chemical changes. An example is given water in the form
here. Please refer to the following reaction of conversion of kaolinite into sillimanite of vapour in a
that releases water during metamorphosis: volcanic plume is
Al4Si4O10(OH)8 = Al2O3 3SiO2+SiO2+H2O the most recent
juvenile water.
It therefore links this water is therefore with the burial of sedimentary formations. It
also forms because of hydration of the minerals in contact with lava. Crystallization of
minerals also liberates water into the crust. Dehydration of several minerals releases
water. An example may be found in gypsum-bearing rocks that releases water during
dehydration.
4. Magmatogenic Water
It is generated in the deeper region of the crust, It also forms in the mantle by the
Batholiths are a
interaction of the molecules of hydrogen and oxygen. This process has created the first
large
molecule of water on the earth. As showed by its name, it is linked to magma. The
emplacement of
source of such water may, therefore, be plutonic or because of volcanic process. The
magma in the
major source of this water is cooling of the earth and associated solidification of molten
deeper region of
magma. The water released during a volcanic eruption (as water vapour) also falls into
crust. During their
this category. Based on the preceding discussion, we may summarise that the
cooling, these
magmatogenic water may again be categorized as volcanic or transmagmatic (release
produce a large
of water in the crust or mantle).
amount of juvenile
Check Your Progress 5 water.

1. What is the major source of water on the crust? Where shall one find recent
juvenile water on the earth?
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251
Hydrology
11.5 RESIDENCE TIME OF WATER
We have learnt that the age of water in any reservoir is regulated by the amount of
water/rate of supply or loss. It is therefore important for us to understand the magnitude
of water in each of the subsurface reservoirs. We have discussed the residence time of
water in atmosphere, ice caps, glaciers, rivers and in the ocean. We shall now discuss
the residence time of infiltrogenic water in the crust. At first glance, we find that the soil
water has least residence time (2 weeks to one year). Because capillary water is used
by the plants, its residence time is also noticeably short.
The residence time of atmogenic water in the lakes is highly variable. The lakes in the
tropical regions (E>>P) fill during the rainy season and get dried up during the summer.
The residence time of most of the medium size lakes is therefore very small. The lakes
of the higher altitude have twin sources of water supply. Water into these lakes is
contributed from the melting of ice and from the rains. The E<<P regime also helps a
longer storage of water in these lakes. Therefore, compared to the tropical region, the
lakes of the polar region have a much higher residence time of water.
We have already discussed the residence time of water in river systems. Even though
the amount of rainfall is one of the contributing factors in the fluvial flux, it is not controlling
parameter for the residence time of water in the rivers. For example, the SW continental
margin of India has orographic rains (rain fall 2800-4800 mm/year); the residence
time of water in the rivers of this region is very small. It is because most of the rivers in
this region are short and these have an extremely high gradient. We must understand
that that the residence time of water in the river is regulated by the magnitude of input,
E/P regime, the gradient of the basin, and the length of a river.
The ground water has highly variable residence time. Hydrologist estimates the residence
time by T1 (T1 is the average time elapsed between recharge and discharge of ground
water).The residence time of water in a reservoir is regulated by its recharge rate, size,
depth and withdrawal from it (time varies from 2 weeks to several hundred of kilo
years). In a large aquifer, water has much longer residence time, while for small isolated
aquifers (located close to the surface) it is short. Residence time is 25-230 kilo years
for deep-seated aquifers. The ground water in thick alluvial formation (in the catchment
area of the large rivers) also has a large residence time. You have already learned that
associated with continuous recharge over a prolonged period, alluvial aquifers have a
large residence time.
Sedimentogenic water also has a very large residence time. The water preserved in
the sedimentary rocks is tied in the minerals. Its extraction, therefore, takes place
during the process of metamorphism. The residence time of most of the sedimentogenic
waters is very large.
The residence time of metamorphogenic water is large. This water is liberated during
the metamorphic transformation, and it is generally buried in the deeper region of the
crust. Such water may be syngenetic or epigenetic depending upon the characteristics
of the formation.
The residence time of magmatogenic water appears to be very large as these are
mostly produced at the mantle and crust boundary. In the spreading centres of the
earth, the mantle plume carrying this water descends. This water may be syngenetic or
252 epigenetic. Syngenetic water has a large residence time.
Water carried in the volcanic eruptions is also magmatogenic waters. These waters, Hydrology
however, have smaller residence time compared to deep seated water because of
their rapid advection rate in the curst.
1. What is the residence time of magmatogenic water?
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11.6 TYPES OF AQUIFERS

An aquifer is defined as an underground water-bearing formation. In the crust, four
types of aquifers are found.
1. Unconfined
2. Perched
3. Confined
4. Leaky
Even though there are four types of aquifers, we may classify these into two classes.
These are described below:
1. Unconfined Aquifer
As the name of this aquifer implies, this aquifer does not have any confining layer over The pressure
it and it is exposed to the atmosphere. The upper surface of this aquifer is a water head is important
table. The other synonym of this aquifer is phreatic aquifer (Fig. 11.7). parameters for
2. Perched aquifer is a special aquifer. It occurs within an unconfined aquifer. It is a hydrologist. It is
lens shaped aquifer that has an impervious layer at its bottom. The layer separates the pressure
perch aquifer and the porous media of mother unconfined aquifer (Fig. 11.7). It may gradient that
be made clear here, that even though this aquifer is within a porous medium, the regulates the
perches aquifer is an independent aquifer. water movement
in an aquifer.
2. Confined aquifer
This aquifer is also called pressure aquifer. The water in this aquifer is mainly contained
by the hydraulic pressure (because of the overburden of rocks). When these are
drilled, the water rises to the surface without pumping. Piezometric or potentiometric
surface (an imaginary level above the confined aquifer to which water can rise in a
pipe) is a most important boundary in the confined aquifer (Fig. 11.7). We know that
some wells overflow. This is because the potentiometric surface in the confined aquifer
is above the land surface. If this surface lies below the land, the water will not come to
the surface and one needs to put a well to exploit the water in such cases. In the
desert, the surface flow of water is an oasis is an example. The schematic diagram of
a confined aquifer is given in Figure 11.7. 253
Hydrology 3. Leaky Aquifer
This aquifer is a confined aquifer, but the bottom layer is not fully impervious. The
secondary structure may cause some movement of water out of it. The leaky aquifer
are important for deep burial of water into crust.
Fig. 11.7: Types of aquifers
We shall now described some terms that are related with aquifer:
A) AQUITARD
An aquitard has a considerable amount of water in a poorly permeable media. The
meagre permeability of aquitard does not prevent lateral or vertical movement of water
from this bed, though the flow rates are slow. One may consider these as leaky aquifers.
These do not yield suitable amount of water, but their storage capacity is good. The
sandy-clayey aquifers are an example of this type.
B) ACQUIFUGE
This type contains high porosity that can keep considerable water. The yield of this
formation is negligible because of poor hydraulic conductivity. Clay layers fall in this
category.
C) ACQUICLUDE
This is a formation that neither contains nor yields any water. Solid granite rocks with
no fracture belong to this type.
254
Check Your Progress 7 Hydrology

1. What kinds of aquifers are found in the alluvial plain of a river?
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11.7 SPRINGS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

Spring is a natural formation in which water from the deeper subsurface flows on the When the water
surface of the earth creating a visible flow. The basic principle that governs this flow is of spring has high
the position of hydraulic head or pressure head in a confined aquifer and the elevation amount of
of land surface. For the formation of a spring, the water head shall lie above the land. minerals or gases,
The springs also form above the level of the unconfined aquifer if the water table it is considered as
intersects the ground. One must remember the water supplied by the capillary action is mineralized.
not spring. For being classified as spring, the water flow on the surface shall be regulated
by the pressures within an aquifer.
Artisan springs are formed due to pressure within a confined aquifer. They are also
called arising or ascending springs. The water in the spring may be deep-seated water
or shallow water. The shallow water is largely contributed by precipitation. Deep-
seated water has a complex origin, and it may be either magmatic or sedimentogenic.
11.7.1 Classifications of Springs

Springs have been classified based on discharge; the character of the hydraulic head
creating the discharge; geologic and geomorphologic structure controlling the discharge;
water quality and temperature. Their broad classification based upon these parameters
are given below:
11.7.1.1 The Classification Based on Temperature
Based on temperature springs have been divided into (i) warm spring and (ii) hot
spring. Warm spring has an average water temperature of 370 C in the cold climate but
the temperature of the warm spring shall be higher than that of ambient atmospheric
temperature. The classification of warm spring is therefore related to the prevailing
climate of a region. The temperature of hot water spring is more. Boiling Springs are
the spring in which the water temperature is close to a boiling temperature of water.
These springs are also called thermal springs. Cool springs have a very cold
temperature of water.
The temperature of the water in the spring may be because of several reasons. The
sandy bottom is one reason. When the water is extracted from these, the sand is agitated,
and it appears as boiled. Bubbling Spring (also called a boiling spring) are associated
with the emission of gas or vapour in the water. Bubbling also takes place when the
spring has a well define opening under considerable pressure. Geysers are hot springs
that emit stream and hot water. Normally their vents are in the pool of water. New
Zealand, Yellowstone Park, and Iceland are the most famous locations of geysers. 255
Hydrology 11.7.1.2 Classification Based on Flow
The springs may also be classified based on discharge. The spring that flows throughout
the year is called perennial. Intermittent or temporary springs are active during a specific
season. The springs flow reduces/stop during the warm season in the arid climate.
Periodic spring flows at full length for a specific period. The discharge/recharge of a
confined aquifer is a regulating mechanism of periodic springs.
Ebbing and flowing springs occur along the seashore. It is because of the density
difference between sea and fresh water in an aquifer. During the flood tide, sea water
prevents the seaward flow of freshwater. This increases pressure in an aquifer and
sustains higher water flow. During the ebb tide, the water level falls (reduction in the
pressure of aquifer), and the flow of spring reduces.
11.7.1.3 Classification Based on Geomorphologic Control
This classification is based on geomorphological features. It is classified as (i)
mound of basin springs:
(i) The mound and knoll spring are the geomorphological sub type of springs. In
the arid climate, we find spring at the top of the mound that has been built by the
wind.
(ii) Pool springs are large deep, and a basin like structures that have water filling.
11.7.1.4 Classification Based on Source of Water
(A) SPRING BECAUSE OF DEEP SEATED WATER
The water in these springs rises through the fracture developed in the crust, and these
fissures reach the surface of the earth. These springs are perennial, and their flow does
not vary. Depending upon their relation to the magmatic or tectonic processes, these
may be subdivided into (i) volcanic springs and (ii) fissure springs:
Volcanic springs are associated with present or past volcanic activities. The water of
these springs may be juvenile water (or the infiltrogenic water) that has encounter hot
volcanic material.
Fissure springs lie along the well-known tectonic lines that have many fractures. Faulting
is the major process that forms these springs (Fig. 11.8).
256 Fig. 11.8: Springs formed due to deep-seated water.

(B) SHALLOW WATER SPRING Hydrology
These springs are supported by the meteoritic water sustained by the hydrostatic head
of an aquifer. The source of these waters, therefore, occurs at a shallower depth. We
may classify these springs into four classes:
(i) Spring in porous rocks,
(ii) Spring in porous rock overlying the impervious rock
(iii) Spring in porous rock between impervious rocks
(iv) Spring in impervious rock
(i) SPRING IN THE POROUS MEDIA
1. The spring in the porous rock are formed when the water table reaches, or it is Intermontane
above the ground. In these springs gravity is regulating force. These have a gentle valley is a Basin,
flow. Most of the seeps fall in this category. We may subdivide these springs into that lies between
following four subclasses: mountain ranges
(a) Dimple springs are found at the depressions in a hill. The surface here dips steeper and it is partly
that the water table and springs are at the intercepts. filled with
alluvium.
(b) Valley spring forms due to an abrupt change in the slope between the edge of
flood plain and the bounding valley. The valley formation reduces the surface at
the location of the spring in such a manner that it reaches to the level of water
table.
(c) Channel spring is a depression in flood plain because of channel deepening process
and includes all side channels, abandoned channels, oxbow lakes, etc. Their
formation is regulated by the channel migration.
Fig. 11.9: Spring in the porous media.
(d) Border springs are formed when there is a change in the gradient of the central flat A cuesta is a hill
and alluvial slope (Fig. 11.9). Ground water in this type of spring is brought to the or ridge with a
surface by the change in the slope of upper surface of land. gentle slope on
one side, and a
(ii) SPRING IN POROUS ROCK OVERLYING IMPERVIOUS ROCKS steep slope on the
When a porous rock overlies the impervious bed, the water of porous rock migrates other.
to surface under gravity. Such springs are called contact spring. Based on the attitude
and surface at the contact (bedding), we can divide these into three general types: The
horizontal, the incline, and irregular. 257
Hydrology Horizontal impervious media is found in the horizontal springs. Three subclasses
exist in this category.
(a) GRAVITY SPRINGS
Over impervious bed, the porous material exists in the form of a mound. Water
moves here by gravity (along the contact line of porous and impervious bed.
Fig. 11.10: Spring in the porous media that has an impervious layer below.
(b) HARDPAN SPRING

These springs have a small underlying impervious bed that forces water to rise by
gravity in the porous media above the impervious bed. This applies to most of the
perched aquifers that occur well above the normal water table of a large porous
media. These are the spring that form by the rise of water in the perched water bodies
(Fig. 11.10.)
Fig. 11.11: Spring in the porous media underlain by a impervious rock.
(c) MESA SPRINGS

In mesa spring, the overlying material is hard, but it is porous, and it contains water.
This formation is shown in Figure 11.11. As water percolates down, it moves along the
line of contact between two formations.
In the incline category, the impervious bed has an incline angle. The water in the porous
media is above this inclined surface. Because of gravity, water migrates along the
incline surface and seeps at the contact of both the media at low side. Alike the horizontal,
the springs may be called as gravity spring, cuesta spring (named after the topographic
feature) and hardpan springs (like a perched aquifer found with a horizontal bed)
(iii) SPRING IN POROUS ROCK BETWEEN IMPERVIOUS ROCKS
258 These springs are also sustained by the porous media that lies between two impervious
layers. The essential condition in such aquifer is a specific structure or shape of the Hydrology
pervious bed. The water in these springs is contributed because of hydraulic pressure,
and most of these springs are artesian. We may divide the springs in such cases into
four classes (a) dip spring, (b) siphon artesian spring, (c) un-bedded artesian spring
and (d) fracture artesian springs.
(a) The artesian dip spring is found in the formation in which the pervious bed dips in
such a manner that the upper end of the media receives water (recharge of aquifer)
to sustain spring in the lower end. Sedimentary layered rocks and intertrappean
bed in the lava are the most suitable rock types of this kind of springs.
(b) In the folded structures, siphon artesian springs are located. As schematically shown
the porous media here is an inverted siphon, which gets recharged from the flanks.
The spring occurs on the low side of the structure (Fig. 11.12).
(c) Unbedded artesian springs are in the formations that have irregular bedding. The
mass of a porous medium in this structure is so located that it receives recharge at
the top end of the media and it sustains spring that is located on the lower side of
the unconsolidated deposits.
(d) In the fracture artesian springs, the porous media is located between the impervious
media, and it may not have sufficient dip to
Fig. 11.12: The spring in the porous media embedded in impervious rocks.
generate a gradient within the aquifer. However, the impervious rocks overlying the
porous media are fractured, and water flows/seeps through them. The pressure of Extrusion of lava is
water in these aquifers also helps further widening of the fractures. a process in which
the lava moves out
(iv) SPRING IN IMPERVIOUS ROCKS
due to an
Impervious layers are not watertight in genuine sense. The rocks may have secondary impervious upper
permeability or may have pore space of capillary or smaller size. In normal conditions, layer of lava that
the water flow under hydrostatic pressure is absent or insignificant in these rocks, and cools down rather
this situation cannot sustain a spring. However, the movement of water takes place if rapidly compared
the openings are vertical or horizontal. These are classified into (i) tubular and (ii) to the lava in the
fracture springs. subsurface.
(i) Tubular springs are a vertical spring in which water is supplied by vertical movement.
This group is further subdivided into three types.
259
Hydrology (a) Solution springs are in a region where the aquifer is expanded by the dissolution of
rocks by the circulating water. A favourable formation is needed for such springs.
Limestone, calcareous, sandstone, and salts are good formations to sustain this
type of springs (Fig. 11.13).
Fig. 11.13: Solution spring in the impervious rocks
(b) Lave tubular spring are in a volcanic formation where the caverns and tunnels are
formed through the process of igneous intrusion. Rapid cooling of lava at the
surface helps extrusion of lava that forms tube-like features which sustains the
flow of water.
(c) Fracture springs emerge from sheet-like or plate-like features. These occur in
joints, bedding plains, faults, columnar joints, etc. The intensity of water in these
springs is determined by the quantum of fractures. Fractured rocks have extremely
high potential.
1. Where does one expect the occurrence of gravity spring?
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11.8 LET US SUM UP

Most of the water on the earth is saline. Ocean and enormous water bodies (that are
saline) contain over 96% water. During hydrological cycle, water from the ocean or
land bodies moves into the atmosphere. Condensation, precipitation and snow fall
from the atmosphere are the major sources of fresh water on the earth.
E/P regime determines the accumulation of water in different regions of the Earth.
Equator and poles have P>>E regime. The tropics have E>>P regime. The evaporation
in tropics and at the equator is the principal source of water into the atmosphere. Most
of the fresh water on the surface of the earth is stored as ice sheets and glaciers. This
water is like bank deposits of the earth. The earth gets water from the icesheets/
260 glaciers during an increase in the global temperature.
Genetic classification of water is complex. We classify waters based on their source. Hydrology
Water is also classified as infiltrogenic, sedimentogenic, metamorphogenic and
magmatogenic. Each one of these is contributed from a specific source.
The aquifers are of two types. The aquifers in the porous formations are known as
unconfined aquifer. The aquifers that are in a porous media sandwiched in the impervious
rocks are confined aquifers. The confined aquifers are the source of artisan wells.
The springs are found in various formations. The source of the water in the springs
may be shallow and deep. We classify the springs based on their temperature, flow,
topography, etc.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Which reservoir has maximum amount of water
2. What is a hydrological cycle?
3. In which reservoir of the earth the residence time of water is minimum?
4. What is the genetic classification of water?
5. What is a confined aquifer?
6. What are geysers?

READINGS
1972
New York 1974
1993
6th Edition 1993 261
Hydrology Tom Garrison: Oceanography, an Invitation to Marine Sciences. Wadsworth Publishing
1994
1996
1998
ANSWERS TO THE TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Ocean has the maximum amount of water.
2. Exchange of water among the different reservoirs of the earth is termed as
hydrological cycle.
3 In the atmosphere water has minimum residence time.
4. The classification of water based on its origin is the genetic classification of water.
5. The porous aquifer that is sandwiched between two impervious layers is known
as a confined aquifer.
6. Geysers are hot springs in which an eruption of water is episodic.

1. The ice caps and glaciers.
2. It determines the water table position in the unconfined aquifer and regulates the
upward movement of water.
3. Intense precipitation because of the sudden uplift of air parcels to a height along
the mountain is orography. In India, the SW continental margin and Meghalaya
experience orographic precipitation.
4. It is the polar region.
5. The magmatogenic processes are the main source of juvenile water. The volcanic
activities provide the recent juvenile water.
6. The residence time of magmatogenic water is highly variable. The water contributed
by the volcanogenic processes through volcanic eruption has tiny residence time.
The water that is entrapped in the deeper impervious formations of the crust has a
large residence time.
7. Unconfined and perched aquifers.
8. At the edge of a sand hill
262
Hydrogeology
UNIT 12 HYDROGEOLOGY
Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Geological control of Groundwater
12.2.1 Petrographic Control
12.2.2 Control of Porosity
12.2.3 Control of Permeability
12.2.4 Stratigraphic Control
12.3 Geomorphological Control
12.4 Lithological Control
12.5 Mode of Occurrence of Groundwater in Different Geological Terrains of India
12.5.1 The Archaen
12.5.2 Cuddapah Super Group
12.5.3 Vindhyan Super Group
12.5.4 Gondwana Super Group
12.5.5 Deccan Traps
12.6 The Tertiary Group (Age 65-1.64 Million Years)
12.7 Recent Super Group
12.8 Classification of Rocks with Reference to their Water-bearing Properties
12.8.1 Factors that Determine Water-bearing Capacity of Rocks
12.8.2 Water-bearing Capacity of Sedimentary, Metamorphic and Igneous Rocks
12.9 Darcy’s Law and Its Validity
12.9.1 Limitation of the Darcy Law
12.9.2 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity
12.10 Groundwater Tracers
12.11 Let Us Sum Up
12.0 INTRODUCTION
The occurrence of ground water in the crust is controlled by porosity, permeability,
fractures, the location of the porous formation, and thickness of the formation. Water-
bearing capacity of the rocks depends upon their porosity and permeability. In the
consolidated impervious rocks, the secondary structures enhance their water-bearing
capacity. The water-bearing capacity of cemented sedimentary rocks also reduces.
The Archean rocks in the India are not very good aquifers as they comprise crystalline
rocks. The Cuddapah formation also has crystalline rocks, and their water yield is
low. The Vindhyan formation comprises of sedimentary rocks and these have a large
variability in their water-bearing capacity. Gondwana has high water bearing capacity.
263
Hydrology The Deccan traps store water in the fractures and in the inter-trappean beds. The local
water yield is good from these rocks. The tertiary sediments have good water-bearing
properties. The maximum water in the country is stored in the recent formation. Alluvial
sediments in the flood plains of most of the enormous rivers are a good reservoir of
water.
The Darcy law described flow of water in a pervious medium. The hydraulic gradient
and the length of medium determine the magnitude of water flow in an aquifer. This law
can only be applied to the laminar flow. Sandy aquifer has a higher hydraulic conductivity
than a clay aquifer.
Ground water tracers are techniques used in hydrology to determine movement of
water in the crust.
12.1 OBJECTIVES
After learning this unit you will be able to:
• describe the geological control on the groundwater;
• explain the water-bearing properties of Indian formations;
• discuss water-bearing properties of rocks;
• define Darcy’s Principle, it’s limitation, Reynolds number;
• explain hydraulic conductivity; and
• discuss ground water tracer.
12.2 GEOLOGICAL CONTROL OF

GROUNDWATER
The water present in the earth’s subsurface is termed as ground water. Most of the
groundwater moves into deeper sub-surfaces by percolation of atmogenic water.
Geological control regulates occurrence, movement, and storage of groundwater in
any formation. The petrography, stratigraphy, geomorphology, lithology, and thickness
of the formations are the most important parameters that exert geological control. In
the following sections we shall learn the role of each of the above geological parameters
on the occurrence of ground water in the crust:
12.2.1 Petrographic Control

Petrography refers to the studies of texture and mineralogical properties of rocks. It
deals with grain size, sorting, texture, porosity, and permeability of a formation. You
will learn the control of each of these petrographic parameters on the water bearing
capacity in the following sections:
(a) Grain Size
The grain size of the rocks refers to size distribution of grains in a rock. It determines
the porosity and permeability, and it controls the water bearing capacity of a formation.
We may describe a geological sample as fine, medium, or coarse grained. The grain
264 size alone is not a significant factor because the compacted coarser grained rocks
such as granite may have similar hydrological parameters as that of basalt that has Hydrogeology
much finer grain size. For hydrological prospecting of the sedimentary formation, grain
size plays a vital role. It may therefore be borne in mind that the control of grain size
must be studied along with several other parameters.
(b) Control of Sorting
Sorting refers to variations between grain size. A well-sorted material has a much
smaller range of grain size or has a uniform grain size. A poorly sorted material is a
mixer of many sizes. The sorting of a formation controls: (i) capability to store water
and (ii) its migration in an aquifer. Mode of transport, energy conditions, long distance
travel in turbulence, higher gradient of terrain are some factors which determine the
sorting of sediments.
(c) Control of Texture
The texture of a sample refers to size and shape and their relationship. It controls
permeability and porosity of an aquifer. A detailed description or estimation of the
sorting and texture may be found in almost every book of petrology, and therefore it is
not provided here. In hydrology, we study the texture of rock formations to estimate
storage capacity and hydraulic yield.
12.2.2 Control of Porosity

The porosity is the amount of pore in a formation. Porosity is mathematically explained
as:
——— 1
where Vh is the volume of voids and Vt represents the total volume of a sample.
In hydrology, porosity is determined from the following equation:
Porosity = (ñ particle - ñ bulk material)/( ñ particle - ñ fluid ) ——— 2
ñ = density
If the void space is filled with air, for evaluation of the hydrological potential (using the
porosity) the following formulae are used by hydrologists:
——— 3
Where the ñs is the bulk density, and ñp is the density of the particle. For an estimation
of the porosity bulk density (ñs) is determined. The density of the particle is assumed
to be 2.65 g/cm3. The porosity is then estimated from the Equation 3.
Porosity varies between 0 and 1. In the geological formations, it has a very wide range
(0.01 and 0.50). Igneous and metamorphic rocks have an exceptionally low porosity
(0.01). Unconsolidated or loose material like clays and lignite has an extremely high
porosity (~0.50).
Estimation of porosity is very important for understanding the hydrological conductivity.
If one compares two sedimentary aquifers (having the similar texture and sorting), the
aquifer that has a higher porosity will have a better hydrological conductivity. We also
265
Hydrology remember that for smaller grain size aquifer, the porosity is more but such aquifer has
a poor hydraulic conductivity. It may be kept in mind that between two aquifers, the
one with coarser grain has more hydrological conductivity, though it has less porosity.
The application of porosity in the hydrology, therefore, is always made along with
grain size, sorting, and other textural parameters.
There are two kinds of porosity in a formation. The primary porosity is acquired
during the formation while secondary porosity comes into existence after acquiring the
original porosity. The fracturing or chemical leaching after the formation of rock is an
example of secondary porosity. Cementation reduces porosity in sedimentary rocks.
Fig. 12.1: Illustration of grain size and sorting in an aquifer
Based on the size of the pores, the porosity may be classified into macro, meso and
micro subclasses. The meso porosity has pores greater than 50 nm. Meso porosity
refers to the pore size of 2-50 nm. The micro porous material has a pore size of less
than 2 nm. The size of pores determines the flow mechanism.
12.2.3 Control of Permeability

Permeability is the ability of the formation to have lateral or vertical advection of water.
A formation with a rapid movement of flow has higher permeability. The permeability
is determined in Darcy laboratory experiments. The magnitude of movement of fluid in
a medium is a proportionality constant, and it is got from viscosity, pressure gradient,
fluid flow velocity in darcy (10-12 m2; named after H. Darcy). The experiment shall be
described under the section Darcy’s law and its validity.
Permeability is more relevant for the movement of water from the surface into subsurface
or within an aquifer. The alluvial aquifers have much better permeability than a compact
aquifer. We may keep it in mind that an aquifer having 20% porosity and one darcy
permeability has much reduced hydraulic connectivity than the one which has 15%
porosity and three Darcy permeability.
266
12.2.4 Stratigraphic Control Hydrogeology
The stratigraphic setting of a geological formation refers to the chronological sequencing

of its units. It documents the depositional environment during a given era. For example,
the Archean formations in India (aged > 2500 million years) comprise mostly of granitic
rocks. These rocks have an extremely poor permeability.
The significance of stratigraphic control can also be seen in tertiary deposits. The
lignite deposition is a characteristic of Gondwana land. These are found in all the
formations of Gondwana world over. In India, these lignite deposits are found to have
a high yield of groundwater.
Similarly, the Deccan Basalt of Cretaceous age is also of significance in the Indian
context. It is having an average thickness of multi-layers of lava of about 2000 m. The
rocks of Deccan trap formation have a very poor yield because these are fine-grained
volcanic rocks that have very poor permeability. Water in this formation, like granite,
stores in the intertrappean beds, or in the fracture zones.
Stratigraphic control is also very important for the location of paleochannels and
paleolakes. Identification of these features from the environment of deposition and the
energy of the system during an era is useful to identify favorable locations of water-
bearing formations. For examples, the late Pleistocene has witnessed lowering of sea
level for several hundred meters. This has advanced the mouth of the rivers towards
the ocean. The increase in the sea level during the Holocene era has also migrated to
sea level landward. The change in the sedimentary environment due to the landward
shift of sea level has impacted the sediment supply. This has to lead to filling of channels
of several of the coastal rivers. It has also controlled extinction or shift of channels of
several of coastal rivers which were very good source of the ground water in the
coastal region.
In the mountains, many lakes have dried up or buried under sediments because of
retreat or advance of glaciers in the Pleistocene. For identification of these features,
stratigraphic control of an area needs to be studied. Understanding of stratigraphic
control is, therefore, essential for the students of hydrology.
1. What is stratigraphic control?
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2. Which stratigraphic formation is expected to have the least water?
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Hydrology 12.2.5 Control of Structures
In geology, “structure” refers to depositional features of a formation developed because
of burial or due to the tectonic force applied on it after their formation. The structures
may be classified as primary or secondary. We will examine the control of these
structures on hydrology in the following sections:
(a) Contol of Primary Structures
These structures are embedded in a formation during its formation. The sedimentary
rocks, for example, have bedding plane which is a depositional boundary between
two layers. These boundaries are considered very favourable for the movement of
fluid. The lithogenic structures also play an important role in the water storage or its
yield. The authigenic chemical precipitation may occupy the inter-grain space in the
rock. This reduces the grain space and permeability of the sedimentary rocks.
(b) Control of Secondary Structures
Tectonic structures are bending or fracture of rocks because of stress or strain applied
to them after the formation of a litho-unit. It is quite common in tectonically active
zones. For example, on a converging zone (in which two plates are moving towards
each other), the compression is prominent. This can be seen in the Himalayas. The
Indian Plate is colliding with the Asian Plate. Because of northward compression,
there are several large-scale thrusts in the Himalayas. These thrusts are several hundred
km long and can be identified using a satellite image. A large-scale faulting and folding
is a very prominent feature of such regions in the Himalayas. The deep faulting and
folding of rocks in the Himalayas has led to migration of deep-seated water into the
upper surface. The occurrence of several hot water springs in the Himalayas is a
testimony of secondary control.
The tectonics is different over divergent plates. At a divergent boundary, transform
faults are common. These tensional features are generally found on the oceanic plate.
However, the volcanic flow at a divergent boundary may give rise to large deposition
of lava.
12.3 GEOMORPHOLOGICAL CONTROL

Understanding the Hills, lakes, rivers, sand dunes, etc., are a geomorphological feature of a region and
processes that these exert a large control over the groundwater. Geomorphological studies are therefore
have controlled required to identify the water-bearing landform. For example, identification of a buried
the origin and channel of a river or a lake is very vital to understand the recharge points of
evolution of the unconsolidated sediments.
landform is In the granitic or basaltic terrain, the geomorphological features such as depression in
termed as the landform, or gradient of the hills regulate the water supply and its storage. The
geomorphology. geomorphological features also provide clues on the source of surface water. For
example, the geomorphological studies provide a regional or local gradient of the
catchment area of a river. This process leads to migration of channel of a river, flooding
of floodplains, and accumulation of a lot of sediments in a basin.
The Himalayan region has high mountains. Some of these mountains have high
precipitation. The high gradient in the Himalayas channelizes the water in the rivers
268 along the tectonic features. Because of the high gradient in the hilly terrain, these rivers
also carry a lot of sediments in river water. During the monsoon when there is a sizeable Hydrogeology
amount of rainfall in the Himalayas, or during the melting of ice, the riverine flow is very
large. A high supply of water and sediments from the high altitude of Himalayas are
carried downhill. When this discharge reaches the plain, the river channel widens, and
it has lower gradient. This leads to a reduction in the velocity of the rivers. This reduction
leads to deposition of sediments in the plains. You will find a large deposition of sand
in almost all the river basin of India. We are all familiar that during the flood channel
width increases. When the volume of the water in the channel is more than its carrying
capacity, it overflows the channel and deposits the sediments in the flood plains. Such
deposition over the millions of years has built a large fluvial plain along most of the
Indian Rivers. The thickness of loose unconsolidated sediments in the Gangetic plain is
several km. These unconsolidated, poorly sorted sediments act as good aquifer and
have preserved an enormous quantity of water. The water yield from these reservoirs
has met the ever-increasing water demand of entire northern India.
From the above example, it is evident that the geomorphological setting of an area has
tremendous control over migration and storage of water in various landforms.
12.4 LITHOLOGICAL CONTROL

Lithology is a preliminary study of physical properties and mineralogy of the rocks in a Lithology of any
formation as seen in the hand specimen. For example, the occurrence of basalt in any rock is the study
stratigraphic sequence can be identified by its colour, texture, and broad composition. of the physical
Vertical variations in the lithology are recorded, and these are terms as litho logs. properties in a
Cores are drilled to obtain lithology of a formation. rock sample.
Following properties of the rocks contribute to interpret lithological control: These include
colour,
1. Rock Type composition, and
The first examination in lithology is to identify the rocks. There are three major types of texture.
rocks, i.e., sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic.
The sedimentary rocks may be either silici-clastic or carbonate. These may also be
classified based on their size as a conglomerate, gravel, sand, silt or clayey, etc. This
classification is especially useful to identify a suitable water bearing formation.
The igneous rocks may be plutonic or basaltic. Plutonic rocks are coarse grain rocks
that are formed deep in the crust. The volcanic rocks are fine to very fine grained. The
flood basaltic flows are very fine grained.
Metamorphic rocks are formed by the metamorphism of sedimentary or igneous rock.
Depending upon the depth of their formation, a rock may be slate, schist, and gneiss.
The rock type is very important for hydrological studies. We have learned that the
permeability and porosity are two parameters that determine the hydraulic characteristics
of an aquifer. We also know that permeability is low in granitic, basaltic, or metamorphic
rocks of higher order (gneiss). The mapping of the rocks that are averse to the water
storage is an essential tool for hydrological prospecting of an area.
2. Grain Size
We have already studied this under petrographic control. Your kind attention is however
drawn that in lithological studies this tool is used to classify a rock formation. From the 269
Hydrology lithological studies, a sedimentary rock may be quickly named as sandstone or mudstone
based on grain size. You have already learned that grain size these parameters are very
important to determine porosity and permeability of any formation or for hydraulic
conductivity.
3. Mineralogy
Preliminary identification of mineralogy is helpful for hydrological prospecting. For
sedimentary rocks, it is possible to identify dolomite or carbonate-bearing rocks using
dilute hydrochloric acid. Similarly, one can also identify metamorphic facies such as
slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss formation in the hand specimen. It is also possible to
identify felsic (light colour) rock rich in quartz and feldspar and mafic or ultramafic
rocks that have a low amount of quartz. Such information plays a very vital role in a
hydrological setting. For example, carbonate rocks are more prone to dissolution by
percolating water than the siliciclastic rocks. Similarly, the felsic rocks are more prone
to develop secondary permeability.
4. Colour
Colour of rock indicates the environment of deposition. In geology, we use the mussel
chart for such identification. It is a simple hand book that contains several samples of
colour. Each of the colour boxes has a specific number. The number is generally
recorded and used to decode the environment of deposition (reducing or oxidizing).
The environment of deposition also provides the intensity of weathering, specially the
chemical weathering. An intense chemical weathering regime normally is more prone
to dissolution and creation of voids.
5. Fabrics
The fabric is the plane along which the movement of fluid takes place. Understanding
fabrics of any formation is therefore useful for hydrological studies. In lithological studies,
the spatial and geometric configuration of elements is determined. For example, in any
sedimentary formation, the bedding is its fabric. In the igneous rock, the fabric
determines the flow. Planer or linear fabrics are characteristic of metamorphic rocks.
6. Texture
We have already studied this aspect under the petrography. This aspect is also covered
under lithology. Texture here provides sorting, grading, shape, and roundness of the
grains in a hand specimen. Usefulness of these parameters has already been described
in detail under section permeability and porosity.
7. Small-Scale Structures
Small scale structure such as ripple marks, cross bedding, mud-cracks; sole marks
are embedded in the sedimentary rocks during the process of their formation. These
marks are used to determine the environment in which the said rocks have deposited.
These provide a clue on the flow direction of river or presence of seashore. Such
information helps identification of geomorphic processes such as the direction of river
flow or shore processes. Small scale structures may not induce any control over the
water preservation or its yield, yet these contain information on the source and migration
of water within the formations.
270
8. Thickness Hydrogeology
The thickness of a formation is one of the important geological controls. The thickness
of the aquifer is directly related with a thickness of a formation. The thickness of a
geological formation signifies the magnitude and duration of the prevalence of
geomorphic or tectonic processes. For examples, the thickness of Deccan Basalt
determines the existence of an impervious layer over the curst in the Maharashtra and
Gujarat. Similarly, a large thickness of alluvial fan in the Indo-Gangetic plain (and the
quantity of water stored in it) is a testimony of the control of thickness on the hydrological
characteristics of a region.
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 word
3. What is the role of tectonics on change of hydrological properties of a formation?
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4. What will be the role of a fracture zone on ground water yield?
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5. Why do we have hot water spring in the Himalayas?
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12.5 MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER

IN DIFFERENT GEOLOGICAL TERRAINS OF
INDIA
Kindly refer to the geological map of India prepared by the Geological Survey of India The Archaen are
(Fig. 12.2). A better copy of this map may be got from the website of the Geological the oldest rocks.
Survey of India (http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/portal/page?_pageid=127,
529486&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL). To simplify the distribution of major
super groups in India, the geological map of India ((http://www.civilsdaily.com/blog/
the-geological-structure-of-india/) (Fig. 12.3) may also be got.
From the above maps, it is evident that there are seven major geological formations in
India. Given below is their geological
271
Hydrology
Fig. 12.2: Geological setting of India (as prepared by the Geological Survey of India).
Fig. 12.3: The spatial occurrence of seven major geological formations of India
characteristics and water bearing capacity. It may be, however, remembered here that
because these were deposited over a large geological span, each subunit of these
formations has vast variations in lithology, tectonic setting, and geomorphology. These
formations are regional and therefore have a spatial inconsistency in their water-bearing
characteristics. The evaluation of water-bearing properties of each formation presented
in this unit is therefore general. For region specific evaluation of water-bearing properties
of these seven groups, an elaborate consideration of local lithological and tectonic
parameters of each subunit is needed.
12.5.1 The Archaen

These rocks occur in South-India, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
272 Orissa, and all along the East Coast of India (as the Eastern-Ghats; Figs 12.2-3).
These are the oldest formations (age > 2500 million years) and mostly have metamorphic Hydrogeology
rocks such as gneiss, schist and granite. Being made of metamorphic rocks, Archean
rocks have an extremely poor water-bearing characteristic. The water in these formations
is normally found in the fracture zone. However, these formations have experienced
prolonged weathering. Such processes generate secondary permeability in these rocks.
The water in these formations is therefore found in fractures or in the depressions that
are filled with weathered material. As per the hydrological map of India (sourer Central
Ground Water Board; Fig. 12.4), these formations have a yield of 1-5 litre /sec in the
hilly terrain.
12.5.2 Cuddapah Super Group Arenaceous are

sedimentary
The Proterozoic rocks (age 1600 million years) are composed of shale and quartzite rocks made of
in the alternate layers. These are found in Cuddapah district in Andhra Pradesh, sandy material.
Vidharbha, South-Maharashtra, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan (Figs. 2-3).
The formation is composed of arenaceous and argillaceous sequence with igneous
intrusions. The Cuddapah Super Group has conglomerate - quartzite, carbonate, and
shale facies. The water-bearing capacity of these rocks is low. The conglomerate has
better prospect. The mode of water occurrence in the Quartzite, carbonate, and shale
facies is mostly in the fractures or dissolution pits or along the bedding plane. As per
the hydrological map of India, the water yield in this super group is 1-5 litre/sec. As the
formation has witnessed tectonic activities in the eastern Cuddapah basin, subunits of
this region may have stored more water in the fracture zone (water yield 10 litre/sec).
Secondary
permeability is
acquired by rocks
after their
deposition.
Fig. 12.4: The Hydrological map of India (Source: http://www.indiawaterportal.org/sites)
12.5.3 Vindhyan Super Group

The Vindhyan are unmetamorphosed sedimentary deposits of the shallow marine
environment of the Proterozoic time. This group has largest and thickest sedimentary
successions of the world and comprises of calcareous, arenaceous, and argillaceous
sediments. The Vindhyan are found in Son-valley, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh and in Telangana. These formations are intra cratonic and have thick
273
Hydrology sedimentary rocks. Sandstone, shale, and limestone are the major rocks of this super
group. The sandstone and limestone of this group have good water-bearing properties.
The mode of occurrence of water is along the bedding, dissolution pits, and fracture
zone. The shale formation, however, has poor water-bearing capacity. A large lithological
and geomorphological setting of this group makes it rather difficult to provide a
generalized estimation of water bearing properties of this group. It may, however, be
stated that in the hilly region these regions have good water storage. Please refer to
the hydrological map of CGWB for details (Fig. 12.4).
12.5.4 Gondwana Super Group

The Gondwana are developed in the peninsular region of India along the Damodar
and Son valley, in the upper Narmada, the Godavari valley and along the Mahanadi
valley. These are Pre-Cambrian rock though in some area these may fall in the Permian
and Triassic periods. These are shallow; elongated basin brought about by block
faulting. These sediments have been deposited in a trough, and they contain remains of
plants. The formation has sandstones, slates, and conglomerates. Coal or lignite bearing
sediments are common in Gondwana Super Group. The subunits of this super group
store a good amount of water in the secondary space generated because of chemical
or physical weathering. The coal-bearing strata have high porosity and store a
considerable amount of ground water. The water yield of these formations is highly
variable and is linked with the characters of lithology of a subunit.
12.5.5 Deccan Traps

The Deccan Traps are the largest volcanic features on Earth. These were deposited in
the post-Mesozoic era (~66 million years). These lava deposits are about 2,000 m
thick. The lava has multiple layers of solidified flood basalt. The water-bearing properties
of basaltic rocks are exceptionally low. However, the Deccan traps have deposited
intermittently and have several layers of sediments between the lava flows (intertrappean
beds). The intertrappean beds and fractured regions are a good reservoir of water in
the Deccan traps. The mode of occurrence of water in these rocks is storage in the
fracture zone or in the intertrappean beds. The water is also stored in the weathered
zone. Most of the Deccan trap in the Maharashtra lies in the regions that have very
high rainfall. These regions are known to store large meteoric water. The estimated
water yield is highly variable in the hilly terrain (1-25 litre/sec).
12.6 THE TERTIARY GROUP: (AGE 65-1.64

MILLION YEARS)
These formations are found in the NE of India and in the Himalayas. The marine
tertiary rocks of the NE and Shivalik group fall under this super group. One also finds
these formations in the costal belt of Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Gujarat (refer to
Figs 2-3). The tertiary rocks are formed after the breakup of Gondwana land and
collision of Indian Plate with Asian Plate. These deposits have marine sediments and
reworked sediments derived from the intense weathering of the Himalayas. These
deposits have high deformation. The porosity and permeability of the Shivalik formation
are extremely high. These deposits, therefore, have an exceedingly high water-bearing
properties. Water yield is found to 25-40 litre/sec as per the hydrological map prepared
by CGWB.
274
Hydrogeology
12.7 RECENT SUPER GROUP
These formations include Sutlej-Ganga-Brahmaputra plains and Karewa formations Recent super
of the Kashmir valley. Recent deposits are also found in the NE region of India and the group comprises
Gujarat. All the major rivers of the India also have recent deposits. These deposits of detritus that are
mostly comprise unconsolidated sediments reworked by the rivers. They have extremely deposited during
high porosity and sorting. Being in the catchment area of rivers, these formations have past 1.72 million
very high-water bearing capacity. The Indus (and its tributaries) and the Ganga and years
Brahmaputra Plains have very thick deposition of detritus. These have very high storage
of ground water in the form of unconfined or perched aquifer. The thickness of these
aquifers is also substantial. These deposits were found to have very high-water yield
> 40 litres/sec.
As mentioned earlier that Gujarat has a large deposition of recent sediments. These
are reworked by the rivers. However, barring the sediments in the floodplains of major
rivers such as Tapi and Narmada, Sabarmati, Aji, etc., most of the recent sediments
has much-reduced water yield. One may wonder the reason thereof. These sediments
are composed of a layer of clays and gypsum formed because of intense evaporation
in the arid climate of Gujarat. Clays have an extremely high porosity, but very poor
water yield. The layers of clay form an impermeable layer that inhibits deeper
percolation of water. The area, therefore, has several small perched aquifers. As a
result, the water-bearing capacity is much reduced.
6. Identify the super group that has a high-water bearing capacity
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
7. Why the recent formation of Gujarat has a low water bearing capacity?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
12.8 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS WITH Magmatic rocks

are formed by the
REFERENCE TO THEIR WATER-BEARING molten material. It
PROPERTIES is of intrusive or
eruptive type
The role of geology in the water storage in the crust has been studied in the earlier section.
It is well understood that the geology plays an important role in the precipitation of water, its
storage, movement and ultimately its supply back to water reservoirs. For hydrological
prospecting, besides a basic understanding of the geological control, it is also important to
understand the basic properties of medium (rocks or soil) that stores the water. 275
Hydrology 12.8.1 Factors that Determine Water-bearing Capacity of
Rocks
We have discussed the factors that regulated the water bearing capacity. We have
learned that the water-bearing properties of the rock primarily depend on two basic
parameters. The geological factors that influence porosity and permeability are therefore
useful and are described in details to explain their role in estimation of water bearing
capacity of a formation:
1. Process of Sedimentation
Sedimentation takes place by various morphodynamic agents. Sediments are liberated
through weathering. The liberation mechanism and the transportation of the material
regulate water-bearing characteristics of a formation. Water, gravity, and air are the
most important agents. The sediments deposited by air are very well sorted and have
high porosity. Pore space in the carbonated rocks is highly variable, and these rocks
have poor water-bearing capability. The chemically precipitated sedimentary rocks
also have poor water-bearing capacity. Water in these rocks stores in the dissolution
cavities. Carbonates are prone to have dissolution cavities.
2. Expansion of Gases
The lava and mud flows have gases. The escape of these gases causes the formation
of cavities by escaping bubbles. There rocks have low water bearing capacity in pumice
though it may have several connected voids.
3. Crystallization of Igneous Rock
The inter-crystalline space in the igneous rocks changes their water-bearing capacity. This
factor needs to be considered before assigning the water-bearing status to igneous rocks.
4. Mechanical Disruption
The mechanical forces on any rock may create the secondary structures that enhance
its water-bearing characteristics. It may be kept in mind that the classification of rocks
on lithological lines may not be accurate and it may need amendments depending upon
the tectonic feature of the region.
5. Chemical Action
A cemented
Dissolution by carbonic and organic acids increases space for water storage in an
conglomerate has
impervious medium. Most of the springs in carbonate rocks are because of the chemical
less water bearing
action of water.
capacity than that
of sandstone. 7. Cementation
Higher cementation reduces the water bearing capacity of the sedimentary rocks.
8. Sediment Compaction
Compaction of rock because of burial reduces the pore space, and it reduces water
bearing capacity.
9. Metamorphism
This process also reduced porosity and permeability. High temperature and pressure
276 reduce the water bearing capacity of rocks.
10. Weathering Hydrogeology
Weathering increase porosity. Physical weathering widens cracks and joints in a rock.
This increases secondary permeability, and it enhances water yield in the impervious
media.
Chemical weathering is also increasing water bearing capacity. The dissolution of
carbonate rocks by acid water induces dissolution pit and cavities and increases water
bearing capacity of impervious sedimentary rocks.
11. Biological Processes
Biological processes in the shallow region also influence the water bearing capacity of
the rocks. The roots of the plants create fractures in the rocks. The soil water is also
enhanced by the humus. The animal burrows also increase the water bearing capacity
of a formation.
12.8.2 Water-bearing Capacity of Sedimentary, Metamorphic

and Igneous Rocks
We have learned that the water-bearing properties of the rocks are inherited by their
mode of formation. We have also learned that there are three major rock groups. The
water-bearing capacity of each of these groups is described below:
1. Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary deposits are mostly porous if these are loose. The compacted sedimentary
Water bearing
rocks may retain its porosity to some extent. However, a compact cemented rock is
capacity of the
mostly impervious. The water-bearing capacity of cemented and indurated rocks is
sedimentary rocks
exceptionally low. Because most of the sedimentary rocks are impervious, and
depends on its
compactness is highly variable, it is not possible to estimate their generalized water-
grain size,
bearing capacity. It may be, however, borne in mind that water bearing capacity of each
porosity chemical
unit of sedimentary unconsolidated deposited depends upon grain size, porosity, and
precipitation
permeability. The compact rocks are mostly impervious. Permeability is the major factor
that determines the water yield of these formations. Grain size and other textural properties,
however, have minor effect. For instance, if the grain size of sandstone is coarse (and it
is well sorted), it has good storage capacity but an extremely poor yield. In fine-grained
sandstone, the water baring capacity is good, but the yield of water is very poor. Claystone
has very high porosity but is having very poor water yield (Table 12.1).
2. Igneous Rocks
It is well known that the magmatic rocks are compact. These rocks are impervious. Pyroclastic rocks
Therefore, granitic and basaltic rocks are classified as a poor source of water. However, are sedimentary
because of weathering and joints in these rocks, these rock types develop fractures deposits derived
and secondary structures. These processes enhance their water bearing capacity. from the volcanic
3. Metamorphic Rocks activities. These
rocks have high
The metamorphic rocks are derived mostly from sedimentary rocks. The characteristics water bearing
of these rocks are related to the parent rock material and metamorphism. In the early capacity.
stage of metamorphism, such as slate, the material is porous, though it may have very
little water bearing capacity. Schist and gneiss are much more complex and have poor
water-bearing capacity.
277
Hydrology A rough estimate of porosity, water bearing capacity and their estimated yield is given
in the Table 12.1
Table 12.1: Water-bearing capacity of unconsolidated sediments and rocks.
Material Porosity Water-bearing capacity Water yield
Gravel Coarse 38 High High
Gravel Medium 32 High High
Gravel Fine 34 High High
Sand (coarse) 39 Very high Very high
Sand (medium) 39 Very high Very High
Sand (fine) 43 Very high High
Silt 46 High - moderate Medium
Clay 42 high Very low
Sandstone 33 Moderate - Low Low
Fine-grained
Sand stone 37 Moderate Moderate
Medium grained
Limestone 30 Moderate Low-moderate
Dolomite 28 Moderate Moderate
Dune Sand 45 Very high Very high
Peat 95 Very high Very high
Shale 6 Low Very low
Schist 38 low low
Siltstone 35 low low
Claystone 43 Very low Very low
Basalt 17 Low Moderate
Gabbroweathered 43 low Low
Granite 45 Low Low
8. What is the porosity of clays and claystone?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
9. Why water yield of clays and claystone is low?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
Viscosity is the
property of a fluid .....................................................................................................................
to resist the flow
over a surface. 12.9 DARCY’S LAW AND ITS VALIDITY
278 Originally, Darcy formulated this law to estimate the pressure loss due to viscosity.
The definition of various types of viscosity (absolute, dynamic, and kinematic) may be Hydrogeology
found in any of the mathematical books.
Darcy’s low helps hydrologists to estimate water flow in a porous medium. This law
states that for one-dimensional water flow in saturated media, flow is proportional
to head loss and inversely proportional to the length of the media. Please note here
that for this estimation, a porous sand media was used in a horizontal position.
The Darcy law states that Äp (the pressure loss) in any flow (Q) is proportional to
the length L of media by the following relation:
Äp = ë (L / A) (ñ v2 / 2) (1)
where
Äp = pressure loss (units P; please note this is a unit of pressure)
ë = Darcy-Weisbach friction coefficient
L= length of material (duct or pipe in this experiment) expressed in meters (m)
v = velocity (m/s) measured as volumetric volume flow (Q)/unit cross section
A = hydraulic diameter expressed in meters (m)
ñ = density (kg/m3).
Fig. 12.5: Schematic explanation of the terms used in Darcy’s law.
For laminar flow, the equation may be written as:
Where
µ = dynamic viscosity
Q= volumetric flow rate (m3/s) and it is equal to area (A) multiply by velocity (v)
The terminology used in the equations are shown in Fig. 12.5.
12.9.1 Limitation of the Darcy Law

As clear from the above equation, it is clear that the stipulation of the formulation of the
law of Darcy is for a specific condition. We know that the equation has been derived 279
Hydrology for the laminar flow. One must, therefore, remember that the equation of Darcy is valid
only for fully developed, steady state and incompressible flow. It may be borne in the
mind that the equation is not valid in the transient or turbulent flow.
Because the equation of Darcy applies to the laminar flow, we shall also learn to
determine the Reynolds Number, which is used to determine the nature of flow.
Reynolds number for our understanding is a proportionality coefficient, and it is derived
from the following relation:
Re = (ñ u2) / (ì u / L)
=ñuL/ì
=uL/í
where
Re = Reynolds Number (non-dimensional)
ñ = density (kg/m3)
u = velocity based on the actual cross section area of the duct or pipe (m/s)
ì = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)
L = characteristic length (m)
í = ì / ñ = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
The estimated value of the Reynolds Number for the laminar flow is Re < 2300. The
flow is deemed transient - when it is 2300 < Re < 4000. The flow become turbulent if
Re is > 4000
We have stated at the beginning of this section that the law of Darcy is applicable only
for saturated medium. We have learned that the pressure gradient in an important
parameter in the above equation. For estimation of hydraulic gradient, pressure
component in a submerged stratum is derived by:
H=Hp+ Hh
where Hp is the pressure head because of submergence. It has a value of 0 at the
surface of water table, and it increases with the depth.
Hg is the gravitational head which is a vertical position of point above the reference
point
It must be borne in mind that in practice laminar flow exists only for viscous fluids like
crude oil, fuel oil, and oils. The application of Darcy law is therefore valid for small pipes
or grain diameter with a very small velocity for one-dimension flow. It must also be kept
in mind that these flows are regulated by the viscosity, even though the velocity is regulated
by kinematic viscosity (viscosity/density). The applicability of the Darcy’s law to estimate
Q in an aquifer, therefore, loses relevance in a flow that has exceptionally large velocity.
12.9.2 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity (K) of any system describes its efficiency to transmit water
through the pore spaces of a formation when it is subjected to a hydraulic gradient. In
280
a simple language, it is the ability with which the pores of a saturated media permit Hydrogeology
water movement. It is a ratio of velocity to the hydraulic gradient within a porous
medium. If you examine the formulation of Darcy, you can infer that hydraulic
conductivity (K) is a proportionality constant that defines a liner relation between J
(water flow magnitude) and slope of the line or hydraulic gradient. If the density and
viscosity is a constant, we can derive following equation:
K=J/i
where
where Q is water flow, and A is the area of cross-section

i= hydraulic gradient within an area.
We may derive hydraulic potential by the following relation:
Where net change in water potential between point a and b (See Fig. 12.5). I is
the distance between the point a-b (or L in Fig. 12.5)
K for our purpose may be expressed on a volume basis and it has units of m/s
Fig. 12.6: Schematic depiction of estimation of hydraulic conductivities in aquifers.
It may be borne in the mind that flux represents the quantity of water moving though a
porous saturated medium and it shall be proportionate to the hydraulic gradient. What
is the significance of such observation?
Let us examine two aquifers with different lithology. One aquifer has sandy material
while other has clayey material. It is presumed that the hydraulic gradient is same for
both the aquifers. However, the water yield is more in the sandy media than in the clay
media because of hydraulic conductivity because of higher discharge (Q) in the sandy
medium.
From this example, you must have understood that the hydraulic conductivity is
proportionality constant between flux and hydraulic gradient in a unidirectional flow
(Fig. 12.6). K determines the ability of soil to transmit water under a given hydraulic 281
Hydrology gradient. In hydrology, K for different media such as sand, silt, and clay has been
estimated.
We may conclude it that hydraulic conductivity is a useful tool to estimate flux of water
from an aquifer.
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 word
10. What are the limitations of Darcy’s law?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
12.10 GROUNDWATER TRACERS

We have learned that ground water moves horizontally and vertically. It is very important
for the hydrologist to estimate dispersion, direction, and rate of ground water flow.
The ground water tracers are employed to understand and test the movement of water
within or inter-aquifer. It is expected that a tracer shall be readily available, be capable
of determining quantitatively the movement of water, safe, and shall not react with the
natural water. Some studies also must determine the age of water to recognize the
source and water dynamics in a basin.
In the modern era, several industrial dyes are available that are used as ground water
tracers. Sodium fluorescein is one such dye is in use for quite some time. The
improvement in the measurement of isotopes has increased use of natural isotopes as
groundwater tracers. CO60, Rb86, H3, C14 isotopes are used to determine age and
migration of groundwater in the crust. The study of isotopic concentration is used as a
fingerprint of specific water, and it provides source and migration pathways of a water
body. Such studies have also been useful to determine depletion rate of groundwater
in an aquifer. The age of water can also be determined by this tool.
Application of isotopic tools is a branch and it needs a special knowledge of advance
chemistry. For further details on the use of isotopic tracers, students are advised to
refer to a textbook of isotope chemistry. It is also advised that students shall familiarise
themselves with dedicated instruments such as mass ratio spectrometers that are used
to measure isotopic variations.
12.11 LET US SUM UP

The occurrence of ground water in the crust is controlled by several factors such as
porosity, permeability, fracture, the location of the porous formation, and thickness of
the formation.
The older Archean formations (mostly in the peninsular India) rocks are crystalline and
these are impervious. However, physical, and chemical weathering has developed a
secondary permeability in these rocks.
282
The water-bearing capacity of the rocks depends upon their porosity and permeability. Hydrogeology
In the consolidated impervious rocks, the secondary structures enhance their water-
bearing capacity. The water-bearing capacity of cemented sedimentary rocks also
reduces.
Most of the formations of India have poor water-bearing capacity. Vindhyan and
Tertiary rocks have better water bearing capacity than the Cuddapah and Archaeans.
The water-bearing capacity of tertiary rocks is good. The recent sediments have
exceptionally good water-bearing capacity.
From the low of Darcy, one can estimate the hydraulic head in an aquifer. However,
such studies are valid only for laminar flow. Sandy aquifer has a higher hydraulic
conductivity than the clayey aquifer.
Ground water tracers are used to estimate magnitude and path of water movement in
crust.
Terminal Questions:
1. What is the geological control on water in the crust?
2. What is the role of porosity on ground water yield?
3. Which formation of India has the best water-bearing capacity?
4. What are the rock Archaean rocks? What is their water-bearing capacity?
5. What are limitations of Darcy’s law?
6. What is hydraulic conductivity?

READINGS
M. Grant Gross. 1972. Oceanography, a view of the earth. Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs.
New York 1974
283
Hydrology Harold V. Thurman: Essentials of Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 4th Edition
1993
6th Edition 1993
1994
1996
1998

1. Stratigraphy determines the litho units of a formation. These are vital for identification
of water bearing formation depending on the prevailing depositional environment
in a stratigraphic era. For example, if we know that the formation is Gondwana,
one may expect lignite bearing rocks that have high porosity and permeability.
2. Igneous Archean formations (without fractures) are expected to have poor water-
bearing properties.
3. The tectonic setting of a region determines the occurrence of folds, faults, and
fractures in the formations. These structures determine its water-bearing capacity.
4. Fracture zone enhances ground water storage and its yield. Many fracture springs
are found in the fracture zone.
6. RECENT
5. Because the magmatogenic processes contribute deep water into the surface in a
tectonically active zone. The magmatogenic waters are hot.
7. In Gujarat, the alluvial sediments have an exorbitant amount of clays. Clays have
extremely high permeability but bad water yield.
8. The porosity of clays and claystone is extremely high (42 and 43 respectively).
9. These have very poor water permeability, and hence they have a poor yield.
10. It is applicable only for laminar flow.
Answers to terminal questions
1. Geological control comprehends the role of geological parameters on water-bearing
properties of the rocks.
284
2. Porosity is the amount of pore space in a rock. Though it plays a vital role in the Hydrogeology
water bearing capacity, the permeability is more relevant for water yield of an
aquifer.
3. Recent alluvial formations have the highest water bearing capacity.
4. Granitic rocks are most abundant in Archean formations. They have poor water-
bearing capacity.
5. It is applicable only in laminar flow with a small velocity of water discharge. A flow
that has Reynolds number > 2300 is not covered under this law.
5. Hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer is its efficiency to transmit water through the
pore spaces of a formation.
285
Block 4
NATURAL HAZARDS
Prof. Shachi Shah
Prof. B. Rupini
New Delhi
SOS, IGNOU
Prof. Nidhi Rai
Dr. Pulak Das
BHU
SOITS, IGNOU
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. Jaswant Sokhi
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. Neera Kapoor
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. P.K. Biswas
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. S.K.Yadav
SOITS, IGNOU

Unit 13 Unit 14 & 15
Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, Dr. Gurmeet Kaur,
Environmental Studies, School of Department of Geology,
Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Panjab University, Chandigarh
Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open
University, New Delhi Unit 16
Dr. Rachna Bhateria
Prof. R. Baskar,
Department of Environmental Science,
Department of Environmental Science
and Engineering, Guru Jambheshwar Maharishi Dayanand University,
University of Science and Technology, Rohtak, Haryana
Hisar, Haryana
COURSE COORDINATOR
CONTENT EDITOR
FORMAT EDITOR
PRINT PRODUCTION
March, 2021
ISBN: 978-93-90773-70-1
New Delhi-20
Welcome to the M.Sc. Environmental Science programme of IGNOU. This is the last
block in the course on Earth processes and it deals with natural and man-made hazards.
The block has four units, and the details of each unit is explained in the following
paragraphs.
Unit 13 introduces the learners to the concepts in hazard and disaster. The unit explains
the various types and impacts of hazards and disasters with specific reference to human
life and socio-economic impacts. The unit also discusses on the concepts of risk and
vulnerability, the factors of vulnerability, and human response to hazards.
Unit 14 deals with the various geological hazards. Detailed explanations on earthquake,
tsunami, volcanic activity, and mass-movement have been given. The unit also discusses
on the impacts of these hazards on life, property, and the environment with several
case studies.
Unit 15 deals with the various hydrological hazards. The unit explains the geographical
distribution and occurrence of cyclones, floods, droughts, tornadoes, and hurricanes
with suitable diagrams. The unit also discusses the impacts of these hazards on people,
property, and the environment with some case studies.
Unit 16 deals with man-made hazards. This is the last unit in this block. The unit
introduces the learners to the various types of anthropogenic hazards such as famine
and drought, epidemics, wildfires, armed conflicts, chemical and biological hazards,
civil strife. The unit finally discusses the impacts of these hazards on people, property,
and the environment with some important national and international case studies.
on the various natural hazards and man-made hazards.
Natural Hazards
292
Introduction to
UNIT 13 INTRODUCTION TO NATURAL HAZARDS Natural Hazards
Structure
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Hazards and Disaster
13.4 Dimensions of Hazard
13.5 Hazards Classification
13.6 Types of Natural Hazards
13.7 Effects and Service Functions of Natural Hazards
13.7.1 Effects of Natural Hazards
13.7.2 Natural Service Functions of Natural Hazards
13.8 Impacts of Hazards
13.8.1 Social Impacts
13.8.2 Economic Impacts
13.8.3 Environmental Impacts
13.9 Concept of Risk and Vulnerability
13.9.1 Factors of Vulnerability
13.9.2 Impact Assessment
13.9.3 Human Intervention and Response to Hazards
13.10 International Strategies
13.10.1 The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
13.11 Let Us Sum Up
13.12 Keywords
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Weoften hear about the natural hazards such as earthquakes, floods, drought,
avalanches, landslides, rockfalls or cyclonesthrough the newspapers, internet, and
television. This results in loss of human lives and property.These natural hazards are
caused due to earth processes which can be both exogenic and endogenic. These
natural hazards can be devastating, and it may take years for resettlement and bouncing
back to normalcy. Urbanization and improper city planning add to the socio-economic
impacts of hazards. You have learnt about the various earth processes have been
operating on this planet throughout the geological history in the previous blocks and
units. The earth processes such as earthquakes, tsunamis or volcanic eruptions are
hazardous only because they negatively affect mankind. Our planet is an open systemwith
respect to energy, but it is a closed system as far as materials are considered. The
earth is a dynamic, evolving system with complex interactions betweeninternal and
external processes. The movement of plates, earthquakes, volcanic activities are caused
due to internal energy of the earth. Floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, and droughts are
caused due to external energy source. The source of energy for the internal processes 293
is essentially radioactivity, whereas the source of energy for the external processes is
Natural Hazards the Sun. The different natural hazards have different characteristics regarding their
influence and impact. In nature, one hazard can also trigger the advent of another
hazard or be simultaneously associated with one another.
Indonesia experienced the worst earthquakes in the year 2018. The Lombok earthquake
with a magnitude of 7 in the Richter scale that struck the island in August 2018 killed
approximately 460 people and damaged the buildings and structures. Understanding
the science of natural hazards forms the basis for preparedness and management. It is
essentially important to to learn about the earth processes because the present day
processes provide clue in understanding and interpreting the processes that could
have occurred in the past i.e. applying the Hutton principle of
Uniformitarismmeaning”Present is the key to the past”.
The International Early Warning Programme by the United Nations(2000) addressed
the causes of vulnerability. “This aimed for building disaster-resilient communities by
creating awareness on disaster risk reduction as an integral component of sustainable
development. The broad goal of the programme was to reduce human, economic and
environmental loss due to natural hazards (UN/ISDR, 2000)”.
13.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• define the term natural hazards and disasters;
• classify and explain the various types of natural hazards, their effects; and
• describe the concept of risk and vulnerability.
13.3 HAZARDS AND DISASTER

Now we will read about hazards and disaster.
Earth processes are natural processes occur within the lithosphere, hydrosphere or
atmosphere. Geologic processes become hazardous only when they affect life or
property Geohazards are caused due to short-term or long-term natural geological
processes. For example, tsunamis affect local and regional socio-economy to great
extent.
Hazard: A hazard can be defined as a potential threat to humans and their welfare and
risk as the probability of hazard occurrence.Hazard can also be defined as: “Those
elements of the physical environment, harmful to man and caused by forces
extraneous to him” (Burton et al. 1978). A hazard has the potential to cause harm to
life, property and the environment.
Disaster: A disaster occurs when an extreme event exceeds a community’s ability to
cope with it.
Hazard Event: It is the physical parameter of the hazard event that causes harm.
Geological events are calledhazards when they cause loss and affect society and/or
the environment adversely. A physical event, such as a volcanic eruption, is called a
natural phenomenon but not a natural hazard when it does not cause loss of life and
property. A natural phenomenon that occurs in a populated area and affects life and
294 property is a hazardous event.
Natural Disaster:It is defined as a hazardous event that is caused due to the natural Introduction to
forces of the earth and causes large numbers of fatalities and/or property damage. In Natural Hazards
2016 in Italy an earthquake occurred in a densely populated area where almost 200
people died.
The long-term preparations for hazard mitigation are frequently complex and often
involve investment of substantial resources. The relationship between humans and
geologic processes is characterized by risk. The risk from natural hazards cannot be
eliminated, though in some cases it can be understood in such a way that we can
minimize the hazard to humans, and the risk. In order toacheive this we must understand
the processes that operate, and the energy required. This would help us in developing
an appropriate plan of action for minimizing the risk. Although, humans can sometimes
influence natural disasters that are considered as technological disasters, such as oil
and toxic material spills, pollution, massive auto mobile or train wrecks, air plane
crashes, and human induced explosions. As an individual we can take some steps to
prevent the extent of hazard damage. For example in regions that experience heavy
rainfall and flooding, the houses can be constructed on an elevated ground. In such
cases basement rooms should be avoided. Similarly in the areas prone to tornadoes
winds that can travel 250 to 300 miles per hour, shutters can be put for the windows
and doors for protection and prevent them from breaking or shattering.
13.4 DIMENSIONS OF HAZARD

Let us now learn about the dimension of hazards in the following paragraphs.
The impact of a disastrous event is in part a function of its magnitude (amount of
energy released) and frequency (recurrence interval). It is also influenced by many
other factors like climate, geology, vegetation, population and land use. Magnitude is
an important parameterfor analyzing hazards as event exceeding some defined level
of magnitude are considered hazardous. The extent of damage or loss is governed by
the following:
• Magnitude of the hazard
• Frequency of hazard or recurrence
The magnitude concept is the assertion that there is generally an inverse relationship
between the magnitude of an event and its frequency. In other words, the larger the
flood, the less frequently the flood occurs.
Return Period: It refers to the repeat interval or recurrence period ofa natural hazard
such as floods, windstorms or tornadoes. Most of the hazards have return periods on a
human time-scale. The inverse of probability expressed in percentages gives the estimated
period between events of a similar size or intensity. The frequency is measured in terms
of a hazard’s recurrence interval. This is calculated statistically to measure the return
period of a hazard of a given magnitude and intensity. For example, a recurrence interval
of 100 years for a flood suggests that in any year, a flood of that magnitude has a 1%
chance of occurring. Such extreme events have very low frequencies but very high
magnitudes in terms of destructive capacity. This means that an event considered being a
hundred year flood would cause severe damage compared to a five-year flood.
People can be affected, either directly or indirectly, by a hazardous event. Direct
effects include those who have suffered injury, illness or other health effects. They also 295
Natural Hazards include the people who were evacuated, displaced, relocated or have suffered direct
damage to their livelihoods, economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental
assets. Indirect effects include those who suffered consequences over time, due to
disruption or changes in economy, critical infrastructure, basic services, social, health
and psychological consequences.
13.5 HAZARDS CLASSIFICATION

You have understood the concept of hazard, disaster and the dimensions of hazards.
Let us learn about the various types of hazards in this section.
Hazards can be classified into different types.
i. Natural hazards such as earthquakes or floods arise from purely natural processes
on the earth.
ii. Quasi-natural hazards such as smog or desertification arise through the interaction
of natural processes and human activities.
iii. Technological (or man-made) hazards such as the toxicity of pesticides to fauna,
accidental release of chemicals or radiation from a nuclear plant arise directly due
to human activities.
Natural hazards are basically natural processes, which may become hazardous when
people live or work in the areas affected by these processes. Technological hazards
occur as a result ofdirect human interaction with the environment. They include faulty
operation of valves or systems in the nuclear power stations, chemical industries
manufacturing pesticides, or phenol and other chemical explosives. Environmental
hazards are also an important aspect which is caused due to human interventions such
as the formation of acid rain, contamination of the atmosphere or surface waters and
soil with harmful substances.
Natural Hazards can also be termed as catastrophic hazards when they have
devastating consequences to larger population, or have a worldwide effect, such as
impacts huge volcanic eruptions, world-wide disease epidemics, and world-wide
droughts.
Secondary Hazards: These are hazards follow as a result of the main hazardous
event. For example,if aprimary hazard is earthquake. Secondary hazards caused due
to the primary hazard includes:
• Building collapse
• Dam failure
• Fire or spillage of hazardous materials
• Interruption of power/ water supply/ communication/ transportation/ waste disposal
• Landslide
• Soil liquefaction
• Tsunami
296 • Water pollution

Chronic Hazards: A group of hazards that do not stem from one event but arise from Introduction to
continuous conditions which accumulate over time. They include famine, resource Natural Hazards
degradation, pollution, and large-scale toxic contamination.
Rate of Onset of Hazards: Natural hazards can also be classified into rapid onset
hazards, such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, landslides, severe
thunderstorms which take place with little warning and strike rapidly or cause slow
onset hazards, like drought and disease epidemics take years to form. The speed of
onset of a hazard is an important variable since it affects warning time. Earthquake,
landslides, and flash floods generally give no warnings. Tsunamisindicate warning periods
of minutes or hours. Hurricanes and floods can be predicted and give warning signals
for its likelihoodoccurrence inseveral hours or days, in advance. Volcanoes can erupt
suddenly but usually give indications of an eruption weeks or months in advance.
Other hazards such as drought, desertification, and subsidence act slowly over a period
of months or years. Hazards such as erosion/sedimentation have varying lead times:
damage may occur suddenly as the result of a storm or may develop over many years.
Spatial Dispersion: This refers to the pattern of distribution of a hazard over the
geographic area in which the hazard can occur. It refers to the region where hazard(s)
are centred. For example, earthquakes tend to occur along the plate boundaries.
Tropical storms tend to be centred on the coastal areas in the tropics. We can prepare
and manage hazards well if the spatial distributions are mapped.
Temporal Spacing:This refers to the sequencing and seasonality of events. Some
events are quite random (volcanoes) while others have seasons (hurricanes, tropical
cyclones, river floods).
Each and every disaster has a different spatialand temporalsignatures (Table 13.1).
Table 13.1: Disaster Time and Space Characteristics
Type Impact time Spatial Extent
Earthquake Seconds to minutes 102 – 104 sq.km
Landslide Seconds 0.1 – ½ sq.km
Forest fires Minutes to days 101 – 103 sq.km
Floods Minutes to hours 105 – 107sq.km
Cyclones Few hours 103 – 104 sq.km
Drought Months to years 106 sq.km
Desertification Tens of years 107 – 108 sq.km
(Source: Navalgund, 2001).
1. Define hazard and disaster.
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Natural Hazards 2. How are hazards classified?
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3. Explain natural hazards with the help of case study about its impacts on life and
property.
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13.6 TYPES OF NATURAL HAZARDS

In the previous section you have read about the difference in hazard and disaster and
their impact on life and property. Now we will discuss types of natural hazards.
Natural hazards can be classified into several broad categories: geological hazards,
hydrological hazards, meteorological hazards, and biological hazards.
Some general classifications of hazards are outlined in the Table 13.2.
Table 13.2: General Classifications of Hazards
Natural Hazards Geologic Hazards Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
landslides, avalanches, subsidence,
and impacts with space objects
Hydrological hazards Floods, tsunamis
Atmospheric Hazards Hurricanes, tornadoes, droughts,
and severe thunderstorms, lightening
Biological Hazards Insect infestations, disease, wildfires
Technological or Exposure to hazardous
Anthropogenic substances, such as radon,
Hazards mercury, asbestos fibers, and coal
dust, acid rain, contamination of
the atmosphere or surface waters
(Source: Baskar S and Baskar R., 2009).
From the Table 13.2 we can elaborate that:
(i) Geological hazards: Geological processes such as plate tectonics drive these
hazards. These events are beyond human influence.
(ii) Meteorological hazards are those hazards driven by weather processes.
Examples include heat waves, cold waves, cyclones and hurricanes. In the Atlantic
cyclones are referred to as hurricanes and in the Pacific Ocean they are referred
to as typhoons.
(iii) Hydrological hazards are hazards driven by hydrological processes. Floods,
droughts, mudslides, and tsunamis can bring about damage to property, life and
298 agricultural fields.
(iv) Biological hazards are hazards driven by biological processes. This is of major Introduction to
concern in the recent times. Infectious diseases can be zoonotic or be spread from Natural Hazards
one human to another. Vector-borne diseases such as Zika virus, Dengue,
Chikungunya and Nipah virus are on the rise that has affected millions of people in
Asia-Pacific regions. The climate variability and weather is one of factors for the
increase in incidence of such diseases. Among the biological hazards one of the
deadliest disasters in history was the bubonic plague known as the Black Death
that occurred in the 1300s, killing 100 million people.
Case Study of Biological Disaster: West Nile Virus Geographically, the
virus originated in Uganda in Africa since 1937. In the 1990’s outbreaks were
observed in Israel and Africa. Recently cases of West Nile viruses were reported
in South India especially in Kerala in 2018 and 2019. Many people were
affected by the virus which is attributed to the changing weather and vector
borne influences. This fever is a mosquito-borne zoonotic disease and is caused
by the flavivirus – West Nile Virus. The state of Kerala was on high alert as a
seven-year-old boy from Mallapuram died in Kozikode due to the virus.
Mosquitoes are vectors for transmitting this deadly disease. Increasing
temperatures and humidity allow the mosquitoes to breed and reproduce.
Culex quinquefasciatus is the vector that transmits the virus. The Asian tiger
mosquito - Aedes albopictus is also a vector for the West Nile virus. The
symptoms include fever, headaches, bodyaches, fatigue, skin rash, vomiting
and diarrhea. It can also cause encephalitis and meningitis. There are various
factors that impact the transmission and distribution of the virus such as the
interactions between pathogen, vector, vertebrate hosts and the environment.
Also the weather conditions have direct and indirect influences on vector
competence (the ability to acquire, maintain and transmit the virus), on the
vector population dynamic and on the virus replication rate within the mosquito.
It is possible for an extreme event to fit within more than one of these categories. For
example, volcano eruptions (a geological event) can block incoming sunlight that can
trigger cold waves (a meteorological event). This phenomenon occurred in 1816 when
the Mount Tamboravolcanic eruption caused the ‘year without summer’ in the Northern
hemisphere. Volcano eruptions can also cause tsunamis (a hydrological event). Some
of the largest tsunamis occurred when volcanoes along coasts caused large landslides
into the water. Earthquakes (a geological event) that occur under water can also triggers
tsunami (a hydrological event)forexampleJapan Earthquake and Tsunami in 2011.
CASE STUDY OF A LOMBOK EARTHQUAKE, INDONESIA 2018
On 5thAugust 2018 an earthquake measuring Mw 6.9 struck the island of Lombok,
Indonesia. A foreshock of Mw/ 6.4 was recorded on 29th July 2018 prior to the
earthquake. The epicentre was located near Loloan Village in North Lombok.
Severe shaking was observed on the island and the neighboring islands
of Bali and Sumbawa.Widespread damage was reported in Lombok and Bali. 563
people died, 1,000 were injured and more than 417,000 people were displaced.It
was one of the devastating earthquakes in the Lesser Sunda Islands. Indonesia lies
on the Pacific Ring of Fire which is an area of significant volcanic and
tectonic activity. The archipelago is situated between
the Eurasian, Pacific and Australian tectonic plates.Lombok in particular lies on
the plate boundary between the Australian and Sunda Plate. The earthquake
299
Natural Hazards occurred on 19:46 local time; at a depth of 31.0 km. The epicentre of the earthquake
was located inland, on the northeastern slopes of Mount Rinjani. In certain areas in
the northwestern parts of the island, the earthquake caused the ground to rise by as
much as 25 centimeters.Following the earthquake, a tsunami warning was issued
for the North coast of Lombok. The tsunami struck at three locations and the
maximum height was 13.5 cm in Carik, North Lombok. 664 aftershocks were
recorded by 18th August 2018 below Mw/ 5.9.Most victims were killed by falling
debris due to collapsed buildings. Widespread damage was reported in Lombok
Island. Telecommunications went down and blackouts were reported throughout
Lombok.A lack of construction regulations and technical knowledge of builders
regarding earthquake resistance, coupled with low economic ability, exacerbated
the damage. At least three bridges reportedly had collapsed in Lombok. Indonesian
National Board for Disaster Management reported that the earthquake incurred a
loss of ~USD 600 million.
13.7 EFFECTS AND SERVICE FUNCTIONS OF

NATURAL HAZARDS
So far we have learnt the types of natural hazards with the help of some case studies.
Let us now learn the effects and service functions of hazards in the following paragraphs.
13.7.1 Effects of Natural Hazards

Natural hazards result in primary, secondary and tertiary effects (Table 13.3). The
secondary and tertiary effects may vary with the type of hazard. For example, cyclones
which are a primary hazard can cause secondary hazards such as flood, storm tide. In
the same way, earthquakes can cause secondary hazards such as fire, flood, landslide,
and tsunami. Each of these secondary and tertiary effects can cause more damage
than the primary event. You have read in the earlier sections that the hazards have
physical, social, and economic impacts. Physical effects include damage tothe buildings
and structures. In majority of the cases, physical impacts andsocial effectsmay includeloss
to life and property, fatalities, injuries, homelessness,disease, or loss of social cohesion.
Economic effects may include business disruption,disruption to the supply of power,
water and telecommunications and the cost of response and relief operations. Natural
hazardsbecome disastrous only when they impact communities adversely.
Table 13.3: Effects of Hazards
Primary Effects Occur as a result of Damage due to a flood,
the process itself. building collapse due to an
earthquake, landslide,
hurricane, or tornado.
Secondary Effects Occur asaconsequence Firesare ignited by
of primary effect. earthquakes or volcanic
eruptions, disruption of
electrical power and water
service as a result of an
earthquake or flood and
flooding caused by a
landslide moving into a lake
300 or river.
Introduction to
Tertiary Effects Long-term effects Loss of habitats due to Natural Hazards
that are set off as a floods, agricultural crop
result of a primary failure caused as a result of
event. volcanic eruption etc.
13.7.2 Natural Service Functions of Natural Hazards

These are the earth processes that are important natural service functions as they are
responsible for making our planet habitable. Volcanism has been responsible for
producing the hydrosphere and the atmosphere. Ash and other products ejected from
volcanic eruptions can enhance soil fertility. Floods replenish soil, which sustain life.
Floodplains are also wonderful places for recreation. In the same way, bushfires can
stimulate growth and regenerate forest ecology. This is because the heat from the fire
helps some seeds to germinate (Luke and McArthur, 1977).
13.8 IMPACTS OF HAZARDS

It is important for you to understand the process by which natural disasters produce
different impacts on the community is. It is necessary to knowthe pre-impact conditions
that make communities vulnerable to disaster impacts. Also, the disaster impact
processes can be used to delineate the specific segments of the community that couldbe
affected. This information can help to decipher the event-specific conditions that
determine the level of disaster impact. Finally, the entire disaster impact process allows
policy planners to propose suitable disaster management strategies. The effects of a
particular disaster depend on three pre-impact conditions. They include: (1) hazard
exposure, (2) physical vulnerability, and (3) social vulnerability. There also are three
event-specific conditions. They include: (1) hazard event characteristics, (2) improvised
disaster responses, and (3) improvised disaster recovery. Communities can involve in
three types of emergency management interventions to manage disaster impacts in a
better way. Physical impacts can be reduced by hazard mitigation practices and
emergency preparedness practices, whereas social impacts can be reduced by recovery
preparedness practices.
Natural hazards have impacted civilizations. Natural disasters have resulted in enormous
economic and social loss. Globally, billions of dollars have been spent in trying to
mitigate or prevent, prepare for, respond to and recover from natural disasters.
13.8.1 Social Impacts

You have read that world over many people are displaced due to natural disasters.
Our natural environment have been disturbed due to anthropogenic activities whether
it the coastal regions, flood plains or the hilly regions. As a result,the natural ability of
ecosystems to cope up with disturbances is greatly diminished. The increased population
density and the built environmentexpose large populations to more economic activities
in disaster prone areas. For example, many people live within 100 kilometres of a
coastline. Many of the world’s megacities (with over 10 million inhabitants) live in
coastal zones. The effects of global warming, extreme weather events and sea level
rise, will result in loss of human lives. In the same way the floodplains in India are
densely populated. The impact of natural hazards falls disproportionately on poor
people as they are more likely to be living in vulnerable areas and they have fewer
resources to combat or recover from disasters. It is estimated that in the years 1985
301
Natural Hazards and 1999, 96% of disaster fatalities were there in the developing nations. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that future impacts of
climate extremes will affect the poor disproportionately. Vietnam and Bangladesh, for
example, are projected to lose more than 70,000 square kilometres of land, affecting
some 32 million people. The entire Mediterranean coast is especially vulnerable to sea
level rise, as are the U.S.’s Atlantic and Gulf coasts. After the disaster the people are
affected with psycho physiological effects such as health disorders, depression, and
grief. They also include behavioural effects such as sleep and appetite changes, ritualistic
behaviour, and substance abuse.
13.8.2 Economic Impacts

Now let us discuss about economic impacts. Between the 1950s and 1990s there has
been a 15-fold increase in the worldwide cost as a result ofnatural disasters. Hazards
in the 1990s resulted in economic losses totaling approximately US$66billion per
annum. The Kobe earthquake that occurred in Japan also resulted in economic losses
of US$178bn. Major natural disasters have severe negative economic impacts. They
can be short or long term.This affects the growth and development of a nation. The
Sub-Saharan Africa is one among the high-risk countries, vulnerable to climatic hazards.
The economic impactsdue to natural disasters can be tremendous. For example, the
hurricane Katrina (2005)was the most expensive tropical cyclone in history in terms of
economic and insured losses. It caused economic losses of US$209 billion.Globally,
businesswas affected due to these calamities. From an economic viewpoint, it is
important to develop disaster plans in order to reduce impacts to enable supply chains
and markets to function efficiently.Similarly, several other natural calamities such as
typhoons in Philippines, floods in India, severe winter in the USA and hurricane in
Mexico that occurred in the year 2014 have caused an economic loss.Injuries, fatalities,
damage to infrastructure hampered the economic growth and development.
An example of economic and financial impacts worldwide related to disasters is cited
below. In 2001, when Japan was struck by the tsunami, several car manufacturers had
to close their factories in Europe and the USA. This was because the accessories and
parts had to come from Japan, and it had stopped. This impacted multiple suppliers in
the entire world through the supply chain reaction and hit the global economy.
Economic lossbecause of disaster can be either direct or indirect. Direct effects of
natural calamities include structural damages, loss of wages to the employees, damages
to public goods, telecommunications and loss of production which includes closure of
businesses.The indirect effects are because of direct effects. There can be changes in
GDP per capita andincreased cost of transportation.Therefore,understanding the
financial implications of disaster effects is important. An important issue is the
management towards returning to the pre-disaster conditions, in a short time period.
Economic mitigation can be done through planningalong with the relevant Ministry and
State governments. For example, flood resistant crops can be grown in flood or cyclone
prone areas.Economic diversification is another important aspect. In the countries
where the principal source of income is threatened, more economic activities should
be introduced. This will help to diversify the economy.It is extremely significant in
those countries where economies are based on a single cash crop. For example, there
are many small islands that run their economy by exporting palm oil or bananas to
other countries. These crop varieties are vulnerable to cyclone damages or heavy
storms. In such cases economic diversification into fishing practices will be an alternate
302
solution that will help protect the economy against calamities. In the same way, it is Introduction to
important to develop disaster resilient economic activities. For example, in coastal Natural Hazards
areas prone to cyclones, coconut trees can be grown instead of depending only on
fruit trees.Further, insurance can be another policy interventionto mitigate disaster losses.
In majority of the developed countrieswell-developed disaster insurance culture exists.
These countries include USA, France, Norway, New Zealand, and Japan. They have
integrated disaster risk management approach where all the major sectors are
considered. Therefore, it is important for every nation to integrate natural hazard risk
management into long-term national investment policies and development strategies to
tide over economic and financial impacts.
Some success stories where countries have taken steps for disaster control are given
in the following paragraph. The 1998 flood that occurred in the Yangtze River led to an
85 % loss in the forest resources which affected 223 million people.Chinahas now
halted logging in the Yangtze River watershed. They understand that forest resources
are extremely valuable for flood control and water supply than for timber.Another
example is that of Vietnam that has restored 2,000 hectares of mangroves as they help
against the coastal storms and provide employment to a number of people involved in
fishing activities.
13.8.3 Environmental Impacts

Natural hazards impact the planet’s ecosystem. The factors taken into consideration
include the type, frequency, intensity, and area of the hazard disturbance. When the
calamities occur frequently, then only the opportunistic species, the pioneers and short-
lived organisms survive. When calamities are not that frequent, then slower-growing
species, superior competitors for resources such as light, water, and nutrients replace
the pioneers. Natural hazards can be beneficial as well as harmful. So, they offer
mixed outcomes for our environment. One example that can be cited is the thinning of
tree branches which is caused by high winds or winter storms. The branches are
covered with ice formations due to winter storms. The thinning of the branches allows
the plant to grow stronger.
Floods: Both plant and animal species have adapted escape or tolerate hazards such
as floods. If we consider the river-floodplain ecosystem, we can see how the seasonal
flows and floods have can be made more productive. Here, we find flood adapted
communities of plants and animals in the floodplain habitats which can tolerate the
hazards. Further the large river-floodplain ecosystems provideus important hydrological
and eco-service system functions. These include flood storage and conveyance; water
retention and recycling, providing a rich biodiversity; transformation of pollutants into
a resource such as useful biomass; help in fisheries production maintain forests resource;
and provide corridors for migratory fish and wildlife. The yearly floods help maintain
these ecosystems by promoting water, sediment, nutrients, and organism exchange
between the rivers and their floodplains. Therefore, they help maintain habitat and
species diversity (Sparks, 1996).
Droughts: They are damaging to the ecosystem, wildlife, wetlands, forests and the
soils. They cause severe damage toplants and animals by totally depriving them of
food and water. Thereby they become susceptible to diseases and to predators. They
result in biodiversity loss, poor water quality, increase in temperature of water, shifting
salt concentration, varied pH levels and dissolved oxygen. The lack of moisture
promotes more wildfires due high temperatures. 303
Natural Hazards Hurricanes and Tropical Storms: They can damage trees. The coastal storms result
in erosion of shores.
Earthquakes: They can affect the biodiversitydue to shifts in land surfaces, as well as
alterations in local hydrologic systems. In the 19th century, the New Madrid earthquake
in the USA changed the course of the Mississippi River and created a cut-off lake.
Earthquakes can result in the destruction of habitats, trees, and ecosystems.
Strong high winds: They can also cause large-scale destruction to trees and several
species. They can also be responsible for fires in dry regions.
13.9 CONCEPT OF RISK AND VULNERABILITY

Let us now learn about the concepts of risk and vulnerability, impact assessments and
human response to hazards.
13.9.1 Factors of Vulnerability

Vulnerability refers to how physical effects of natural hazards affect human life and
property. Vulnerability to a given hazard depends on several factors such as:
Ø Proximity to a possible hazardous event;
Ø Population density of a theregion;
Ø Construction styles, infrastructure and building codes;
Ø Basic awareness of the nature of the hazard; and
Ø Early-warning systems, lines of communication and emergency infrastructure.
In most cases, it is the less developed and under developedcountries that are more
vulnerable to natural hazards than the developed nations. This is mainly due to lack of
awareness, poor education, infrastructure andbuilding codes. Poverty is a major factor
that is related to vulnerability. This is because poverty leads to poor building structures,
population density, and lack of communication and availability of robust infrastructure.
Vulnerability can be classified into:
• human,
• agricultural,
• structural, and
• social vulnerability.
Let us discuss them. Human beings are vulnerable to natural hazards. In other words,
there is a variability in the affected population. For the same level of exposure, some
people will die, others will be severely injured, and the rest will survive. In the same
way,agricultural plants and animals are also vulnerable to natural hazards. There are
differences in level of vulnerability among and within plants and animals. Structural
vulnerability is due to the construction of buildings using designs and materials that are
not able to resistextreme events such as earthquakes. Therefore, proper building codes
are required.Social vulnerability refers to the “ability of people to anticipate, cope
with, resist and recover from the impacts of a natural hazard” (Wisner, Blakie, Canon
304
& Davis, 2004). It varies across communities and across households within communities.
13.9.2 Impact Assessment Introduction to
Natural Hazards
Hazard Assessment is also referred to as Hazard Evaluation or Hazard Analysis
(UNDRO, 1991). It is the process of estimating the probabilities of the occurrence of
potentially damagingevents of a given magnitude within a specified period of time. The
probability of a hazard occurrence differs from place to place. The use of mapping to
synthesize data on natural hazards and to overlay this information with socioeconomic
data facilitates analysis. It helps in communications among people in the hazard
management process and between planners and decision-makers.
a) Hazard Assessment considers the following:
• When and where hazards have occurred in the past?
• The magnitude and frequency of the past hazardous processes.
• Vulnerability of hazards.
• The potential impacts of a given magnitude if it were to occur.
• All this information will help public officials make decisions and prepare in event of
a disaster.
b) Risk Assessment involves the assessment of hazards from a scientific point as
well as the socio-economic impacts. Risk is a statement of probability that an event
will cause a certain amount of damage, or a statement of the economic impact in
monetary terms that an event will cause.
Risk assessment involveshazard assessment, identification and location of buildings,
highways, infrastructure in the areas subject to hazards, potential exposure to the
physical effects of a hazardous situation. Risk assessment helps decision makers and
scientists to compare and evaluate potential hazards, decide on priorities on what
kinds of mitigation are possible and distribute available resources.
13.9.3 Human Intervention and Response to Hazards

Human intervention: Although humans can do nothing much to change the incidence
or intensity of most natural calamities, they still have an important role to ensure that
such events do not become disastrous due to anthropogenic activities. Sometimes due
to poor understanding, human intervention can increase the frequency and severity of
natural hazards. For example, when the toe of a landslide is removed for a settlement,
the earth can move again and bury the settlement. This is disastrous and is because of
our own actions. Human intervention may also cause natural hazards, where none
existed before. Volcanoes erupt periodically, but it is not until the rich soils formed on
their surface are occupied by farms and human settlements. In that case they are
considered hazardous. Human intervention in natural processes increases vulnerability
by:
• Development and habitation of lands susceptible to hazards, for example, building
on floodplains subject to floods, sea cliffs subject to landslides, coastlines subject
to hurricanes and floods, or volcanic slopes subject to volcanic eruptions.
• Increasing the severity or frequency of a natural hazard. For example: overgrazing
or deforestation leading to more severe erosion; mining groundwater leading to
subsidence; construction of roads on unstable slopes leading to landslides. 305
Natural Hazards • Reducing the mitigating effect of natural ecosystems. For example, destruction of
coral reefs removes the first line of defenceof shores against ocean currents and
storm surges.
These are some examples of human interventions that reduce the ability of ecosystems
to protect the population.
Human response: This can be done by prediction and warning. Preparedness, public
awareness and education, emergency services provision, proper land use planning are
all important factors. Further preparedness with aid and insurance is also a must. For
example, in case of volcanic eruptions, they can be predicted, and people can be warned
to evacuate and move to safer places. Prediction of events using hazard mapping, analysing
seismic shockwave patterns, gas and lava emissions, and changes in topography can be
useful for predicting events and protecting the masses. One example is the prediction of
volcanic eruption at Popocatepetl, Mexico in the year 2000. The seismic shock waves
alerted the scientists, and the local people were warned and evacuated within 24 hours.
In the same way, in earthquake prone areas hazard resistant designs and the use of
construction materials resistant to earthquakes can be used.
13.10 INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES

International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) was declared by the
United Nations in the year 1990’s.The primary goal was to reduce the loss of life,
property, socio-economic disruption caused by natural disasters, such as earthquakes,
tsunamis, floods, landslides, volcanic eruptions, droughts, locust infestations, and other
disasters of natural origin. In 1994, the Yokohama conference put socio-economic
aspects as component of effective disaster prevention into perspective. A global strategy
aiming at reducing the impacts of natural hazards therefore must include the development
of national and sub-national mechanisms for disaster risk reduction. Within this context
the IDNDR advised the UN-member states to establish National Platforms which
would facilitate the adjustment of general disaster risk reduction objectives to national/
local conditions and implement the agreed policies and expand the understanding and
perception of the importance of disaster risk reduction on national levels. The
(International Strategy for Disaster Reduction) ISDR aims to push the initiatives and
cooperation agreed on during the IDNDR and developing new mechanisms as well as
ensuring for further commitments from policymakers. The goal is to reduce human,
social, economic and environmental losses due to natural hazards.
13.10.1 The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction

The Sendai Framework was endorsed by the UN General Assembly for Disaster
Risk Reduction 2015-2030. The Sendai Framework was adopted on 18thMarch
2015 at the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai City,
Japan. The Sendai Framework is a 15-year, voluntary, non-binding agreement. It is
the first major agreement of the post 2015 development agenda. Seven targets are
identified, and four priorities are listed for action. This framework recognizes that the
State has the primary role to reduce disaster risk. It also states that the responsibility
should be shared with other stakeholders including local government, the private sector
and other stakeholders. The goal of this framework is the substantial reduction of
disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health. It also aims to reduce disaster
risks including the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of
306 persons, businesses, communities and countries.
Hazardous earth processes differ in dimensions. The assessment of hazards and risks Introduction to
is the first step and the response to different hazards requires adopting different Natural Hazards
strategies. Also,education and policies play a fundamental role in influencing the impact
of natural disasters.
1. Explain the economic impacts of disasters with examples.
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2. Describe impact assessment of hazards.
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3. Explain the significance of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction’.
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13.11 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have studied about an introduction to natural hazards, their types, effects,
impacts, vulnerability, human intervention, and an overview of assessing hazards. The
effects of urbanization and increasing population growth and density have led to a
higher potential exposure to natural hazards. Natural hazards vary in dimensions.
Assessing hazards and risks is the first important step and the response to different
hazards requires adopting different strategies. Further, policies play a fundamental role
in influencing the impact of natural disasters.
13.12 KEYWORDS
Earth processes: They are natural events that occur within the lithosphere, hydrosphere
or atmosphere.
Hazard: It can be defined as a potential threat to humans and their welfare and risk as
the probability of hazard occurrence.
Hazard Assessment: It is also referred to as Hazard Evaluation or Hazard Analysis
(UNDRO, 1991). It is the process of estimating the probabilities of the occurrence of
potentially damagingevents of a given magnitude within a specified period of time.
307
Natural Hazards IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
ISDR: International strategy for disaster reduction.

READINGS
Baskar, S and Baskar, R. 2009. Natural Disasters. Unicorn books, Pustak Mahal,
India. 159p.
Bryant, E. 2005. Natural Hazards. 2nd Edition, Cambridge university press, 330p.
Burton, I. And Kates, R.W. 1964. The perception of natural hazards in resource
management, Natural Resources Journal 3, 412-41.
Burton, I., Kates, R.W., and White, G.F. 1978. The Environment as Hazard New
York: Oxford University Press.
Burton, I.; Kates, R.W.; White, G.F. 1993. The environment as hazard. Guilford
Press. ISBN 9780898621594.
Gill, Joel C.; Malamud, Bruce D. 2014. “Reviewing and visualizing the interactions of
natural hazards”. Reviews of Geophysics. 52 (4): 680–722.
Hewitt, K. and Burton, I. 1971. The Hazardousness of a Place: A Regional Ecology
of Damage Events, University of Toronto.
Keller, E.A. 2010. Environmental Geology, 9th Edition, Pearson publication, 624 p.
Sparks, R.E. 1996. Ecosystem effects: positive and negative outcomes. Pp. 132–162
in The Great Flood of 1993. S. Changnon, ed. Boulder, Colo.:Westview Press.
United Nations Disaster Relief Organization. 1991. Mitigating Natural Disasters:
Phenomena, Effects and Options: A Manual for Policy makers and Planners. New
York: United Nations.

1. Your answer should include the following points:
A hazard can be defined as a potential threat to humans and their welfare and risk
as the probability of hazard occurrence.Hazard can also be defined as: “Those
elements of the physical environment, harmful to man and caused by forces
extraneous to him” (Burton et al. 1978). A hazard has the potential to cause
harm to People, human activity, property, environment.
• Natural hazards
• Quasi-natural hazards
• Technological hazards
308
• Secondary hazards Introduction to
Natural Hazards
• Chronic hazards
• Natural hazards
• Case studyof an earthquake - impacts on people and property.
2. Economic impacts
3. Examples
• Hazard assessment
• Risk assessment
• The Sendai framework for disaster risk reduction
• Key points
• Significance.
309
Natural Hazards
UNIT 14 GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS
Structure
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Types and Causes of Geological Hazards
14.2.1 Earthquakes
14.2.2 Volcanoes
14.2.3 Mass-movement
14.3 Geographical distribution

14.4 Impact on Life, Property and Environment
14.4.1 Impacts due to Earthquakes
14.4.2 Impacts due to Volcanoes
14.4.3 Impacts due to Mass-movement
14.5 Case Studies

14.5.1 Case Studies on Earthquakes
14.5.2 Case Studies on Volcanic Activity
14.5.3 Case Studies on Mass-movement
14.6 Let Us Sum Up

14.7 Keywords
14.0 INTRODUCTION
You have been introduced to natural hazards in the previous unit. In this unit we will
discuss about the geological hazards, their geographical distribution and impact on
mankind. Geological processes such as earthquakes, volcanism, mass movements
(commonly referred to as landslides) have always worried mankind due to the hazards
they cause. Earth scientists have been continuously trying to evaluate the causes of
these natural geological processes. The success in this regard is partial; nevertheless,
they are successful in delineating vulnerable spots/places on earth which are prone to
such natural calamities.
Earthquake in simple words means shaking/trembling of the ground/earth’s surface.
It is one of the deadliest natural disaster which has caused enormous loss of life and
property in the last century. The Bhuj earthquake of 2001 rocked the parts of Gujarat
is an example of vast destruction caused by an earthquake. Volcanois the result of
upsurge of molten material along with dissolved gases from generally upper mantle
310
depths onto the surface of the earth. The source of this molten material lies in the
asthenosphere (part of molten mantle). A dreadful example of volcanic fury which is Geological Hazards
also commonly quoted in school books is of Pompeii. It is an ancient town of Italy
was destroyed by a volcanic eruption in 79 AD, killing all its inhabitants. The town was
buried under the volcanic ejecta from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. The
archaeological excavation of the Pompeii, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site,
records the ruins of this lost city to a volcanic eruption. Massmovement which is
commonly referred to as landslideor mass wasting, is movement of large quantity
of rock mass and loose material along the slopes of the mountains and hills. This
natural hazard is quite common in mountainous regions which commonly experience
earthquakes and volcanic activity in addition to heavy downpour and anthropogenic
activities. Human activities in mountainous areas include mountain cutting using
explosives for making roads, constructing a dam for embankment of river water etc).
The rocky material moving downslope can destroy anything which comes its way.
14.1 OBJECTIVES
• Describe the geological processes like earthquake, volcano and mass movement;
• Discuss the types and causes of geological processes like earthquake, volcano
and mass movement;
• Describe the geographical distribution of earthquake, volcano and mass movement;
• Explain the impact of earthquake, volcano and mass movement on human beings
and environment.
14.2 TYPES AND CAUSES OF GEOLOGICAL

HAZARDS
You have been introduced to earthquake, volcano, and mass movement in the previous
section. Now let us discuss the types and causes of these three geological hazards.
14.2.1 Earthquakes
Earthquake means quaking or shaking of the earth. The lithosphere comprises crust
and uppermost part of mantle. It isthe earth’s rigid part and is made up ofnumerous
tectonic plates which are in motion with respect to each other. Lithospheric plate can
be continental and oceanic. Oceanic crust being denser undergo subduction. The
movement of these tectonicplates over the ductile asthenosphere are responsible for
causing earthquakes.
The plate boundaries are an outcome of interaction of plates which are of three types:
1. Divergent Plate Boundary: It is also known as constructive plate boundary because

new oceanic crust is formed on the either side of the ridge and two lithospheric plates
move away from eachother.
1. Convergent Plate Boundary: It is also known destructive plate boundary because when
plates move towards each otherthe lithospheric plate is destroyed at this boundary.
2. Transform Faults: It is also known as conservative plate boundary because neither the
crust is created nor destroyed. The two plates slide past each other. Numerous transform
faults offset the mid oceanic ridges. 311
Natural Hazards Themovement of tectonic plates indicate play of enormous stresses. The plate
boundaries/margins manifest these stresses in form of earthquakes and volcanoes.
The upper crust comprising brittle rocks tend to fail under enormous stresses built up
at plate margins and results in faulting/breaking of rocks. Earthquakes are triggered by
faulting as it results in displacement of rocks along the fault.Earthquake releases energy
in form of seismic waves which trigger outwards from the focus of the earthquake. The
seismic waves are of three types viz.: P waves; S wavesand the Surfacewaves.
Surface waves are the most destructive waves and are responsible for the loss of life
and property during an earthquake.
(A) Types of Earthquakes
Earthquakes can vary in size, type and effect depending on factors like:
• Tectonic setting
• Bedrock
• Overlying unconsolidated material
• Building codes
• Presence or absence of groundwater
Now you will read about the types of earthquakes. Based on depth of their origin,
earthquakes may be broadly classified into three types:
(i) Normal or shallow depth earthquakes originate from within a depth of 50 km.
(ii) Earthquakes of intermediate depth originate at a depth of 50 to 240 km.
(iii) Deep-focus earthquakes originate at a depth of several hundred kilometres (240
to725 km).
(B) Causes of Earthquakes
Now you might be wondering why the Earth shakes and what causes the earthquakes?
Let us discuss the causes of earthquake. They can be placed into the following three
groups:
1. Surface Causes: They produce earthquakes of minor intensity which are often
insignificant and are caused due to:
(i) Collapse of Caves: The caves and cavities are formed by the action of underground
water in the rocks like limestone. The impact in the surrounding area may result in
their collapse causing feeble earthquake.
(ii) Landslides/mass movement/mass wasting: Massive landslide often causes shaking
in the surrounding area.
(iii) Blasting of rocks: This can generate tremors in surrounding area which may produce
cracks in the houses or induce landslides.
2. Volcanic causes: The earthquakes associated with volcanoes are more localised
both in extent of damage and in wave intensity produced.
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3. Tectonic Causes: They include most important causes for major earthquakes. Geological Hazards
Some of these are:
(i) Plate Tectonics: The crust of the Earth is divided into plates which may be
continental, oceanic, or combined. Movement of these plates produces
earthquakes. In most of the cases the earthquakes are disastrous.
(ii) Movement along Fault planes: Crustal displacements or structural disturbances
cause sudden slipping of the Earth’s crust along the faults. As a result of movement
of the adjacent blocks of fault, major earthquakes are produced.
(iii) Elastic Rebound Theory: This describes the mechanism by which earthquakes are
generated. Elastic Rebound theory was propounded by Harry Fielding Reid after
studying 1906 San Francisco earthquake faultline. According to him the materials
of the Earth, being elastic, can withstand a certain amount of stress without
deforming permanently but if stress is continued for a long period of time or if it is
increased in magnitude, the rocks will undergo permanent deformation or strain
and eventually rupture. When the rupture occurs, rocks on either side of the fault
tend to return to their original shape-position because of their elasticity and an
elastic rebound occurs. In nutshell, you can learn that the Elastic-rebound theory
is a concept that accounts for the earthquakes generated by the sudden slippage
of rocks on either side of a fault plane. In this process, the rocks release the strain
energy which has been gradually accumulated and attempts to return to an
unstrained condition.
14.2.2 Volcanoes
Volcano may be defined as any landform that releases lava, gas or ashes or has done
so in the past. The geologic processes that give rise to volcanoes and volcanic rocks
are collectively known as volcanism. Magma, the molten rock is liquid; it is less dense
than the rocks that produce it. Therefore, as magma accumulates and begins to float
upward, finding a path to the surface by fracturing lithosphere along the zones of
weakness. In some places, magma eventually reaches the surface and erupts as lava.
Hot materials escape from an opening called vent or fissure(Figure 14.1). These
vents and fissures are the volcanoes through which hot molten materials are ejected
regularly (active) or intermittently (dormant). The passage through which the molten
materials are ejected is the volcano. It may appear on the surface through same fissure
called fissure type or through a single opening where it assumes shape of a cone
called cone or crater type. If eruptions have ceased, it is extinct volcano, which was
active in the past.
Figure showing distribution of Deccan plateau. At the end of the Cretaceous period,
65 million years ago, volcanic eruptions created the Deccan Plateau that covers most
of southern India.
Scientists estimate that at least 500 million of the total world population is at risk from
volcanoes. Millions of people are vulnerable to the effects of dangerous eruptions.
Therefore, it is important to improve our understanding of the volcanoes and how they
work. Volcanology also improves our understanding of Earth’s interior.The Volcanic
Explosivity Index (VEI) was devised by Chris Newhall of the US Geo-logical Survey
and Stephen Self at the University of Hawaii in 1982 to provide a relative measure of
the explosiveness of volcanic eruptions.
313
Natural Hazards
The Nevado Ojos del Salado mountain is the highest volcano (6900 meters) on earth and
is located in South America along the Andes mountain on the Argentina-Chile border. It
also records the highest crater lake of the world.
Explosive eruptions -Lavaswith high gas contentsand viscosity
Subdued eruptions –Lavas with low gas contents and viscosity.
Fig. 14.1: Saint Helen’s explosive volcano.

(Source:https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/volcanoes/st_helens/st_helens_multimedia_gallery.html)
Mount St. Helens, an active explosive stratovolcano in US, ispart of the Cascade Volcanic
Arc. It is part of Pacific Ring of Fire that is known for over 160 active volcanoes. Mount
St. Helens is popularly remembered for its 1980 eruption. It caused destruction and
devastation in the adjoining areas causing death of around 57 people and rendering
many homeless. It also destroyed infrastructure of the area within a radius of approximately
300 kms from the eruption site.
Fig. 14.2: Kîlauea Volcano’s summit in Hawaii.

(Source:https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/volcanoes/kilauea/multimedia_chronology.html)
Kîlauea, an active shield volcano of Hawaiian Islands, is an outcome of the Hawaiian

hotspot. Kîlauea in Hawaiian language means “spewing” or “much spreading” and is
thus true for this frequent outpouring volcano. Most eruptions have occurred at the
volcano’s summit and are effusive.
Fig. 14.3: Structure of a common explosive type stratovolcano. Also seen are its components:
magma chamber (part of the asthenosphere); the conduit (passage through which the magma
rises upwards); steam; volcanic crater (mouth of the volcano); side vents; ash layers; ash;
314 smoke; pyroclastic material
(A) Types of Volcanoes Geological Hazards
Now you will read about the classification of volcanoes based on several features.
A. Based on their activity, volcanoes are classified into following three types:
• Active Volcanoes: A volcano is active when it is erupting intermittently or
continuously
• Dormant Volcanoes: These are the volcanoes which show eruptions with a lapse
of considerable period.
• Extinct Volcanoes: These are those volcanoes which have not shown any volcanic
activity within recorded period of history.
B. Based on the mode of eruption volcanoes are classified as:
• Central types: In this the products escape through a single vent or pipe. The
magma is more viscous in Central type volcanoes and tends to build a volcanic
landform on the flanks of its central vent (as shown in Fig. 14.3).
• Fissure Icelandic Type: The lava comes out slowly through fissures. It flows to
distances covering large areas being less viscous or more fluid (as shown in
Fig. 14.3). The lava flows of Deccan traps in central and southern India are of
same type.
C. Based on nature of eruption, volcanoes may be of two types:
• Explosive Type: In this case, the lava is of acidic nature and because of their
high degree of viscosity they produce explosive eruptions.
• Quiet type: In this case, the lava is of basaltic composition, which is highly fluid
and holds some gas. As a result, the eruptions are quiet and the lava can travel
long distances to spread as thin layers.
D. Besides the above, several other types of volcanoes have been identified according
to their degree of explosive activity and nature of eruption. They are:
• Hawaiian Type: Mildest with no explosive activity. Lava is mobile and less viscous,
so it spreads out. Little drops of lava form thread like masses blown up by wind
called Pele’s hair. Large quantities of gasses discharge quietly.For example-Hawaiian
volcanoes.
• Strombolian Type: This type of volcanism is at times violent and explosive. Lava
is more viscous, and the fragments of lavas are blown up into air forming bombs
and scoriaceous fragments. For example-Volcano Stromboli in Sicily.
• Vulcanian Type: It is sometimes explosive. Lava is very viscous, solidifies quickly.
Huge quantity of rock fragments are blown during successive eruptions. Huge
quantities of gases rise upwards vertically like cauliflower. Example-Vulcano in
Lipari, Sicily.
• Vesuvian Type: It is highly explosive. Magma explodes as result of high gas
content, which ascend in cauliflower like column of gases with lots of fragmental
materials. For example-Vesuvius near Naples.
315
Natural Hazards • Pelean Type: It is most violent type of volcanism. Magma is highly viscous and
forms hard cover in the form of volcanic pipes. The escape of gases takes place
through sides of volcanic cone as avalanche of molten rock material and gasses.
Mont Pelee, Martinique, West Indies.
• Plinian Type: This shows extremely violent type of volcanism. Many gases and
volcanic ejecta rise in column to great heights like cauliflower. Huge fragmental
products are produced with no discharge of lava. For example-Pompeii,
Rome.Plinian type is the name given after Pliny, the younger, who in his letters to
Tactius, described an explosion of the Vesuvius that caused the destruction of
cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.Volcanic eruption on May 8, 1851, killed
40,000 people in Pelee.
(B) Causes of Volcanoes
Let us now read the causes of volcanism. Although the scientists are trying to investigate
the ultimate causes, some of the basic probable causes are given as follows:
i. You have read that interior of the Earth is very hot. Water vapours and hot molten
magma move towards the surface through low pressured weak planes. Release of
high pressures, which build-up within magma chamber causes eruption of the
volcanoes on Earth’s surface.
ii. Accumulation of radioactive heat produces magma. This molten material ultimately
comes out in form of volcanoes.
iii. Friction and fault movements at greater depths may cause melting and forcing of
the molten material to the surface.
iv. You will read in the previous section that the Earth’s lithosphere is divided into
several plates. These plates move in different directions with respect to each other.
When these plates converge, one of the plates moves below the other. On the
margin of the subsiding plate melting takes place and the molten material is thrown
out forming chain of volcanoes parallel to plate boundary. For example, the
Himalaya, at the boundary of the dynamic Indian plate that subducts below the
relatively static Asian plate.
14.2.3 Mass-movement
Mass-movement or mass wasting is an outcome of weathering and erosion taking
place along the mountain/hill slopes. The weathering agencies such as water (rainfall,
glaciers, streams etc.), wind, gravity are largely responsible for various types of mass-
movement.Popularly, a layman identifies any type of mass-movement as a
landslide.Various types of mass movements have been documented in the literature
based on their peculiar characteristics. Earth scientists commonly attribute mass
movements based on the following parameters:
a. Nature of the bedrock which gets weathered. For example, the degree and nature
of weathering is unique for each rock type. It is controlled by the physical and
chemical properties of the individual rock type. For example, the granite rock
which is hard and massive will take much longer periods to weather compared to
foliated and mica rich rock types. The foliated, mica rich rocks are thus liable to
mass-movements if the hill slopes are made up of these rocks.
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b. The consolidated/unconsolidated material ratio largely dictates the type of mass- Geological Hazards
movement.
c. The speed of the natural agenciesresponsible for mass-movements viz. glaciers,
rainwater, gravity etc dictate the rate of mass-movements. The mass-movements
can vary from very slow movements i.e. a few millimetres in years to very rapid
movements i.e. many kilometres per hour.
d. The slope angle is very important as it dictates whether theweathered materials
fall, slide, or flow under various conditions.
e. Besides the above discussed natural geological factors, anthropogenicactivities
likeexcavation for tunnels, road building etc are responsible for acting as triggers
for various types of mass-movements.
f. Other geological phenomenon such as earthquakes, volcanoes commonly triggers
mass-movements. Numerous examples are documented in the past where mass-
movements have occurred due to earthquakes and volcanism.
(A) Types of mass movement
Mass movement or mass wasting is classified based on rate of movement and type of
material which slides down the slope. It is more generalised term and includes almost
all types of slides and flow. Some of the important types and processes involved in
mass wasting are given below:
Rockfall occur when an accumulation of consolidated rock fragments is dislodged
and falls through the air or free falls vertically under the influence of gravity, rapidly
from a cliff or by leaps down a slope.
Debris falls are similar to rockfall except that they involve a mixture of soil, regolith,
vegetation and rocks.They are commonly referred to as landslide.
Rockslide results when a slope fails along the plane of weakness. Debris slide is
characterised by unconsolidated rock, debris and regolith. While rockslide lacks typical
debris; usually, it consists of blocks of rock in a chaotic mass. The rapid sliding descent
of a rock mass down a slope commonly forms heaps and confused irregular masses of
rubble at the base of the mountain or hill.
Slump is the sudden downward slipping of rock block or regolith along a curved
surface of rupture. The movement creates a scarp facing downslope.Slump is
particularly common in places where slopes are steep and cliff like by erosion at their
bases as along stream banks and coastal cliffs.
Mudflow is a debris flow which is principally composed of mud and is saturated with
water. It can travel several tens of kilometers from their source.
(B) Causes of mass movement
The causes of mass movement are as follows:
• earthquake shocks
• blasting for quarrying or construction, etc.
• absence of surface drainage, increasing water percolation and ultimate sliding
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Natural Hazards • presence of more joints and cracks in the rocks
• steepening of slope for various purposes
• slope saturated with water because of bad drainage
• increased height of slope because of quarrying, mining, etc.
• extra load of dams, buildings, townships, etc. placed on slopes.
Mass movement can be hazardous if humans (or their buildings and roads) are in the
way. Anthropogenic activities may reduce the stability of regolith and rock leading to
mass wasting.
1. Name the most destructive seismic wave.
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2. Give one example each of Plinian and Hawaiian volcanism.
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3. Draw a picture of stratovolcano and label its parts. Give one example of
stratovolcano.
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4. Describe different types of plate boundaries and give examples.
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14.3 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Mostly earthquakes originate at the plate boundaries as has been discussed in the
preceding section on earthquakes. Earthquakes are also recorded within plates i.e.
intraplate earthquakes which are shallow focus (< 30 km).Mid ocean ridges,
characteristic of divergent plate boundaries, record shallow earthquakes with focus <
318 50 km. The transform-fault boundaries,where lithospheric plates slide past each other,
record high incidence of earthquake activity in comparison to mid ocean ridges. The Geological Hazards
convergent plate boundaries record the largest (in terms of magnitude)and deepest
(>600 km deep focus) earthquakes earthquakes of Circum - Pacific Belt).The
earthquakes which occur at convergent plate margins can also lead to Tsunamis which
can cause large scale destruction along coastlines and landwards.
Tsunamis are large sea waves which can be generated by displacement of seafloor initiated
by large earthquakes affecting seafloor. Tsunamis are also triggered by large scale
landslides and volcanic eruptions.
The volcanoes in common with earthquakes, mostly originate at plate boundaries. The
volcanoes are also common along intraplate settings (i.e. plume activity and rift
zones).The most active volcano of the world, Kilauea Volcano of Hawaii, has formed
because of intraplate volcanism/hot plume activity. There is a relationship between the
volcanoes vis-à-vis subductionzones (convergent boundaries), mid-oceanic ridges
(divergent boundaries), transform plate boundaries and hot spots (plume
activity).Landslides are geographically distributed along mountainous belts of the world.
The mountain slopes become unstable due to various factors such as:
i) Tectonic activity;
ii) Earthquakes;
iii) Volcanism;
iv) Various forms of precipitation (snow, rainfall, flash floods; heavy downpour, lake
bursting etc); and
v) Anthropogenic activities (mountain cutting, tunnel making, dam construction
etc.).Most landslides are controlled by the relief of a region. The relief further
depends on the tectonic uplift rates. The precipitation in various forms further
triggers landslides. For example, the southern part of Himalayan belt which receives
heavy rainfall experiences number of landslides every year. The arid portions of
central Andes do not commonly experience landslides inspite of its elevation owing
to restricted downpour.The landslides prone areas include the: southernmost part
of the Himalayan Arc, coastal areas of southwest India, south and east coasts of
China, western edge of the Philippine sea plate, central Caribbean islands, mountains
in Central and South America covering parts from Mexico Chile, the island of
Java in Indonesia and some regions along the Alps (Petley, 2012).
1. What is a Tsunami?
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2. Name one volcano formed because of intraplate activity.
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Natural Hazards .....................................................................................................................
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3. Discuss the global distribution of volcanic activity.
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4. Where do deep and shallow earthquakes originate on earth?
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14.4 IMPACT ON LIFE, PROPERTY AND

ENVIRONMENT
The geological hazards such as earthquakes, volcanoes and landslides impact the
people, property, and environment in their vicinities. Theimpacts of these hazards are
briefly discussed below.
14.4.1 Impact due to Earthquakes

The earthquakes were alone responsible for deaths of around2 million people in the
last century (Grotzinger and Jordan, 2014). The deadliest earthquakes in the past 15
years (the 2004 Sumatra earthquake, Indonesia; the 2011 Tohuku earthquake, Japan;
the 2001 Bhuj earthquake, India, the 2015 Nepal Earthquake) have caused enormous
destruction in terms of life and property. The economy of a country is also affected by
the impact of a high magnitude earthquake (ExampleJapan earthquake, 2011). The
earthquakes also lead to tsunamis, landslides, avalanches etc. This also can cause
collapse of manmade structures (buildings, dams, nuclear power plants etc). The
collapsing of man-made structures also leads to loss of life and property. The densely
populated earthquake prone zones are the worst affected as the maximum destruction
is caused by failure of infrastructure. The infrastructure failure causes burial of people
and other life forms under the rubble. The magnitude of loss of life and property
increases many folds during high magnitude earthquakes in countries which do not
adopt building codes for construction purposes. The earthquakes are also commonly
responsible for triggering landslides. The liquefaction (water saturated ground starts
to flow like liquids) is common during an earthquake and itresults in destruction of
buildings, bridges etc. The gas lines, electric poles, petrol pumps might get ruptured
leading to fires and cause havoc in thickly populated regions during earthquakes. The
earthquakes also trigger firebreaks, leak of nuclear material etc. This kind of hazard
was experienced during the Japan’s 1923 and 2011 earthquakes. Example of Kanto
earthquake of Japan in 1923 led to loss of .14 million lives due to fire in the cities of
Tokyo and Yokohama triggered by an earthquake.
14.4.2 Impact Due to Volcanoes

320 In present times, it is possible to a certain extent to figure out world’s dangerous and
most active volcanoes. We can assess their present hazard potential by studying the Geological Hazards
earlier patterns and the variety of deposits laid down by these active volcanoes during
previous eruptions. Presently, 100 high-risk, active volcanoeshave been identified
globallyout of which 50 volcanoes erupt every year. To understand the hazard caused
by any volcanic eruption it is imperative to know the type of volcano.Volcanoes
depending on their degree of explosiveness vary in their destructive power. Some
volcanoes are explosive and destroy the surroundings in its vicinity up to a few
kilometres. Whereas, the non-explosive or effusive volcanoes don’t cause casualties
due to their nature of eruptions. The explosive volcanoes are the most harmful ones to
the environment and to life. The explosive volcanoescan produce fragmental rocks,
volcanic ash,pyroclastic flows and surges, debris avalanches, lahars, and landslides.An
erupting volcano is also responsible for release of gases, tephra, and heat into the
atmosphere.
The volcanic eruptions lead to escape of lot of poisonous gases into the atmosphere.
The various gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen sulfide
(H2S), hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrochloric acid (HCl), carbon monoxide (CO),
hydrogen gas (H2), methane (CH4), besides water in the form of steam. These gases
spewed out of the volcanoes are hazardous to life forms (people, animals and
vegetation)depending on their concentration in the atmosphere. For example,
CO2emitted from volcanoes can get diluted after mixing with the atmospheric gases
and is not life threatening. But if the concentration of CO2 is more than 3%, it can lead
to headaches, dizziness, increased heart rate and respiratory problems in
humans.Similarly, high concentrations of CO2 gas in soils can adversely affect
vegetation. SO2 emissions also are responsible for acid rain and volcanic smog (VOG),
which are hazardous for various life forms.When SO2 reaches stratosphere
(altitudes>10km), it is converted to sulfate aerosols which are also responsible for
ozone depletion. H2S is very toxic and can create respiratory problems and lead to
pulmonary edema. Halides (HF, HCl, HBr) are strong, toxic acids and can cause acid
rain in areas in the vicinity of volcanic eruptions. The ash particles can get coated with
these hydrogen halides and can cause pollution of drinking water supplies and crops
to alarming levels.
The report of fatalities due to lightning from volcanic eruption clouds is common.
Volcanic ash disrupts electricity and telephone communication lines thus causing
inconvenience to people in the affected areas. Volcanic ash is a big hindrance for the
air traffic and is a hazard for the aviation sector. It damages machineries, causes fire
outbreak, clogs drainage and sewage systems. Ash suspended in the atmosphere reduces
visibility and is a major cause of respiratory problems in humans and animals.Tephra,
an outcome of volcanic eruptions, destroyscrops and vegetation and can cause famine.
Lava flows are very hot (550oC-1400oC) and can cause serious burn injuries. Lava
flows being hot can quickly melt snow and ice and produce floodingand also lead to
glacier bursts. Lava flows can probably dam rivers and can cause local flooding of the
areas in its vicinity. Pyroclastic surges can be extremely dangerous and can cause
burial, burning and suffocation since it contains hot material and toxic gases. Estimated
30,000 people were killed due to pyroclastic surges in 1902 from Mount Pelee in the
town of St. Pierre part of Lesser Antilles island arc of the Caribbean. Pyroclastic
flowsowing to their high temperatures can cause destruction of manmade structures,
vegetation and various life forms caught in them.Lahars contain more water in
comparison to pyroclastic flows. Lahars are catastrophic for people inhabiting valley
areas proximal to volcanic eruptions.Lahars can be quite destructive and lead to 321
Natural Hazards destruction of infrastructure (buildings, roads, bridges etc) by burying them under
it.The lahars can grow in volume by consuming more water and adding more material
to it when it moves downslope. They manifest in forms of landslidesand can damage
river valleys and flood plains. Large lahars can cause destruction of property and loss
of life.Approximately, 0.2 million people have been killed due to volcanic eruptions
and their aftermath during the past 500 years. The main reason of loss of life is the
population increase along the flanks of volcanoes and along the valley areas near
them.
14.4.3 Impact Due to Mass-movement

The massmovements can be triggered by various factors such as high relief, heavy
downpour, and tectonic instability of a region (volcanism and earthquakes). The details
have been discussed in the section onmass-movements at the appropriate place.
However, the thickly populated areasin combination with the above factors experience
the most fatal landslides. Anthropogenic activities also trigger mass-movements.The
hazards posed bymass-movementare numerous. The mass-movements can continue
for days and years and travel long distances and can destroy everything that comes
their way. The mass-movements can block rivers and lakes and cause flooding. The
lahars produced by mixing of debris with large amount of water can disrupt life of
people living in valley areas.Landslides cause loss of property and death and injury to
people stranded on roads or hill slopes during landslides. It also causes disruption of
roads, bridges and is common in hilly terrains in India. The secondary effect of this is
also total disruption of life in far flung rural areas where eatables and goods reach by
roadways. It is a common problem in the mountainous regions in India
1. Give one example of devastating earthquake from India.
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2. What are pyroclastic surges?
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3. Are landslides common in India?
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4. What are the adverse effect of mass movement on human beings? Geological Hazards
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5. Do volcanoes affect environment. If yes, Explain.
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14.5 CASE STUDIES

Now let us study about some case studies pertaining to geological hazards.
14.5.1 Case Studies on Earthquakes

Earthquakes are common in regions experiencing tectonic activities. They may occur
along the plate boundaries as well as within the plate. India has witnessed many
earthquakes in the past century, and we will take up a case study of Bhuj earthquake
in this section. The Bhuj earthquake of Gujarat state, shook almost the whole of India
around 8.40 am on 26thJanuary, 2001. It measured 7.7 on the Richter scale and was
one of the deadliest earthquakes India has witnessed in the last two decades.This
earthquake killed around 20,000 people. The earthquake was so intense that it
destroyed many towns and villages in the vicinity of Bhuj. Bhuj town saw the maximum
destruction and the other town which were severely damaged were Anjaar, Vondh
and Bhachau. Several buildings in these places were demolished due to the earthquake
and also led to deaths of large population due to burial in the rubble.This earthquake
rendered many people homeless. It caused injuries to approximately 167,000 people.
Many historical buildings (Swaminarayan temple, Prag Mahal, Aina Mahal), tourist
places, hospitals, school, infrastructural facilities were destroyed during this earthquake.
The Indian National Trust for Arts and Cultural Heritage surveyed around 250 heritage
buildings in Kutch and Saurashtra to assess the damage caused to them during the
Bhuj earthquake. It was reported that about 40% of these heritage buildings were
completely or partially destroyed during the earthquake. In Ahmedabad approximately
50 multi-story buildings collapsed killing hundreds of people. Total loss of life and
property was enormous and 16 years later the state is still recuperating from the fury
of the Bhuj earthquake which knocked down the once prosperous state of India.
14.5.2 Case Studies on Volcanic Activity

We donot have volcanic eruptions in India and thus we will take a case study from the
Circum-Pacific zone. We will discuss the catastrophe caused by the eruption of strato
volcano Mount Pinatubo of Phillipines on 15thJune, 1991. This has been recorded as
the second-largest volcanic eruption in a densely populated area of Phillipines. The
volcaniceruption led to high-speed avalanches, ejection of gases and ash flows, giant
mudflows. Hundreds of miles in the neighbouring areas were covered with volcanic
ash clouds. Volumes of volcanic ejecta in form of ash, pumice fragments and pyroclastic
flows moved down the slopes of Mount Pinatubo and filled the adjoining valleys with 323
Natural Hazards volcanic materials forming 200 meters thick volcanic deposits. The wet ash settled on
the roofs of the dwelling units and collapsed them under its weight. Ash material got
hydrated and remobilised by monsoon and typhoon rains and formed mudflows and
lahars causing enormous destruction than the eruption itself. The timely prediction
from the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology and the U.S. Geological
Survey together saved approximately 5,000 lives and at least $250 million worth
property. Aviation sector suffered a loss of $100 million due to the thick ash clouds.
About 20,000 indigenous population inhabiting the slopes of the volcano, were
relocated. The cultivated farmlands were buried under lahars. Many villages and towns
in the vicinity of Mount Pinatubo were buried under the lahars. A total loss of 800
people was reported from this deadliest volcanic eruption.
14.5.3 Case Studies on Mass-movement

India has recorded numerous landslides in the Himalayan region and along the Western
Ghats. These landslides are common during monsoon period i.e. July-September. We
will take up a case study of the 2010 Ladakh landslide caused by heavy rains and
floods, quite unusual for this region. The floods due to heavy deluge occurred on 6
August 2010 covering most parts of Ladakh. Ladakh is part of state of Jammu and
Kashmir. Ladakh region is‘high altitude cold desert’ (3500 meters above sea level)with
paucity of rainfall (around 100 mm/yr). The heavy rains of 6th August 2010 were quite
unusualand it triggered flash floods, followed by mudflows and debris flow. The heavy
rainfall, flood and landslide affected approximately 9000 people in the region. Total of
71 towns and villages were completely to partially destroyed including Leh, claiming
lives of around 255 people. Thousands were rendered homeless due to the floods,
debris and mud flows. In Leh alone, the infrastructure collapsed damaging buildings,
hospitals, main bus station, telephone and mobile-phone towers, radio station transmitter
were destroyed. The destruction was enormous and was mainly caused by debris
flows from the adjoining rocky slopes of the valleys. There were reports of buses
damaged and dragged over a mile by the mud flows. Many small villages (Sobu,
Phyang, Nimmu, Nyeh, and Basgo)suffered destruction on account of torrential rain
and rain induced debris flow.
14.6 LET US SUM UP

The earthquakes, volcanoes and mass movements are natural geological processes
which are hazardous to the people and the environment. These natural geological
processes are boundto occur, but if managed well the destruction caused by them
could be minimised. To date enormous understanding about the causes of these natural
phenomenon’s have been documented. However, it is yet not possible to predict with
certainty the location and time of an earthquake, volcano and landslide.The plate
boundaries are the locations where most earthquakes andvolcanoes originate. Mass
movement occurs in mountainous regions. These cannot be prevented, but their
devastating effects can be minimised by a combination of scientific and conscience
government and public policies.
14.7 KEYWORDS
Asthenosphere : Zone of Earth’s mantle lying beneath the
lithosphere and believed to be much hotter and
324
more fluid than the lithosphere. The asthenosphere Geological Hazards
extends from about 100 km (60 miles) to about
700 km (450 miles) below Earth’s surface.
Lithosphere : Rigid, rocky outer layer of the Earth, consisting
of the crust and the solid outermost layer of the
upper mantle. It extends to a depth of about 60
mi (100 km). It is broken into about a dozen
separate, rigid blocks, or plates.
Tephra : When a volcano erupts it will sometimes eject
material such as rock fragments into the
atmosphere. This material is known as tephra.
Blocks and Bombs : The largest pieces of tephra (greater than 64 mm)
are called blocks and bombs. Blocks and bombs
are normally shot ballistically from the volcano
(refer to the gas thrust zone described in the direct
blast section).
Liquefaction : A process by which water-saturated sand, soil
act as a fluid caused by an earthquake shaking.
Pyroclastic flows : Fluidized masses of rock fragments and gases that

move rapidly in response to gravity.These are
denserthen pyroclastic surges and can contain as
much as 80 % unconsolidated material
Stratovolcano : Also known as a composite volcano, is a conical
volcano built up by many layers (strata) of
hardened lava, tephra, pumice, and volcanic ash.
Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are
characterized by a steep profile and periodic
explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions.
Shield volcano : Is a type of volcano usually built almost entirely
of fluid lava flows. This is caused by the highly
fluid lava they erupt which travels farther than lava
erupted from stratovolcanoes. This results in the
steady accumulation of broad sheets of lava,
building up the shield volcano’s distinctive form.

READINGS
Grotzinger, J.P. and Jordan, T. H., 2014: Understanding earth. W. H. Freeman
andcompany, New York. 672p.
Mount Pinatubo. (2010). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, last edited 22.23, 14
May, Wikipedia Foundation. Retrieved May 15, 2010 from http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Mount_Pinatubo
325
Natural Hazards NASA. (n.d.) Mt Pinatubo, Nasa Images. Retrieved May 24, 2010 from http://
www.nasaimages.org/luna/servlet/detail/NVA2~14~14~29598~124268:Mount-
Pinatubo-L&C-band
Riley, C. (n.d.) Types of volcanic hazards. Retrieved May 5, 2010 from http://
www.geo.mtu.edu/volcanoes/hazards/primer/
Petley (2012). Global patterns of loss of life from landslides, Geology, vol 40 (10),
927-930.

1. Surface-waves
2. Mount St. Helens an example of explosive volcanism whereas Kilauea Volcano is
an example of effusive volcanism.
3. Answer from section 2.2.2 and explain.
4. Take answer from section 2.2.1.
1. Tsunamis are large sea waves which can be generated by displacement of seafloor
initiated by large earthquakes affecting seafloor. Tsunamis are also triggered by
large scale landslides and volcanic eruptions.
2. Kilauea Volcano of Hawaii.
3. The volcanoes in common with earthquakes, mostly originate at plate boundaries.
The volcanoes are also common along intraplate settings (i.e. plume activity and
rift zones). The most active volcano in the world, Kilauea Volcano on the big
island of Hawaii, is formed due to intraplate volcanic activity due to hot plume.
There is a relationship between the volcanoes vis-a-vis subduction zones
(convergent boundaries), mid-oceanic ridges (divergent boundaries), transform
boundaries and hot spots (plume activity).
4. Intraplate earthquakes are shallow focus (< 30 km).Mid ocean ridges which are
prominent features of divergent plate boundaries on ocean floor, record shallow
earthquakes with focus < 50 km. The convergent plate boundaries record the
largest (in terms of magnitude)and deepest (>600 km deep focus) earthquakes.
1. Bhuj earthquake of 2001.
2. A pyroclastic surge is a fluidized mass of turbulent gas and rock fragments which
is ejected during some volcanic eruptions. It is like a pyroclastic flow, but it has a
326 lower density or contains a much higher ratio of gas to rock.
3. Yes, in mountainous regions which experience heavy rainfall. Geological Hazards
4. The hazards that mass-movements pose are numerous. The mass-movements can
continue for days and years and travel long distances and can destroy everything
that comes their way. The mass-movements can block rivers and lakes and cause
flooding. The lahars produced by mixing of debris with large amount of water can
disrupt life of people living in valley areas.Landslides cause loss of property and
death and injury to people stranded on roads or hill slopes during landslides. It
also causes disruption of roads, bridges and is common in hilly terrains in India.
The secondary effect of this is also total disruption of life in far flung rural areas
where eatables and goods reach by roadways. It is a common problem in the
mountainous regions in India.
5. Yes they do. The gases released are steam (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur
dioxide (SO2), hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrogen sulfide
(H2S), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen gas (H2), methane (CH4).Thesegases
spewed out of the volcanoes are hazardous to life forms (people, animals, and
vegetation)depending on their concentration in the atmosphere. For example,
CO2emitted from volcanoes can get diluted after mixing with the atmospheric
gases and is not life threatening. But if the concentration of CO2 is more than 3%,
can cause headaches, dizziness, increased heart rate and respiratory problems in
humans. Similarly, high concentrations of CO2 gas in soils can adversely affect
vegetation. SO2 emissions also are responsible for acid rain and volcanic smog
(VOG), which are hazardous for various life forms.When SO2reaches stratosphere
(altitudes>10km), it is converted to sulfate aerosols which are also responsible for
ozone depletion. H2S is very toxic and can create respiratory problems and also
lead to pulmonary edema. Halides (HF, HCl, HBr) are strong, toxic acids and can
cause acid rain in areas in the vicinity of volcanic eruptions. The ash particles can
get coated with these hydrogen halides and can cause pollution of drinking water
supplies and crops to alarming levels.
327
Natural Hazards
UNIT 15 HYDROLOGICAL HAZARDS
Structure
15.0 Introduction
15.1 Objectives
15.2 Types and Causes of Hydrological Hazards
15.2.1 Cyclones
15.2.2 Hurricanes
15.2.3 Typhoons
15.2.4 Tsunamis
15.2.5 Floods and Droughts
15.3 Causes of Hydrological Hazards
15.4 Geographical Distribution of Hydrological Hazards (Cyclones, Hurricanes,
Typhoons, Tsunamis, Floods and Droughts)
15.5 Impact on Life, Property and Environment Due to Various Hydrological
Hazards
15.6 Case Studies Pertaining to Hydrological Hazards
15.6.1 Cyclones
15.6.2 Hurricanes
15.6.3 Typhoons
15.6.4 Tsunamis
15.6.5 Floods
15.6.6 Droughts
15.7 Let Us Sum Up
15.8 Keywords
15.0 INTRODUCTION
You have read natural hazards and geological hazards in the previous two units. Let us
now learn about hydrologicalhazards. Any kind of extreme damage caused to human
life, animals, environment by the fury of water predominantly, at times also accompanied
by high speed winds,are termed as hydrological hazards. Which is/are the most common
hydrological hazard/hazardsexperienced by Indian population? We would say abnormal
tidal waves and excessive rains that cause flooding in coastal areas and plains resulting
in huge loss to crops, property, cattle and human life. Due to abnormally long hours of
rainfall, the pace of life in cities and countryside is adversely impacted.Flooding is a
commonhydrological hazard around monsoon period in India.
In this unit we will discuss the important natural hydrological hazards caused
predominantly by water i.e. cyclones, typhoons, hurricanes, tsunamis, floods and
droughts. We will also try to know the causes of these natural phenomenon and
further also read some case studies to understand the gravity of destruction caused
by them.
328
Hydrological Hazards
15.1 OBJECTIVES
• After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• Explain the types of hydrologicalhazards;
• Describe the causes of hydrologicalhazards;
• Describe the geographical distribution of the hydrologicalhazards;
• Explain the extent of destruction caused by the natural hydrological hazards; and
• Discuss about the case studies pertaining to hydrological hazards.
15.2 TYPES AND CAUSES OF HYDROLOGICAL

HAZARDS
In this section we will discuss the varioushydrological hazards and their causes in this
section. We will also find out the conditions/factors that initiate and aggravate these
natural phenomena’s to the extent of being destructive.
Cyclones,hurricanes, typhoons, are all forms of tropical storms which are named
differently depending on their region of origin (Figure 15.1). Cyclonesare tropical
storms which are common in Australia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India.Hurricanes
are tropical storms of America and central America. The tropical storms which originate
in the western Pacific and China Sea are known as typhoons.
Fig. 3.1: Tropical storms: Cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons.

(Source: https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Hurricanes/)
Tsunami is a kind of hydrological hazard which is experienced mostly by people

inhabiting coastal regions. When an earthquake hits the ocean floor it gives rise to
massive/large sea wave called tsunami. The tsunami commonly floods the coastal region
just like cyclones and can cause devastation of life and property.
Floods and droughts are hydrological hazards which are outcome of excessive and
absolutely no rains. Floods on landlocked areas occur due to incessant rains for days
whereas drought conditions arise when there is scarcity of rain. The coastal areas can
also experience floods owing to inundation of ocean water in coastal areas due to
various reasons such as cyclones, tsunamis, heavy downpour etc. 329
Natural Hazards 15.2.1 Cyclones
Cyclone is defined as any large system of inward spiralling winds that circulates about
a centre of low atmospheric pressure. Cyclones circulate in a counterclockwise direction
in the northern hemisphere whereas in the southern hemisphere they circulate in a
clockwisedirection.Cyclonic winds are generally associated with precipitation i.e. rain
or snow. The above definition gives you a fair idea that cyclone spins around the low
pressure centre. This centre of the storm is also compared to an eye and there is not
much action around the eye or the centre, but the real action is under, especially
around the arms from where the rain and strong winds are caused (Figure 15.2). The
cyclones have a tendency to occur on land and over water and the commonality
between them is that they form a spiral like whirlwind which moves at a very high
speed.
Figure 15.2 The cyclone Chapala

(Source:https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php)
Common Types of Cyclones:

• Tropical cyclone: Tropical cyclone is mostly referred to as ‘Cyclone’ and it
originates in tropical oceans. The tropical cyclones are designated with names
such as typhoon and hurricanes depending on their geographical location. The
tropical cyclones can also be differentiated by their wind speeds.
• Polar cyclone: As the name suggests, it is characteristic of polar regions. Common
in places like Greenland, Siberia and Antarctica. Polar cyclones are strongest in
freezing winter months.
• Mesocyclone: Whenthunderstorm cloud spins a mesocyclone is formed.
Mesocyclone is an outcome of an intermediate stage between normal clouds and
partly spinning clouds near the ground which can eventually change to a tornado.
• Tornado: A tornado, also known as a ‘Twister’ in America is a high intensity
rotating whirlwind that is in touch with both the earth surface and a towering cloud
with flat base.
330
15.2.2 Hurricanes Hydrological Hazards
Hurricanes are oceanic storms generated in the tropical northern Atlantic Ocean. They
rise from oceans and commonly strike the coastal areas of southeast US, Gulf of
Mexico, parts of central America, northeast of South America and Caribbean. The
winds which drive these swirling storms are of the order of 119 kilometres per hour or
even higher. If the hurricanes reach land it pushes enormous quantity of oceanic water
in the coastal regions forming a wall of ocean water commonly known as storm surge.
The heavy downpour, mighty winds and storm surge together cause flooding on land
and can be catastrophic. Recent examples of devastation caused by Hurricanes ‘Harvey’
and ‘Irma’ to coastal parts of North America have been witnessed by all through
television channels!Scale of hurricanes based on the speed of the wind also called the
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale is given in table 15.1. The categories of hurricane is
based on the sustained wind speeds.
Table 15.1: Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale
(Source:http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutsshws.php)
Category Wind speed Types of damage due to hurricane winds
Category 1 119-153 km/hr Very dangerous winds will produce
(74-95 mph) some damage: Well-constructed frame
homes could have damage to roof,
shingles, vinyl siding and gutters. Large
branches of trees will snap and shallowly
rooted trees may be toppled. Extensive
damage to power lines and poles likely
will result in power outages that could
last a few to several days.
Category 2 154-177 km/hr Extremely dangerous winds will
(96-110 mph) cause extensive damage : Causes
power failure and outages for weeks,
roof tops of the houses blown and trees
uprooted with the ferocious wind velocity.
Category 3 178-208 km/hr Devastating damage will occur:
(111-129 mph) Well-built framed homes may incur major
damage or removal of roof decking and
gable ends. Many trees will be snapped
or uprooted, blocking numerous roads.
Electricity and water will be unavailable
for several days to weeks after the storm
passes.
Category 4 209-251 km/hr Catastrophic damage will occur:
(130-156 mph) Strong house structures experience
potential damage with loss of most of the
roof structure. The trees get snapped and
uprooted. Electricity poles are blown
away with the wind velocity causing
power outages for a strech of weeks or
months. The hurricane prone areas are
not inhabiltable for long stretch of period.
331
Natural Hazards Category 5 252 Km or higher/hr Catastrophic damage will occur: A
(157 or higher mph) high percentage of framed homes will be
destroyed, with total roof failure and wall
collapse. Fallen trees and power poles
will isolate residential areas. Power
outages will last for weeks to possibly
months. Most of the area will be
uninhabitable for weeks or months.
15.2.3 Typhoons
A typhoon is a type of tropical cyclone which originates in the western part of the
North Pacific Ocean. Northwestern Pacific Basin alone accounts for one-third of
tropical cyclones originating in oceans every year. Typhoons in the northwestern Pacific
form throughout the year unlike the hurricanes and tropical cyclones which occur
during summers. Typhoons are common during June to November and also occur
during December to May. A term ‘Super Typhoon’ is used in context of a typhoon
which is equivalent to a devastating category 4/5 hurricane.Around 25 to 30 typhoons
are reported from the north western Pacific basin and only 6 to10 hurricanes are
reported from the Atlantic Ocean, annually.
15.2.4 Tsunamis
A tsunami is large sea wave which originates by displacement of a large volume of
water on the ocean basin. There can be many reasons for displacement of large volumes
of water on ocean basins. The most common reason for the tsunami formation is the
high magnitude earthquake rocking the ocean floor. The waves generated can be as
high as 100feet and can cause massive destruction in the coastal regions.
15.2.5 Floods and Drought

Floods are caused byoverflowing of a large amount of water over normally dry land
for days together.Floods are caused due to abnormal swelling of water levels in the
rivers, creeks, lakes. When the water crossesthe danger limit and overflows into the
villages and cities, it causes destruction to crops, houses, humans and environment.
Types of floods
Now let us discuss the types of flood.
Areal: Areal floods take place in low flat land areas due to immoderate rainfall or due
to abnormal snowmelt down or continuum of storms. Water accumulation results in
inundation of large land areas with water. This causes interruption and problems in
normal living conditions.
i. Riverine/Channel: When water slowly rises in levels due to continuous rainfall,
snow meltdown or tropical cyclones in the rivers and streams close to inhabited or
uninhabited areas, flash floods are likely to occur.
ii. Estuarine and Coastal: Flooding caused by powerful forward or upward
movement of sea tides is coastal flooding. Storms in seas and oceans with huge
intensity cause the coastal flooding. Tsunami or tropical cyclones are the examples
of such flooding.
332
iii. Urban Flooding: As the name suggests urban flooding is flooding of populated Hydrological Hazards
and inhabited property. This happens due to incessant rainfall and results in the
malfunctioning of drainage system in the city. This causes flooding of filthy water
on the roads, entering the residential buildings and offices. Water levels can go
upto several feet to cause inconvenience and discomfort to normal lifestyle of
people. Aftermath of such floods can be outbreak of diseases.
iv. Catastrophic Flooding: When due to an engineering fault, an earthquake, a
volcanic activity or any other natural disaster, a rift is caused in the dam wall and
that causes water to gush out at an uncontrollable speed a flood situation arises.
The catastrophic flooding can result in huge loss of human lives, property and
cattle if it occurs near a highly populated area.
Drought arises as a result of scanty, below average rainfall for a givenregion. This
scanty or no rainfall also known as dry spell results in shortages of surface water
(rivers, lakes, ponds) and ground water.
Types of Droughts
Places with scanty rainfall and prolonged dry season are prone to droughts. The
changing climatic conditions and global warming also play a role in deficiency of rainfall
in areas where the existing water bodies are majorly used for day to day life chores but
not replenished as speedily.
1. Meteorological drought is one where the climate in the area is dry, with less
moisture in the air and the ground water level also not too great to sustain life of
plants, cattle or humans.
2. Agricultural drought is one where the the land is used heavily for cultivation and
the soil erosion takes place with speed. The methods used for irrigation are poorly
managed and where farmers mainly depend on rainfall for a good crop.
3. Hydrological drought is caused when the water bodies available in an area are
used to the point of saturation with no measures of replenishing them. Good
amount of rain could prove helpfulin filling these water bodies and resorviors. In
the abence of a good monsoon, excessive exploitation of the water bodies in the
region results in drying of these water bodies.
1. Name the different types of tropical cyclones.
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2. Give one example of destructive tsunami.
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333
Natural Hazards .....................................................................................................................
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3. Give account of different types of floods.
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4. Discuss the most devastating tropical cyclones.
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15.3 CAUSES OF HYDROLOGICAL HAZARDS

We just read about the different types of cyclones and found out that even though they
form over different areas (i.e. coastal land and ocean water) they form and operate
around the same principle and revolve around the low-pressure eye. The tropical
storms such as tropical cyclone, hurricane and typhoons originate in the tropical
oceans/seas which generally lie between 8o and 20o latitude in both northern and
southern hemisphere. These are the regions which are hot and humid with light winds.
The ocean surface temperatures for formation of these storms are ideally warm i.e.
26oC or higher than this. Such conditions are met during summers or early fall i.e. in
the months of June to November in the tropical oceans. The tropical cyclone, hurricane
and typhoon development starts in the tropical oceans in the zones where the trade
winds converge. Gradually a cluster of thunderstorms form in the convergence zones
over the tropical ocean. Based on convection the warm air rises and becomes cool on
rising and the convective currents form. When the warm air rises quickly it forms an
updraft and upon cooling on the top the moisture forms clouds and come back to the
ground as rainwater and cool air as downdraft. When the downdraft and updraft
work together with intensity the cloud formation is huge and gives rise to thunderstorm
cloud. Thunderstorm cloud takes the shape of cyclone, hurricane and
typhoon(depending on its geographical region of origin)when the air is spinning
horizontally with great speed.
Hurricanes mostly originate in a convergence zone which lies in the tropical Atlantic
Ocean on the western coast of Africa. The tropical cyclones called hurricanes mostly
impact the south eastern coast of North America and Mexico.
Typhoon originate when the following conditions are met i.e. warm ocean surface
water, humid conditions, low pressure centre. Typhoon is identical to hurricane forming
in the Altlantic ocean and a cyclone forming in eastern Pacific and Indian ocean.The
typhoons geographically originate in the western north Pacific ocean and they usually
travel with speed greater than 74 miles per hour. Theystrike places like Philippines,
China and Japan.Typhoons and hurricanes are types of tropical cyclones which are
quite similar in terms of their mechanism of formation.
334
“Trade winds, Coriolis effect, Doldrums and westerlies: In the Northern Hemisphere, warm Hydrological Hazards
air around the equator rises and flows north toward the pole. As the air moves away from the
equator, the Coriolis effect deflects it toward the right. It cools and descends near 30
degrees North latitude. The descending air blows from the northeast to the southwest, back
toward the equator (Ross, 1995). A similar wind pattern occurs in the Southern Hemisphere;
these winds blow from the southeast toward the northwest and descend near 30 degrees
South latitude. These prevailing winds, known as the trade winds, meet at the Intertropical
Convergence Zone (also called the doldrums) between 5 degrees North and 5 degrees
South latitude, where the winds are calm. The remaining air (air that does not descend at 30
degrees North or South latitude) continues toward the poles and is known as the westerly
winds, or westerlies.”
Tsunamis are experienced along coastal areas and can from due to various reasons
viz: high magnitude earthquake on ocean floor, volcanic eruptions, glacier calving,
underwater explosions during nuclear material testing, landslides, meteorite impacts
etc. The most common reason for a trigger of tsunami is high magnitude earthquake in
the ocean basin at plate margins.
Floods commonly occurs due to non stop heavy downpour, dam leaks, water bursts,
glacial lake bursts, technical failure of water storage bodies or ocean disturbances
caused due to cyclonic rains, stormsurges, hurricanes, typhoons and tsunamis. Drought
can occur majorly due to natural factors and can also get aggravated by
anthropogenic activities like deforestation i.e. felling trees for various reasons
such as cooking, furniture, medicinal purposes, industrial and agricultural goods.
Global warming is causing a change in climate. There is a drastic change in temperatures
worldwide. All these changes are causing either excessive rainfall that result in floods
or there is dearth of rainfall that cause droughts in certain areas.
15.4 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF

HYDROLOGICAL HAZARDS (CYCLONES,
HURRICANES, TYPHOONS, TSUNAMIS,
FLOODS AND DROUGHTS)
The world distribution of cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons, mostly limited to six
regionsover tropical and subtropical oceans is given below:
(1) West Indies, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea (Hurricanes);
(2) Western North Pacific, including the Philippine Islands, China Sea, and Japanese
Islands (Typhoons);
(3) Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal (Tropical Cyclones);
(4) Eastern Pacific coastal region off Mexico and Central America (Hurricanes);
(5) South Indian Ocean, off Madagascar (Tropical Cyclones); and
(6) Western South Pacific, in the region of Samoa and Fiji Islands and the east coast
of Australia (Tropical Cyclones).
Tsunamis occur in seismically and tectonically active areas.
Floods can be attributed to multiple reasons such as heavy deluge, glacial lake outburst
(GLOF), seawater level rise due to glacier melting, tsunamis, tropical cyclones i.e.
hurricanes and typhoons. 335
Natural Hazards The condition for droughts can arise anywhere in the world but there are specific
regions on the world map where some very severe droughts have taken place and are
still prone to such harsh living conditions. Our country, India, is water stressed and
needs immediate remedial measures to check current levels of water stress.
1. Where are hurricanes common.
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2. Which countries get affected by Typhoons.
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3. Describe the causes of drought?
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4. Why do tsunamis form? Detail the World distribution of tsunami.
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15.5 IMPACT ON LIFE, PROPERTYAND

ENVIRONMENT DUE TO VARIOUS
HYDROLOGICAL HAZARDS
Hydrological hazards discussed in the preceding sections cause great loss of life and
property.These hazards also impact the environment adversely. If evacuation of the
affected area is not pre planned, great loss of human and animal livesbecomes common
during these disasters. Due to dead bodies all around chances of spread of diseasesis
not uncommon in affected areas. The financial situation becomes grim and people are
devoid of means to fulfill their basic needs. Graveshortage of water and food supplies
iscommonly observed during such hazards.People all stay together in camps due to
loss of houses. They are emotionally devastated and traumatised. They try to support
and help each other to get over the trauma caused by the catastrophe.Water and food
served in the relief camps are of poor quality and contaminated at times.
336
The huge loss of property in terms of homes and infrastructure brings life to a standstill Hydrological Hazards
mode. People are not able to meet their basic needs and suffer hardships in terms of
transportation due to destruction of roads. Water borne diseases spread due to stagnation
of water for long periods.Economy of the country and the affected area suffers due to
the devastation caused by various hydrological hazards. It takes serious manpower
and money to put things back to normal functioning. Huge capital is lost to reinstate the
infrastructure. Such hazards take a toll on the tourism sector. Business takes a hit and
it takes lot of effort to put things back to normal. The income from exports suffers and
the economy of the area takes a dip. It takes several years to bring the pace to
normal.With businesses closed there is lot of unemployment in the area and people try
to migrate to different places in the hope of getting employment to survive.Transport
and communication means come to a halt. Severe droughts could cause fire in the dry
regions due to scorching heat and soaring temperatures. This also leads to loss of life
and increase in air pollutants which are harmful for environment and living beings.
Droughts can cause loss of crops and thus negligible grain productivity. It can also
initiate famine if not managed in time. Floods and droughts can damage top soil and
organisms dwelling in them. Flood and drought can also spoil the crops and lead to
agrarian crisis.
Hydrological hazards cause extreme damage to the environment in terms of removal
of top soil during floods in any region. The tsunamis for example can lead to fires and
oil spills. The fire can cause intense large scale burning thus polluting the atmosphere.
The oil spill in oceans can be huge threat to the aquatic life. The cyclones, hurricanes
and typhoons can also harm the environment if they reach the land and cause flooding.
The flooding can cause oil spills, mixing of sewage water with other sources of water.
The droughts create extreme dry conditions. The scorching heat in areas prone to
drought can lead to massive fires and cause extensive pollution of the air.
15.6 CASE STUDIES PERTAINING TO

HYDROLOGICAL HAZARDS
In this section we will discuss some case studies pertaining to hydrological hazards.
15.6.1 Cyclone
Phailinisalso known as a’ Super Cyclone”. Itdevastated the eastern coast of India
on October 12, 2013. It was a category five storm. The two badly affected states
were Orissa and Andhra Pradesh on the eastern coast of India. It was termed the size
of hurricane Katrina that claimed many lives in U.S. in 2005. More than 400,000
people were forced to flee to safer locations like built in storm shelters. Phailinknown
as the country’s largest cyclone, devastated the farmlands and fishing colonies. The
tidal waves rose up to 3 to 5 meters. The storm lasted for 6 to 7 hours.The winds
travelled at the speed of 220 km/hr. The cyclone devastated the local environment,
killed animals in great numbers and took lives of 10,000 humans at least in Orissa.The
National Disaster Management Authority estimated that more than 4,40,000 people
were evacuated.The economy in the states hit by Phailin came to a standstill; there
was a total shutdown of businesses, offices and schools. None of the transport options
were plying. Food became scarce and there was shortage of drinking
water.Theelectricity and communication system did not work. People were stranded
in adverse circumstances and were completely dependent on the rescue operations
carried out by military and naval services.
337
Natural Hazards 15.6.2 Hurricanes
‘Harvey’ developed in the Atlantic ocean and hada devastating landfall in the southern
United States in August, 2017. It lasted for four-days with heavy deluge. More than
100 cm of rain was recorded in the eastern Texas with unruly winds. The heavy landfall
and deluge led to massive flooding of the region with thousands of homes drowned in
water. This hurricane landfall along with heavy rain displaced approximately 30,000
people in the region. Harvey caused a death toll of confirmed 74 people in US. The
loss of infrastructure and property was enormous to the tune of approximately $200
billion.
15.6.3 Typhoons
Haiyan was a ‘Super Typhoon’ which struckPhilippines in November, 2013. It is
recorded as one of the most devastating (category 5 on Saffir-Simpson scale) tropical
cyclone of the western Pacific. Although the typhoon severely affected parts of southeast
Asia but the landfall was most drastic in Philippines. It killed approximately 6,500
people in Philippines alone. The survivors suffered from pangs of trauma and lot of
them suffered multiple fractures and severe health problems. This typhoon caused loss
of $225 million in agricultural sector alone. It was a big blow to the fisheries of the
country. Many provinces were declared under a state of national calamity. The prices
of all necessary commodities shot up. People became homeless and relief camps
setup were insufficient to cope up with the huge number of people who became homeless.
Infrastructure was badly affected, the roads got damaged and aid flown in was unable
to reach the people for days. Dearth of water and food made the lives of survivors
miserable. There was feeling of anger and despair amongst the local people. Thousands
of people were evacuated from the affected areas in cargo planes. Electricity in the
severely hit areas was great hindrance in the relief work. Looting and hooliganism
became rampant.
15.6.5 Tsunamis
The Tohuku earthquake (magnitude-9) rocked Japan on 11thMarch, 2011which
generated a huge tsunami on the north eastern coast of Japan killing approximately
18,000 people. The water rose 40 meters high in the form of wall of ocean water
which broke on the coastal regions making half a million people homeless. The tsunami
devastated many towns and villages in north eastern coast of Japan. The tsunami was
responsible for nuclear reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi power station to spill
radioactive materials causing environmental pollution and causing enormous damage
to the power station. The tsunami and earthquake together caused loses to the tune of
approximately $210bn!! People who survived this tsunami were traumatised and feeling
of anxiety prevailed for long times. Even today people who witnessed the deadliest
tsunami could not come to terms with life and dread this devastating phenomenon.
15.6.5 Floods
Floods in Bihar in 2008, the most destructive in nature was caused by breach of the
Kosi embankment near Indo-Nepal border due to excessive rains on 18thAugust,2008.
The river that flows through Bihar was forced to change its course and flooded the
densely inhabited areas in Bihar. The flood devastated over 2.3 million population of
north Bihar.Loss of life and cattle was rampant during the flooding. The floods made
338 millions of people homeless. The infrastructure suffered a big blow. Many parts of
Bihar were plunged in the darkness as the electric poles got damaged. The transportation Hydrological Hazards
system got completely paralysed. The then chief minister of Bihar and the Prime Minister
declared it a catastrophe and sent financial help to the people of Bihar to deal with the
situation. It was recorded as the worst floods in 50 years.
15.6.6 Droughts
The western Plateau of India experiencesthree different seasons and while some states
are lined up on the coast receive arainfall of 2000 mm in the monsoon season some
regions of Maharashtra state receive scanty rainfall of up to an average of 600 to 700
mm and are termed as semi arid regions. The Marathwada region of Maharashtra
largely covers the Aurangabad division of the state. The region is made up of 8 districts
and the district picked for case study is Jalna as it is in the dryland region.Jalna is not
very densly populated due to the unfavorable climatic conditions. Due to severe
drought the farmer’s in Marathwada committed suicide. They make several
attempts at the crop production but, given to poor monsoon in the region their
effort are lost. There are reports of farmer’s suicide every year from this
region. Besides people,cattle also suffer due to drought and poor monsoon. Farmers
are incapable of arranging for food and fodder for their cattle and in the absence of
monsoon there are no pastures left for cattle grazing. These are the common vagaries
of drought in this region and such conditions are met almost every year in this region.
1. Which region in the state of Maharashtra is prone to droughts.
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2. Which super typhoon devastated the coastal parts of Philippines.
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3. Give one case study of floods in India.
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4. What effects hydrological hazards have on life and property.
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Natural Hazards
15.6 LET US SUM UP
The hydrological hazards such as cyclones, hurricane and typhoon are unique names
given to strong regional storm systems which require warm tropical ocean surface
water for their initiation. All the three spin around a central eye and first form on the
oceans and then with great speed progress landwards along the coastal areas. They
are accompanied with strong winds and heavy rainfall. Depending on their energy,
they are capable of giving rise to storm surges in the coastal regions. Storm surges,
together with strong, fast winds and heavy deluge can cause catastrophic effects on
the coasts and land inwards. The tsunami is also a unique hydrological hazard caused
by large sea wave created by intense earthquake of high magnitude, volcanism, glacier
breaking etc. The inundation of coastal waters by large sea waves (tsunami) which can
form an intense wall of sea water as high as 40 mts can be very devastating. Floods,
the most common hydrological hazards which can be created by heavy deluge, glacial
lake bursting, glacier melting, storm surges during cyclones, hurricanes, typhoons and
tsunamis. Drought is a peculiar condition caused by paucity of water which can lead to
a condition of famine. All these hydrological hazards can be extensively catastrophic
as have been discussed in the above sections with case studies pertaining to each.
15.7 KEYWORDS
Whirlwind : It is a strong wind that moves in a spiral, swirling
motion and has the potential to cause damage to
the buildings, trees, and environment.
Convection : It takes place when the movement hotter fluids
begin to rise and cold and dense fluid begins to
dip due to gravity. In the process the transfer of
heat is experienced.
Super Typhoon : It is aterm ‘Super Typhoon’ is used in context of
a typhoon which is equivalent to a devastating
category 4/ 5 hurricane.
Tropical : Refers to tropical climate i.e. warm to hot and
moist year-round. Tropics encompass region of
the Earth surrounding the Equator. The tropical
regions are confined between the Tropic of
Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere (23°262
13.13 N) and the Tropic of Capricorn in the
Southern Hemisphere (23°262 13.13 S).
GLOF : A glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) is a
catastrophic phenomena where type of outburst
flood that occurs when the dam containing a glacial
lake fails.

READINGS
Grotzinger, J.P. and Jordan, T. H., 2014: Understanding earth. W. H. Freeman and
340 company, New York. 672p.
Grotzinger, J.P. and Jordan, T. H., 2014: Understanding earth. W. H. Freeman and Hydrological Hazards

1. Hurricane, typhoon, and cyclone
2. Harvey.
3. “A cyclone is a large-scale air mass that rotates around a strong center of low
atmospheric pressure. Cyclones are characterized by inward spiraling winds that
rotate about a zone of low pressure.”
The types are as follows
The Tropical Cyclone – as the name suggest these cyclones occur in tropical
areas. Now hurricanes and typhoons are also considered as cyclones, but they
are named differently and there is reason to it. Actually the names help us understand
the area, where these winds are rising. Atlantic ocean and Northeast Pacific ocean
see the rise of hurricanes, whereas Northwest Pacific sees the occurrence of
Typhoons. The tropical cyclones occur in Indian Ocean or South Pacific.
4. Types of floods
i. Areal
Areal floods take place in low flat land areas due toimmoderate rainfall or due to
abnormal snowmelt down or continuum of storms. Water hoarding results in to
cause huge interuption and problems in normal living conditions.
ii. Riverine/Channel
When water slowly rises in levels due to continuous rainfall, snow meltdown or
tropical cyclones in the rivers and streams close to inhabited or uninhabited areas,
flash floods are likely to occur. This phenomena is true in small rivers, or the ones
that flow through steep valleys.
iii. Estuarine and Coastal
Flooding caused by powerful forward or upward movement of sea tides is coastal
flooding. Storms with huge intensity cause the coastal flooding. Tsunami or tropical
cyclones are the examples of such flooding.
iv. Urban Flooding
As the name suggests urban flooding is flooding of populated and inhabited
property.This happens due to incessant rainfall and results in the malfunctioning of
drainage system in the city. This causes flooding of filthy water on the roads,
entering the residential buildings and offices. Water levels can go upto several feet
to cause inconvenience and discomfort to normal lifestyle of people.
v. Catastrophic Flooding
When due to an engineering fault, an earthquake, a volcanic activity or any other 341
Natural Hazards natural disaster a rift is caused in the dam wall, that causes water to gush out at an
uncontrollable speed. This result in castastrophic flooding and such a phenomena
causes huge loss of human lives, property and cattle if situated close to the inhabited
area.
1. West Indies, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea (Hurricanes
2. China, Japan, Phillipines.
3. Drought can occur majorly due to natural factors and can also get
aggravated by anthropogenic activities like deforestation i.e. felling trees
for various reasons such as cooking, furniture, medicinal purposes, demand for
wood as a natural resource because of population rise, demand for industrial
and agricultural goods. Global warming is causing a change in climate. There is
a drastic change in temperatures worldwide. All these changes are causing either
excessive rainfall that result in floods or there is dearth of rainfall that cause droughts
in certain areas.
4. Tsunamis are experienced along coastal areas and can from due to high magnitude
earthquake on ocean floor, volcanic eruptions, glacier calving, underwater explosions
during nuclear material testing, landslides, meteorite impacts etc. the most common
reason for a trigger of tsunami is high magnitude earthquake in the ocean basin at
plate margins.
1. Marathwada
2. Typhoon Haiyan
3. Floods in Bihar in 2008 was one of the most destructive floods in the history of
Bihar and was caused when the Kosi embankment near Indo-Nepal border fell
apart due to excessive rains on 18thAugust 2008. The river that flows through
Bihar was forced to change its course and flooded the densly inhabited areas in
Bihar. The flood affected over 2.3 million people in the northern part of Bihar. The
then chief minister of Bihar and the Prime Minister declared it a catastrophe and
sent financial help to the people of Bihar to deal with the situation. It was recorded
as the worst floods in 50 years.
4. Hydrological hazards discussed in the preceding sections cause great loss of life
and property.These hazards also impact the environment adversely. If evacuation
of the affected area is not pre planned, great loss of human and animal lives becomes
common during these disasters. Due to dead bodies all around chances of spread
of diseases not uncommon in affected areas. The financial situation becomes grim
and people are devoid of means to fulfill their basic needs. Grave shortage of
water and food supply commonly observed during such hazards.People all stay
together in camps due to loss of houses. They are emotionally devastated and
traumatised. They try to support and help each other to get over the trauma caused
342
by the catastrophe.Water and food served in the relief camps are of poor quality Hydrological Hazards
and contaminated at times.
The huge loss of property in terms of homes and infrastructure brings life to a
standstill mode. People are not able to meet their basic needs and suffer hardships
in terms of transportation due to destruction of roads. Water borne diseases spread
due to stagnation of water for long periods Economy of the country and the affected
area suffers due to the devastation caused by various hydrological hazards. It
takes serious manpower and money to put things back to normal functioning.
Huge capital is lost to reinstate the infrastructure. Such hazards take a toll on the
tourism sector. Business takes a hit and it takes lot of effort to put things back to
normal. The income from exports suffers and the economy of the area takes a dip.
It takes several years to bring the pace to normal.With businesses closed there is
lot of unemployment in the area and people try to migrate to different places in the
hope of getting employment to survive.Transport and communication means come
to a halt. Severe droughts could cause fire in the dry regions due to scorching heat
and soaring temperatures. This also leads to loss of life and increase in air pollutants
which are harmful for environment and living beings. Droughts can cause loss of
crops and thus negligible grain productivity. It can also initiate famine if not managed
in time. Excess water during floods and droughts can damage top soil and organisms
dwelling in them. Floods and drought can also spoil the crops and lead to agrarian
crisis.
343
Natural Hazards
UNIT 16 MAN MADE HAZARDS
Structure
16.0 Introduction
16.1 Objectives
16.2 Famine
16.3 Drought
16.4 Epidemic
16.5 Wildfires
16.6 Armed Conflicts
16.7 Chemical and Biological Hazards
16.8 Civil Strife
16.9 Let Us Sum Up
16.10 Keywords
16.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units we have discussed about geological and hydrological hazards.
Now let us study about man made hazards. The hazards caused by the human beings
or human action are called man made hazards. These man- made hazard may be
contrasted with the natural hazards. These causes may result in loss of livelihood,
floods, droughts, famine, and loss of property.Man made hazards affect the other
creatures and disturbs the environment. To declare a man-made hazard a hazard it
should affect the environment, financial and human loss.Our lifestyles and cutting of
forests, desertification causes the release of green house gases which leads to a rise in
temperature, That causes the change in climate change and then monsoon pattern.
According to the UN (United Nations), India has been a sufferer of about a loss of 79
billion dollars during the last ten years. A report on Disaster Risk Reduction by UN
office says between 1998 to 2017, been worst the years for the lower and middle
countries, in which our country India is also falls. In 2002 and 2015, India was affected
with severe drought, about 300 million people were affected. The number of people
from South Asia is greatest. The man- made disasters may include famine, drought,
wildfires, civil strife, armed conflict, chemical and biological hazards etc.
16.1 OBJECIVES
• Define man-made hazards;
• Describe various types of man-made hazards;
344
• Define famine and factors responsible for it; Man Made Hazards
• Explain drought, epidemic and wildfires;

• Differentiate between chemical and biological hazards; and
• Explain armed conflicts and civil strife.
16.2 FAMINE
Famine may be defined as a extensive shortage of food that may be a result of many
factors such as rise in inflation, failure of crops, imbalance population, war, policies
formed by the government. Many other problems like starvation, epidemic of diseases,
mortality increase and malnutrition with many more may follow the famine.Famine
may have prevention unlike persistent shortage of food. A famine can be prevented
with follow up of some policies, only if the applied policies are politically flexible. Our
aim should be to eliminate the famine till this decade. Many other factors are also there
which prevent to approach this aim. Theoretically we do not have enough comparative
and empirical research about the causes of famine and of good experiments, specifically
in country like India and Africa by means of anti-famine policies. The phenomenon of
famine sometimes seems so simple – food is lacking, starvation follows, people die –
and theorising may seem a insult to the starving. Diseases including drought may
sometimes cause the situation of famine. Wars and other political issues may come
with the situation of food insecurity.
Many demographers and historians have explored the disease’s role in mortality due
to famine. Consequences are not in support that deaths due to famine is largely a
question of normal mortality patterns, exaggerated by the prism of starvation, which
was Amartya Sen’s conclusion about mortality in the 1943 Bengal famine. We may
learn many lessons for current famines from the past mortalities which happened due
to disease epidemics. Entitlement theory has to some extent marginalized nutrition and
health in famine analysis, implying that people do not go starving until they no longer
have the capacity to command sufficient food, and that this then leads to malnourishment
and hunger, closely followed by death. Records says that breaking down of economic
and social organization causes mass migration and disorder at social levels may trigger
an outbreak of many diseases which are communicable. So the mortality is because of
this instead of hunger, food shortage or insecurity. So there is essential a connection
between nutrition and disease to understand famine.
N.S. Jodha (1988) have surveyed the perceptions of villagers about the transformation
of two villages in Rajasthan in the early 1960s and the 1980s (Table 16.1). As there
was much rise in household number under poverty line, many poor villagers were
better off. This was because of the less dependence on traditional patrons, rich and
resourceful citizensand the landlords.Villagers depended on the jobs with less salary
and other options of economy, had enhanced liquidity and mobility, shifted consumption
patterns and practices, and acquired new types of consumer durables. Consequently,
some changes occurred, poor villagers had become not as much dependent on the
patronage of richer and more resourceful people for employment, income and for
food security.
345
Natural Hazards Table 16.1 Changes in welfare and food security in two Rajasthan villages.
Welfare/ Food Security Changes in 1964 Changes in 1982
(Increase) (Decline)
Production
• Better agricultural technology *
• Conservation of water and soil *
• Reliability on wild product *
Exchange
• Seasonal out migration *
• Crop sales at favourable time *
• Milk sales *
• Local/wage employment *
Assets/claims
• Attached laboring *
• Off season borrowing form *
patterns
Consumption
• Milk consumption *
• Skipping meals *
1. Define Famine. Mention various factors which are responsible for famine?
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16.3 DROUGHT
In a country like India with several drought like phenomenon occur which is most
damaging. In drought, the moisture from the environment reduces to a high extent. As
this is a much complex phenomenon many times it is studied only by separate aspects
of the phenomenon for e.g. meteorological drought, soil drought, etc. Drought cannot
be predicted before their occurrence, even their duration is not definite. These may
reoccur in the same region. In today’s time drought phenomenon are increasing because
of the climate change. Farmers are the topmost sufferers. With advancement in the
technology we lack here in front of these natural phenomenon. Besides natural
occurrence of droughts, agricultural and hydrological drought occur because of water
shortage. For the verification of the area as how much it has lost the moisture, monitoring
is required of various parameters of environmental concerns. Applying techniques
related to remote sensing are of utmost importance here in arid areas. Phenomenon
like complete loss of moisture or droughts can be due to the long-term abnormal
ocean surface temperature on general circulation. A survey concludes that the regional
feedback mechanism intensifies the drought for a longer duration. Even with
advancement of the technology, a satisfied prediction of the beginning or duration of
346
drought is not possible. A model calculation can be helpful for having the confidence in Man Made Hazards
a month to a season drought prediction which is totally based on anomalous
temperatures of ocean surface and the precipitation. But the probability of predicting
the droughts are better. Taking an example of droughts, in case of agriculture as well
as hydrology can be predicted when shortage of water affects significantly. It is also
indefinite. The most dangerous situation is when the roots loses the moisture content in
them which is due to less precipitation that may be the result of some other factors like
climate change. Financial assessment of damage occurs to crop which may be the
result of less precipitation which also depends on agricultural practices. So, keeping
the points mentioned above, we can define drought as a longer duration of time in
which evapotranspiration is more than precipitation with loss of soil moisture which
result in decline in ecosystem productivity. Generally, drought can be taken as a term
of not permanent but temporary loss of moisture status of environment relative to the
mean state. Many other definitions have been given for drought for example a span of
longer duration of fire hazard in forests as well as pastures. The El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) cycle events in the 1990s and 2000s have triggered severe droughts
in the Southern United States, and conversely heavy floods in South America.
Consequently, the drought-hit zones have seen explosions in the populations of rodents
with the appearance of Hantavirus, while the number of mosquitoes in flooded areas
has increased with epidemics of dengue fever.
1. What is drought?
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16.4 EPIDEMIC
In the previous sections we have discussed about drought and famine. Now we will
discuss about epidemic.
Epidemic may be known as the fast spreading of any disease which may be infectious,
among huge number of given populations within small time, generally it takes only a
week or two. An example of an infectionsuch as meningococcal, an epidemic is recorded
if an attack rate more than 15 cases per 1,00,000 people for two consecutive weeks.
Epidemic is the most dangerous for human population among all-natural hazards. It
credits itself with more killings of humans than any other hazard. It may be considered
the deadliest among the 4 dreaded horsemen of the apocalypse i.e. war, famine,and
death. We can be thankful for the medication advancement, which have provided us
with the boons i.e. vaccinations and the antibiotics. These efforts in medical advances
provided better urban environment in the mid-20th century, that the period an epidemic
can spread has been passed and not to occur now or in the future.But at the beginning
of 21st century, we are facing the same era as epidemic, as we have worsened our
surroundings due to over population and environmental degradation. A return of an
347
Natural Hazards epidemic can come with more fatal new emergence of threats from old infectious
scourges.
Microbial diseases are mostly spread through an epidemic. A microbial disease is
known as a disease caused by any microbe that may be one out of four i.e. virus,
bacteria, protozoa and fungi. About a million of microbes exist on this planet earth out
of which 1400 are harmful or pathogenic for humans. And about 150 have only the
potential of transmission from a human to human and can cause an epidemic.
The number of pathogenic microbe’s emergence appears to increase per year with an
increasing average of three being identified every year.About 60% of agents identified
are zoonotic in origin means transmission of pathogen from animals to humans. The
transmission of microbes may be through a vector or a carrier for e.g. the mosquito
carrying Plasmodium protozoa or rat fleas carrying Yersinia pestis. Secondly,because
ofdirectly contact with the microbes. The medium of contact may be through body
fluids like blood, air (influenza) or bites in case of rabies. Evolution of HIV which is the
biggest example of human disease was a simian counterpart while severe acute
respiratory syndrome (SARS) is possiblyfrom a palm civet cat virus. The epidemics
happen when the microbes find suitable group of persons who are susceptible for the
infection and can easily pass or transform from one to other persons. Natural occurrence
of an epidemic only ends when all the species of a population are being infected or
become immune and the most lethal is when all die. We can classify epidemics as a
common source of outbreaks in which a person is infected because they are being in
contact with the agent of infection from the similar source, for example cholera is
transmitted through the contaminated or infected water. A propagated epidemic can
occur when a person passes an infection to others.The infectious diseases are much
fearful, they transmit contagiously e.g. any body fluid like blood, sneezing, cough,
breathing, touch can communicate the disease (e.g. through blood or other body fluids,
touch or breathing in particles), and may vector (fleas and mosquitoes etc) or vehicle-
borne (e.g. needles). It’s not necessary an epidemic is problematic as it will surely
result in a death, it may cause mild illness with other development problems for example
in case of Zika virusa symptomatic infection in which a mild illness occur but it may
affect the foetus development in a pregnant women.
When a disease has been spread across its boundary or at international level or become
intercontinental it may be named as pandemic. All epidemics display a spectrum of
effects – it is from if the patients are not showing the symptoms but are the carriers of
the diseases and alsoshowing little illness to the acute of tragic disability or
lethalailment.Epidemics or disease threats occurred in the last twenty-five years are of
major concern. This noticeableswiftappearance masks successes: for this the advanced
microbiology can be embraced for rapid identification and isolation of novel pathogens.
Global Alert system of WHO’s (World Health Organization), has been designed to
arrange animproved biosecurity and biosafety with fast responseat world level. High
advancement of better and rapid transport facilities or linking has made easy for
spreading of diseases in history. If we take an example of SARS, in short span of time
or even within a week it transmitted from China to seventeen other countries, through
an infected person travelling in a flight transmitting it to other passengers. Many different
factors may conclude the epidemic like overpopulation. Diseases caused by the insects
have influence of climate and weather as they need humidity and quite warmer
temperature for proper propagation, for example mosquitoes are specific outbreaks
348 diseases in rainy or warm season. So as the world’s temperature is rising day by day
it will be easier for the different mosquito species to spread. The cases of dengue and Man Made Hazards
chikungunya are already seen. Many factors may determine how much severe is an
impact of an epidemic or how much pathogenic a microbe is. We can understand this
as what the potential of the microbe is to make a human ill or its capacity of causing the
illness, in worst situation they may be expressed as the fatality rate case.
Additionally, after an outbreak of an epidemic the epidemiologists take the estimation
of its size and infection causing potential. Among many methods, we have one is to
monitor the outbreak with timeis the calculation of the basic reproduction rate – the
R0. This is the calculation of an average number of individuals who will get infected by
the infected person. When the value of R0 is more than one it confirms the increase in
number of cases of disease, which shows the potential of the microbes as the rise in
number predicts the pathogen to be more contagious. But if it’s not more than one or
less it shows the unsustainability of the infection. We the humans are entering the
wilderness because of the pressure created by the overpopulation as well as the poverty.
Consequently, as we invade or discover the new areas, we get expose to microbes to
which we do not have enough resistance. Our Tropical rainforests which are the home
for abundance of many classes of different species are the best example and it is from
these forests Ebola and HIV emerged. This tendency of infectious diseases to emerge
or re-emergence of causing epidemics is expected to persist.
a) What is a pandemic disease?
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b) Explain basic reproduction rate?
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16.5 WILDFIRES
About 2 million cases of wildfires have been registered globally of small burnt area but
some are large incident and have major ecological and socio-economic impacts. Many
cases of wildfires are Greece, Portugal, China, Italy, US, Australia, Canada, and Chile.
The large area wildfires cause much damage and consequently firefighter fatalities. In
a wildfire catastrophe occurred in Portugal in June, 2017 about 200 citizens were
injured and 500 structures destroyed. The unexpected incident burn out 45,328 ha,
with fire line intensities from 20,000 to 60,000 kWm1 with rate of spread of 65 m/
min.Outbreaks of fire in larger area can be termed mega fire. The term has been taken
from the outbreak of fire happened in western United States of America. Mega fires
happen in forest ecosystem grasslands or rangelands in land of wild or rural urban 349
Natural Hazards interface. These are often of much explosion, intense and the control on them is
unachievable. The term like mega fire, taken with terms like mega blaze and mega
burning generally focus on the size of the fire. The mega fires in most of the countries
are counted in local conditions. The size limit or the threshold of the mega fires has not
been fixed yet, but the proposal of some standards has been set.
In different places there is different size scale for the mega fires. A fire which occurs
suddenly and with change of spread and different rates of energy release is called
blow up fire. We can also describe it as the fast transition from a low intensity fire to
high intensity burning or mere vegetation, canopy with higher flames and more rates of
energy release with fast disease transmission. A blow-up fire with extreme acceleration
conditions in a fixed area and time may be termed as eruptive fires. The cases with
such situation, nearly exponential accelerations may be observed. Wildfires come with
loss of property as well as lives. Urban fires including conflagration are the ones which
are most destructive and raging. It can be “any large fire with storm characteristics” or
a fast and large fire exhibiting many of the features associated with extreme fire behavior.
Fire storms may be termed as a area or forest burning with high fuel. The reason
behind the wild fires may the lightning raised ignitions. The spotting and lightening can
cause to release a high energy that may produce the fires.
1. What is blow up fire?
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16.6 ARMED CONFLICTS

In the previous units we have discussed about drought, famine and wildfires. Now we
will discuss about armed conflict.
Armed conflicts may be taken as a political conflict, in which an armed force dominate
or gain control over the other. These conflicts result in the much killings, with numbers
in thousands during the conflict duration. The region of conflicts may include the areas
richer in natural resources such as rain forests of Myanmar. Combat may be a fight
that has the purpose to weaken, dominating or even killing the warriors which are in
opposition but in the places or areas where this conflict is not needed. It is somehow
between the opposite armed forces in a war. The war may be different from the
conflict. As the conflict is fight occurs among the troops or armed forces while the war
is state of war hostility for the parties officially issued by the country government. The
conflicts may be the type of war but not all wars see actual conflict or all conflicts are
related to every war. The reasons for the internal conflicts may be due to the poor
economic conditions. Degrading the natural resources specifically the renewable one
such as soil erosion, water shortage and the deforestation can arise the probability of
armed conflicts.
350
Man Made Hazards
16.7 CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
A) Chemical Hazards
Any occupational hazard caused by the toxic or harmful chemicals can be termed as
chemical hazard. Different chemical hazards may be present in different workplaces.
Every chemical hazard varies with its specific workplace or any industry. The workers
should be aware of the different chemical hazards at workplaces. How much a hazard
is harmful or severe depends on the specific chemical or the chemical mixed in the
chemicals. The amount and proportion of the chemical is the most important for
determining a hazard’s toxicity. There are many factors which controls the chemical
means how much it is hazardous and will behave and its severity. The factors include
are:
• How much is the chemical concentration?
• The chemical state such as solid, liquid or gas
• What are the physical reactions occupied in chemical like heating, cooling, cutting,
grinding etc.?
• Purification processes like mixing the chemical with additional chemicals, distillation
etc
• The other things may be counted are moisture addition, refrigerationor sunlight
storage.
At the time of chemical hazard inspection, the focus should be on the facilities that are
present for the disposal of effluent of industry the examples of facilities may be sewers,
rivers and its tributaries, outfalls, ditches and also the streams. We should also identify
the other facilities like stations which are there for electricity generations, shipyards,
naval bases, intensive agriculture, dredging operations, with assessment of their impact.
For the inspection, the collection of water samples is essential for the confirmation of
chemicals present in the water. Through this we can also ascertain the variability and
the magnitude and identification of the source for the evaluation of the health effects
and exposure of human beings. The handling of the chemicals for use should be done
cautiously. Even the transportation of the toxic and hazardous chemical should be
done carefully; instead it may result in dangerous accidents. The vehicles carrying the
hazardous chemicals should be well marked with the sign of danger. The vehicles
should be well equipped with the safety features or safety equipments, with first aid
facilities as well as antidotes. The transportation of chemical should not be with another
reactive chemical. Food, water, and other eatables should be avoided. The rules of
chemical segregation and the separation for transportation of mixed classes of toxic
chemicals should be properly followed. A well secured and safe transportation should
be done to avoid the fall or movement of the chemicals. The commonly used chemical
hazards are such as Caustic chemicals, acids, all products used for cleaning purposes
like chlorine bleach, mildew remover, disinfectants, and the toilet cleaners. Sometimes
the sanitizers and the polishes may cause harm. Some hazards may be self reactive.
Chemicals hazards may cause irritation of skin.The chemicals which are hazardous are
toxic, but these don’t cause harm but are dangerous. While the toxic ones are always
hazardous. ‘Toxic’ is a specific property relating to a substance that makes it
poisonous.It’s a truth that not every chemical is good and which are good can harm
351
Natural Hazards such as fluoride, but they can be harmful if the exposure is of longer duration and of
too much. However, all matter is made of chemicals, so it’s important to be more
explicit.Some enormously harmful chemicals may not be poisonous if sealed and if
contact is not made with the handler. A nontoxic chemical may cause harm or may be
toxic if ingested in high amount. This has been well-known, not every chemical is
hazardous. The chemicals may be Explosive e.g. exploding bomb, flammable, Oxidizing,
Corrosive, toxic. They may be hazardous to the surroundings for example the also
harmful for the ozone layer which is present in the stratosphere. If using the explosive
chemicals for the experiments a minute quantity of the chemical should be taken. A
researcher should conduct his experiment inside the fume hood. Any other flammable
chemical should be kept away from the work area. Everyone present there should be
aware about experimentat, the common potential hazards and also when the experiment
will be run. For stirring and cutting, devices made up of metal and wood should be
utilized. To avoid the accidents proper control of temperature and water flow should
be ensured. A safe disposal of hazardous waste is necessary. For storage purposes,
always date of packing, receiving, and opening of the chemical must be mentioned. A
specific focus should be given to the chemicals so that they can remain wet or in a state
not to convert into explosives for example 2, 4-Dinitrophenyl hydrazine, picric acid
etc. A proper attention should be given in case of highly explosive chemical that shows/
appear following signs of contamination:
• Deteriorating exterior surface of the vessel
• Inside and outside (of container) crystalline growth
• Chemical discoloration
Many hazardous and harmful chemicals include: chemicals containing the functional
groups azide, acetylide, diazo, haloamine, nitroso, ozonide, peroxide, Nitrocellulose
and Di- and Tri-nitro compounds.
Authorities following the standards, reliability, and also the replicability should undertake
the analysis for chemicals. Some common tests like doing pH and the turbidity can be
performed on site. Measurements of parameter like color can also be done on site.
For common chemical contamination these may be taken as surrogates. If it is found
during the inspection that a chemical is hazardous or harmful for the humans then a
regular monitoring must be done. The provided guidelines not only have basis of short
term exposures, but they can solve the purposes of risk assessment related with the
infrequent use of recreational waters, public health authorities may be utilized as a
reference value of hundred times the value. A careful sampling of water is should be
done and while designing the programme for sampling. Giving an example, water
current effect and temporal variations. At the time when there is scarcity of resources
and in difficult circumstances, samples should be taken first at the point considered to
give rise to the worst conditions. The areas which have been utilized or are being
proposed for the bathing purposes, the physico-chemical parameters like turbidity,
pH, aesthetics, salinity, color, clarity, grease and oil, organic as well as inorganic
chemicals have been suggested.
B) Biological Hazard
People may encounter the biological hazard in profession and places of work and may
include:
352
• In medical profession such as laboratory technicians, cleaning staff, medical staff, Man Made Hazards
• Health care services

• Property management
• Cleaning services
• Environmental hygiene like disposal, liquid waste and debrisand refuse.
• Veterinary services, agriculture and also fisheries.
• Including industries which have been using the animals and the plants as their raw
material, example paper industries, leather, textiles, furs etc.
• Insitu places such asfor entertainment areas, restaurants resorts and hotels, in
which the workers do not workin a closed area with air-conditioning (ACs). It is
harmful as some microbes may be growing inside the ACs environment. The
microbes may also be found in the cooling towersand can transmit or spread in the
enclosed area of workplace via ACs. As microorganisms rapidly grow in a damp
area, so in materials like wall papers and carpets, plants and other wet and damp
areas that hold water become the area of breeding for microbes in the office
buildings.
Prevention and the control measurements
• A source which is infected or contaminated should be eliminated.
• A proper ventilation or engineering control.
• The source which is contaminated should be isolated.
• In hospitals and wards, a well-maintained air conditioning should be provided.
Separate ventilation should be installed for the patients who are infected with
infectious diseases.
• Using UV lamps can be helpful for controlling the transmission of contaminants.
An employee should be aware about his personal hygiene and must take protection
if he or she cannot avoid the contact with any biological hazard.The equipment
used for the personal protection are eye and face shields, shoe covers, and the
most important are masks and gloves.
Respiratory protection
Proper respiratory protection should be taken. The equipments for protection are
• Surgical masks – these types of masks are of 3 layers and are made up of nonwoven
fabric. Its play a role of protective barrier against large respiratory droplets
• N95- N95 is best respirator, filters the harmful and toxic fine particles as well as
liquid droplets.
Any fine size particles is filtered out which makes them the best filters, so helpful in
preventing the breathing in or inhaling fine size particles and the aerosols and also the
airborne microbes.Before selecting the filters consideration should be taken if the
surroundings have oil mists and fumes, this much efficient filters are needed or not.
353
Natural Hazards Generally, N series filters such as 95% of Type N95, 99% of Type N99 and 99.97% of
Type N100 are used in places like hospitals as hospital are mist and fume free. In places
of oil mist and fumes are in abundance, R-series, R95, R99 or R100 respiratorsare used
where R stands for resistance for oil and P-series, P95, P99 orP100 respirators where P
stands for oilproof should be used.The workplaces and its nature and also the kind of
a biohazard can only determine about the type of respiratory protection. To prevent
the infection to occur washing hand with soap should be in habits which is most basic
step but it get ignored.A person in his workplace should wash hand after the work,
and also after removing the protective clothing. If follow up of these precautions is
taken an infection can be avoided. As the biohazards can kill a human and cause
discomfort resulting in affecting the health. It may also decrease the performance of an
employee. Control and prevention of a biohazard should be done so that our
workplaces are healthier and safer.
1. List two preventive measures for protection against biological hazard?
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16.8 CIVIL STRIFE

A civil strife can be understood as a disturbance created by any riot or strike. It is
raised because of any disobedience among civilians. The participants become hostile
towards authorities, and incur difficulties in maintaining public safety and order. A civil
war may result in famine, hunger, and spread of diseases, stumped. Several civilians
die during the riots. Some case studies of civil wars occurred in 1970s in
Cambodia,1980s in Ethiopia and the Sudan in 1983, Somalia in 1992, and Rwanda in
1994 and the former Yugoslavia throughout the 1990s. We can extend the list by
numerous other examples of civil strife of mostly smaller proportions, for example
Colombia, Afghanistan, Congo, Liberia, Iraq, Sri Lanka, Nicaragua, Peru, Sierra
Leoneand also Uganda. Currently a number of civil strife has been increasing. In the
current decade the intensity and the number of the conflicts among civilians have severely
amplified.We may give them the term “ethnic wars”. The conflicts between the soldiers
may last for a decade. But other wars may end in a month or two.
In places or countries like Myanmar, the conflicts are of longer duration. Mostly conflicts
are found in the remote areas with rough and rocky mountain terrain with high density
of forests side to the borders of our country. These areas of conflicts are rich source of
natural resources. Here we can find many resources like jade, rubies, good timber,
opium poppy and also petroleum. The examples of strong insurgencies may be found
in north eastern part of India. This region is about 1500 Km from the National capital
region, it is covered by China, Bangladesh and Myanmar. It is connected to India
through a narrow corridor. In Myanmar the conflict areas have beautiful mountains
354
and the hills have maximum cover of forests. Along with Myanmar the areas connected Man Made Hazards
from India or Indian states may include Assam, Tripura and Nagaland. This area is
richer in fossil fuel reserves, a significant amount of oil and natural gas reserves are
there in these areas. In Ethiopia a resource poor country the war of liberation was
continued for 30 years. It happened at a distance of about 600 km from its capital
which is Addis Ababa. Maximum part of this conflict area has rough terrain or rocky
mountainous land of northern Ethiopian Plateau, and in west, the border of the Sudan.
The civil war of Colombia waged by the 44 years old Fuerzas Armadas
Revolucionariasde Colombia; the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC),
and the Sendero Luminoso’s (the Shining Path) uprising in Peru (about 33 years older),
were fought in areas away from the country or along the coasts that givesimportant
protection against revolts andample opportunities for income generation for example
coca cultivation and processing.
1. What is Civil Strife?
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16.9 LET US SUM UP

We the human beings, the best creatures of nature itself are maximally damaging it. It
is the harm we are creating for ourselves. It is important to understand these man-
made hazards, as they cause irreversible damage. Some disasters are the results of
ignorance, but many are caused intentionally.There are many mitigation ideas present
to avoid the Man-made hazards. Like natural hazards, man-made hazards may cause
loss in many businesses, professions, and human lives. This may cause temporary
unemployment among workers. The losses caused by man-made hazards which are
indirect may not be come into notice or measured. There is a need to understand the
losses we are creating and to understanding them and also their consequences. Collecting
data and monitoring are needed so that better warning can be given to the communities.
Actions can be taken in a better way to handle these hazards.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. What is difference between war and conflicts?
2. Name few chemicals which can lead to chemical hazards?
3. Name some equipments used for protection from biological hazards?
4. What does R and P refers to in R-series and P- series respirators?
5. Define toxicity?
355
Natural Hazards
16.10 KEYWORDS
Chemical hazards : Any occupational hazard caused by the toxic or
harmful chemicals can be termed as chemical
hazard.
Famine : May be defined as a extensive shortage of food
that may be a result of many factors such as rise
in inflation, failure of crops, imbalance population,
war, policies formed by the government.

READINGS
Jodha, N. S., (1980), ‘The process of desertification and the choice of interventions’,
Economic and Political Weekly, 32.
Chen, S., Loayza, N. V., and Reynal-Querol, M. (2008). The aftermath of civil war.
The World Bank Economic Review, 22(1), 63-85.

1. Famine is defined as the extensive shortage of food. Factors responsible for famine
includes rise in inflation, crop failure, population imbalance, war, Government policies
etc.
2. It is a “prolonged period of abnormally low rainfall leading to the shortage of
water”.
3. a) It is defined as “a disease which spreads across its boundary/international level/
intercontinental level”.
b) Basic reproduction rate or R0is calculated byaverage number of individuals
who will get infected by the infected person. IF R0> 1, it confirms the increase in
number of cases of disease. If R0<1, it shows unsustainability of the infection.
4. It is defined as ä fire which occur suddenly and with change of spread and different
rates of energy release”.
5. Two preventive measures include elimination or isolation from contaminated source
and proper ventilation.
356
Answers to Check Your Progress 6 Man Made Hazards
6. Civil Strife is the disturbance which is created by any riot or strike.

Terminal Questions
1. Conflict is fight which occurs among troops or armed forces while the war is state
of war hostility for the parties officially issued by the country government.
2. The commonly used chemical which causes hazards areacids,Caustic chemicals,
products used for cleaning purposes like chlorine bleach, mildew remover,
disinfectants, and the toilet cleaners.
3. Equipment used for protection from biological hazards are surgical masks and
N95.
4. R refers to resistance for oil and P refers to oil proof.
5. Toxicity is the “degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of
substances can damage an organism”.
357
Natural Hazards NOTES
358

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MEV-12

SCHOOL OF INTER-DISCIPLINARY AND TRANS-DISCIPLINARY

BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

BLOCK 1 EARTH PROCESSES

BLOCK 2 CLIMATOLOGY AND METEOROLOGY

BLOCK 4 NATURAL HAZARDS

Figure 1.1 Solar system with sun and its planets.

1.2. SOLAR SYSTEM FORMATION AND PLANETARY

1.3. FORMATION OF THE EARTH AND ITS

Figure 1.2: Structure of the Earth.

1.4 COMPOSITION OF CRUST, MANTLE

Figure 1.3: The geothermal gradient inside earth.

1.5.3. Gravitational Field of Earth

1.6 ATMOSPHERE AND HYDROSPHERE OF EARTH

1.7 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

Figure 1.5: The International Geological Time Scale.

1.8 LET US SUM UP

Eons : Eons are the largest intervals of geologic time and

1.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

1.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

2.3 Sea Floor Spreading

2.4 Plate Tectonics

2.5 Let Us Sum Up

2.2 FORMATION OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS

2.3 SEA FLOOR SPREADING

2.3.2 Evidences and Mechanism

2.4 PLATE TECTONICS

2.4.2 Major Plates

2.4.3 Movement of Lithospheric Plates

Fig. 2.1: Sketch showing a Convergent Plate Boundary

Fig. 2.2: Sketch showing a Divergent Plate Boundary

3. Transform boundaries or Conservative plate boundaries occur where two

Fig. 2.3: Sketch showing a Transform Plate Boundary

2.4.4 Mantle Convection and Plate Tectonics

2.4.5 Plate Boundaries and Hot Spots

2.5 LET US SUM UP

2.7 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

2.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

42 2. Harry Hess, mid-oceanic ridges, magnetic stripes and polarity.

3.2.1 Erosional Agents

Figure 3.1: Meandering river with point bars

3.3 DEPOSITIONAL FEATURES FORMED BY

3.3.2 Glacial Erosion, Transportation and Deposition

3.3.3 Wind Erosion, Transportation and Deposition

3.3.4 Sea Wave Erosion, Transportation and Deposition

3.4 LET US SUM UP

3.6 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

3.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

4.3 CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS

4.4 STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF SILICATES

Check Your Progress 1

4.5 COMMON ROCK FORMING MINERAL GROUPS

4.5.1 Olivine Group

Fig. 4.4: Common rock-forming minerals.

4.5.2 Garnet Group

4.5.3 Pyroxene Group

62 X= Na+, Ca2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Li+;

4.5.4 Amphibole Group

4.5.5 Mica Group