10.

SEDIMENTATION

Sediments are produced in the catchment of a river by erosion. Rivers carry a large amount of sediment
load along with water. These sediments are deposited in the reservoir on the upstream of the dam because
of reduction of velocity. The deposition of sediment in the reservoir is known as reservoir silting or
sedimentation.

10.1 River Classification

Sediment yield is the amount of sediment passing a specified channel location. It is influenced by a
number of geomorphic processes. It may be substantially less than the amount actually eroded in the
basin. Sediment transport is influenced primarily by the action of wind and water. Deposition occurs in a
number of locations where energy for transport becomes weak to carry eroded sediments.
Classification, in the strictest sense, means ordering or arranging objects into groups or sets on the basis
of their similarities or differences.
There are currently four main methods of river classification (Rowntree, 1999). These are: (a) Whole
River System Classification (b) Zonal (Segment) Classification (c) Morphological Classification (d)
Hierarchical Classification.

i) Whole River System Classification; River systems are composed of a hierarchy of

catchments with small catchments nested within larger ones. The magnitude of a river
system at any point within the larger river system can be described and compared to other
systems. Topographic indices such as basin relief, relief ratio, basin shape and the
hypsometric curve also describe and compare the relief and shape of catchments.
ii) Zonal Classification: this is classification based on the concept of zonation down the long
profile and is widely used. The earliest zonal classification, done in the 19th Century
subdivided the channel and adjacent catchment in terms of the gradient. The steep
headwater zones were termed “youthful” with high potential energy and active
degradation processes. This is characterized by steep gradients and giving rise to gorges
or narrow steep sided valleys. The fast flowing sterams have little need to deposit their
load and there is no flood plain. Most of the silt comes from the catchment due to soil
erosion. This can also be termed as the rocky stage as shown in Fig 10.2, since the beds
and banks are rocky and is ideal for the construction of dams.

The foothill areas were termed “mature” with more gentle slopes, less active degradation
and a tendency to equilibrium between erosion and sediment deposition. The valley is
both deeper and wider. This can also be termed as the boulder stage as shown in Fig 10.2.
In this stage, the bed and the banks are usually composed of large bouldes, gravels and
shingles. During floods, the river transports boulder and shingles downstream however,
when the flood recedes,these materials are deposited in the river bed. The river section is
well defined. The velocity is high but less than in the rocky stage.

The lower zones characterized by low gradients and low potential energy were termed
“old age” and were dominated by low velocity flows, deposition and low rates of
catchment denudation. This can be considered as both the trough, alluvial and deltaic
stages as shown in Fig 10.2. The river meanders and the cross section is made of alluvial
sand and silt. The river carries sediments which are the same as the bed and the bank. In
the deltaic stage, the last stage before it discharges into the sea, the bed slope and velocity
are further reduced. The river is unable to carry sediments and consequently drops them
 and gets divided into channels on either side of the deposited sediments and forms a delta
(Arora, 2007).

A fluvial system can be further classified in terms of sediment activity into three zones:
an upper zone of sediment production (source) (youthful), a middle zone (transfer)
(mature) essentially in equilibrium, and a lower zone (sink or deposition area), (old)
where controls are base level and diastrophism. The fluvial cycle is the name given to the
series of progressive changes in landforms, which results from the development of a river
system. All the processes of erosion and deposition connected with rivers combine to
bring these changes and in areas of moderate rainfall, they are among the dominat factors
shaping the landscape (Read and Watson, 1972).

iii) Morphological Classification: This approach considers that the basis of any classification
system should be the river reach, a homogenous reach being a stretch of a river of
variable length within which controls of channel form such as hydrology, geology and
adjacent catchment conditions are sufficiently uniform to result in relatively uniform
channel morphology. More comprehensive classifications were developed that
differentiated between straight, meandering and braided channel patterns.

iv) Hierarchical Classification: this links large regional scales (ecoregions) with small
microhabitat scales. The basic assumption for the development of the hierarchical stream
classification is the geomorphologic premise that the structure and dynamics of the
stream are determined by the surrounding catchment.

Fig 10.1 Stages in river development

Source: (Arora, 2007)
A study (Rugumayo et al, 2004) was carried out on three rivers in Uganda, namely, Kagera, Sio and
Katonga, to estimate the amount of sediment load they carried and then develop a simple classification of
rivers in this region, based on the sediment load. The hierarchical system of classification was applied,
because it deals with large spatial variability and can relate to fewer variables than most other systems.
There are three major sources of sediment input into L. Victoria. These are direct runoff from the
catchment, sediment loads from the rivers and from physiochemical and biological processes within the
lake as a result of external factors. Agricultural related activities by the communities living in the river
and Lake Basin, are the most influential cause of sediment inflow into the lake.

The sediment load of rivers carried by moving water is subdivided into two categories namely; suspended
load and bed load. The study focused on the suspended load since according to previous studies
(Mwebembezi et al, 2001), approximately 94% of the sediment yield was found to comprise of suspended
load, hence the significance of the suspended load analysis.

A simple classification model was developed using the Rating Curve method, the Quasi Maximum
Likelihood Estimator and the Smearing Estimator to assist in estimating sediment load per unit area.
Typical characteristics are as shown in the Table 10.1.

Table 10.1 A Simple Sediment Transport Classification Model

Ratio of Sediment Input Classification Typical characteristics

per unit area (g/m3/day) Description
0.005 – 0.0019 Low Low flow velocity
Generally flat topography, well vegetated
Swampy surroundings
0.200 – 0.399 Medium Fairly high flow velocity
Hilly areas with farming activities
0.400 - 0.600 High High flow velocity
Area with intense farming
Usually sparsely vegetated
>0.600 Very High (excessive) Little or no vegetation
Slope failures, landslides.

10.2 Land Degradation

Land degradation is the loss of utility or potential utility, or the reduction, loss or change of features or
organisms, which cannot be replaced. In Uganda there are two forms of land degradation; soil degradation
and vegetation degradation. In this section we shall confine ourselves to soil erosion, which is a form of
soil degradation. There are three major causes of soil erosion in Uganda; surface erosion, gully erosion
and soil mass movement. Surface erosion involves the detachment and subsequent removal of soil
particles by wind and water. In Uganda, water is the main agent of erosion with wind erosion commonly
found in the drier areas of less than 800 mm of rainfall per year such as north eastern Uganda. Rill erosion
occurs when running water concentrates and scours the sides of the channels. Rill erosion is the first stage
of gulley formation and rills can be obliterated by ordinary tillage, but it does not replace the lost soil.
Gulley erosion is normally the advanced stage of rill erosion and involves scouring and the movement of
ether individual soil particles or large aggregates in a channel by a large concentration of running water.
Gully formation normally begins with deeper incision in the soils of the lower reach of hill slopes that
expand uphill.
The main causes of soil erosion in Uganda are i) Improper land use or inappropriate farming practices;
complete forest removal, overgrazing, exposure of bare agricultural land, ii) Climatic factors, especially
the amount and intensity of rainfall. The characteristics of rain in many parts of Uganda render it highly
erosive and put the soil at great risk of degradation. The dominant factor on amount of runoff and soil loss
is usually the frequency of high intensity storms rather than the total amount of rainfall. Most often, heavy
downpours are received in very short durations, iii) Other physical causes include a) soil erodibility: In
general the soils are inherently erodible and prone to erosion and erosion induced degradation, b) length
and gradient of slope. In general the magnitude and severity of soil erosion is a function of slope length
and steepness. These vary widely across the ecozones of Uganda ranging from 0% to 30% and so are the
effects; c) mass wasting can occur in natural forests free form anthropogenic perturbations due to
earthquakes., iv) Non agricultural human activities; for instance the construction of roads or buildings
that leave the ground unprotected generates large volumes of surface runoff that cause both on site and off
site erosion and especially since most roads are murrum and there is a housing boom, v) land tenure and
land fragmentation; this occurs more in the heavily populated districts of Kisoro, Mbale , Kapchorwa
and Bushenyi.
The areas most seriously affected by soil erosion are the steep slopes of Kabale, Kisoro, Bundibugyo,
Kasese, Kabarole, Kapchorwa an Mbale. Although this problem is well recognized, the actual quantities
lost per annum and the offsite damage it causes are not known. Several studies have been done to quantify
soil loss from runoff plots and extrapolate them to arable lands but the discrepancies are high (Magunda
and Tenywa, 2001).
Recent work (Bamutaze et al, 2006) in the Mt Elgon region on major cropping systems and three
landscape positions shows that runoff and soil erosion are occurring at catastrophic proportions and is
more severe in annual crops, like beans and maize as compared to perennial crops like bananas.
Furthermore, the greatest runoff and soil loss occurred in the lowest landscape position, whereas the
lowest runoff and soil loss occurred in the middle landscape position. They recommend the promotion of
perennial land use as opposed to annual crops and the sensitization of communities on land use practices.

10.3 The Process of Sedimentation

There are two types of sediment load namely the suspended load and the bed load explained below:
Suspended load: The suspended load is that part of the sediment load that is held in suspension against
gravity by the vertical component of eddies of the turbulent flow. The suspended load usually consists of
fine material dispersed throughout the river cross section.
Bed load: The bed load is that part of the sediment load, which remains in contact with the bed when
moving with water. It consists largely of relatively coarser materials.
The Process
When the water reaches a reservoir in the vicinity of a dam, the velocity and the turbulence are
considerably reduced. The larger suspended particles and bed load get deposited in the head reaches of
the reservoir and a delta is formed. Some very fine particles may remain in suspension for a much longer
period and may finally escape from the dam along with water discharged through the sluice gates,
turbines, spillway, etc.
 Turbid
inflow Floating
Debris Water
Surface

Relatively
clear
water
Delta
Density
Current

Fine Sluiceways
sediments

Fig 10.2 Sediment accumulation in a typical reservoir

The sediment load of the river depends upon the following factors:

i) Nature of soil in the catchment: If the soil in the catchment is loose and easily eroded, the sediment
load is large. On the other hand, if the soil is hard and non erodible, the sediment load is quite small.

ii) Vegetal cover: If the catchment area has no vegetal cover, the soil is easily eroded and the sediment
load is large.

iii) Topography of the catchment: In case of catchments having steep slopes, the sediment load is large
because of high velocity of water.

iv) Intensity of rainfall: If the intensity of rainfall is high, the discharge in the river is increased and the
sediment load is large.

v) The size of a water body: has a strong implication for its hydrological and sedimentological
characteristics. In small lakes, wind-induced re-suspension is the only important sediment transport
mechanism, while in oceans current-mediate transport mechanisms assume an equally important role to
wind induced distribution mechanisms.
A study of the pattern and mechanisms of sediment distribution in Lake Victoria (Azza, 2006) suggests
that for large lakes, with relatively shallow basins, surface wave action together with currents can predict
the sediment distribution. He further suggested that morphometric, hydrological and meteorological
factors come together to mix and disperse sediments via the epilimnion and produce alongshore and
cross- isobath currents that transport sediment northwards and northeastwards from the western shore. A
related study (Kimaro et al, 2006) carried out on the northern and southern fringes of Lake Victoria,
showed that the nature of field parcels and overall farming techniques has an overall effect of protecting
the soil structure against raindrop impact, encouraging water infiltration, obstructing runoff and
eventually minimizing soil loss from the gardens. They further noted that the presence of settlements is
associated with very high sediment yield, indicating that future unchecked expansion is likely to
contribute to sedimentation of Lake Victoria. Although aquatic weeds are effective buffers, excessive
sedimentation is likely to reduce filtering capacity and therefore make the lake more vulnerable.
10.4 Effects of Sedimentation
The deposition of sediments will reduce the water storing capacity of the reservoir and if the process of
deposition continues longer, a stage is likely to reach when the whole reservoir may get silted up and
become useless. Other effects include increased flood levels upstream of the reservoir, retrogression of
the riverbed and water levels downstream of the dam, elimination of nutrients carried by the fine
sediments, and the deterioration of the water quality.

Useful Life of a Reservoir

The deposition of sediments gradually reduces the available capacity of a reservoir. As more and more
sediments are deposited in the reservoir a stage comes when the reservoir is not able to serve its intended
purpose and its useful life is over. If the annual sediment flow is compared with the reservoir capacity, the
useful life of the reservoir would be very short. While planning a reservoir, it is essential to consider the
rate of sedimentation to know whether the useful life of the proposed reservoir will be sufficiently long to
justify the expenditure of its construction. The rate of sedimentation in the reservoir depends on the trap
efficiency.

Trap efficiency: The trap efficiency (ηt) is defined as the percent of the total inflow sediment, which is
retained in the reservoir. Thus;

Trap efficiency (10.1)

From the observations of the rate of sedimentation of existing reservoirs, it has been found that the trap
efficiency of a reservoir depends upon the capacity/inflow ratio. Brune (1953) gave the curves relating
the trap efficiency and the capacity-inflow ratio on the basis of a large number of existing reservoirs in the
USA as shown in Fig 10.3. He also developed an empirical relationship from which the curves are drawn;

E = 100 x (0.97 0.19log(C/I)) (10.2)

Where C is the capacity and I is the Inflow.

In general the greater the capacity–inflow ratio, the greater the trap efficiency, thus sedimentation is
higher in relatively larger reservoirs. The trap efficiency decreases with the age of the reservoir, because
the available capacity gradually decreases. It also depends on other factors like shape of reservoir basin,
type of outlets, method of operation, size and grading of the sediment and the behaviour of finer sediment
fractions under various conditions. Churchill (1948) developed a relationship between the percentage of
incoming sediment through a reservoir and a reservoir sedimentation index, which is defined as the ratio
of the period of retention to the mean velocity of flow through the reservoir.

Murthy (1980) developed guidelines for use of the above methods. He recommended the using of Brune
method for large storage or normal ponded reservoirs and the Churchill method for settling basins, small
reservoirs, flood retarding structures, semi-dry reservoirs or reservoirs that are continuously sluiced. A
study was carried out on the River Nile Basin Sedimentation Problems (Siyam et al, 2005), which gave
the Table 10.2 on the capacity/inflow ratio and estimate of the trap efficiency using Brune median curve.
The results showed a range between 78% and 98%.
There is ongoing research, which intends to develop a Nile Basin Reservoir Information System,
(NBRIS) that will be used to plan, monitor and manage reservoirs using the various analysis of spatial
and non spatial attribute overlaying, simulation and modeling and integrated analysis of spatial and non
spatial attribute data. With the availability of remote sensing satellite data that provide 1-4 m resolution
and the centimetre level accuracy of GPS, it would be possible to update the data regularly.
The following information could also be added to the data base;
 • Downstream hazard potential of a dam, which can identify the hazard to the downstream area
resulting from failure or failed operations of the dam.
• Identification and review of the measures that can be taken to reduce sedimentation of reservoirs.
• Consideration of the options for the removal of sediment, along with the associated
environmental concerns and consideration of the past and future consequences of reservoir
storage loss.
• List of references of research in sedimentation problems in reservoirs.

Table 10.2 Trap Efficiency Coefficients for different Nile reservoirs estimated by Median Curve of
Brune Method

Source: (Siyam et al 2005)

Reservoir Capacity C(Mm3) Total Inflow (I) C/I Brune Trap Location
(Mm3) Efficiency%
Koka 1650 29478 0.0560 78.38 Awash River Ethiopia
Roseiris 3000 48744 0.0615 79.64 Blue NileSudan
Girba 1300 12000 0.1083 86.00 Atbara river Sudan
Angerib 5.28 27 0.1852 90.23 Angerib River Ethiopia
Nasir Nuba 162000 84000 .929 98.12 Main Nile
Egypt Sudan
Sediment trapped (%)

Capacity: inflow ratio (capacity/volume of annual inflow)

Fig 10.3 Curves relating the trap efficiency and the capacity-inflow ratio
Source: (Brune, 1953)

Therefore, the complete sedimentation of the reservoir shall be more at the beginning and as its capacity
reduces due to silting, the silting rate will reduce. It can also be concluded that for small reservoirs on
large rivers, the trap efficiency is very low, because the capacity inflow ratio is very small. Such rivers silt
very little and most of their sediment is passed downstream. On the other hand, large reservoirs on
smaller rivers silt significantly and almost complete deposition of sediment may take place.
10.5 Measures to Control Reservoir Sedimentation
i) Minimising sediment input: This is by far the most effective measure and can be achieved by optimal
choice of the location of the reservoir, the prevention of erosion in the catchment by soil conservation
methods (afforestation, vegetation cover, terracing etc), the trapping of sediment in traps / check dams or
by vegetative screens on the tributaries upstream of the reservoir, or by bypassing heavily laden flows
during floods, from an upstream diversion structure to downstream of the dam.

ii) Maximising sediment throughflow: This requires flow regulation during floods and /or flushing during
reservoir drawdown. Under certain conditions the sediment laden inflow does not mix with the water in
the reservoir but moves along the old river bed as density current towards the dam, where it can be drawn
off by suitably located and operated outlets. In principle, the development of density currents requires a
significant difference between the density of the incoming flow and the water in the reservoir, a large
reservoir depth, and morphological conditions (steep, straight old river bed).The formation and sediment
transport of density currents can be predicted and should be applied to all reservoirs under various
operational conditions. Turbidity sensors should be applied at several elevations upstream of the dam wall
for management of density currents by releasing high sediment concentrations through low level outlets.

iii) Recovery of Storage: This can be achieved by flushing deposited sediment, a technique, which is very
effective when combined with a substantial reservoir drawdown, by siphoning or dredging; in the latter
case either conventional methods, particularly a suction dredger with a bucket wheel, or special
techniques can be used. Effective flushing requires excess water, suitably large low level outlets, a steep
narrow reservoir basin and judicious operation.
Dredging has been carried out only to a limited extent worldwide, mainly because of the high costs and
environmental problems associated with the disposal of dredged sediments and as a result should be
considered as a last resort (Basson, 2004).
iv) Sedimentation Compensation Measures: There are a number of techniques which can be applied,
which are discussed as follows; a) Dam raising; this provides an economical solution to regain storage
capacity lost due to sedimentation. The rasing options considered are fixed uncontrolled spillways, crest
radial gates, automatic crest gates of fuse gates, b) New dams; dam sites should be selected in regions
with relatively low sediment yields. The upper reaches have relatively high runoff, with low sediment
loads, however this is not always possible due to the location of power demand centresand availability of
dam sites, c) Design for sedimentation: designs should acknowledge the experience in reservoir
sedimentation, whereby 80% occurs in the live storage zones rather than the current practice of designing
for withdrawals from the dead storage zones. d) Augmentation from adjacent catchments; regulation of
runoff and sedimentation control requirements in a reservoir are often in conflict. Transfer of water from
adjacent catchments can provide a solution to sediment control if it is economically feasible and it can
provide sufficient excess runoff (Basson, 2004).
v) Simulation Techniques: The Reservoir Conservation RESCON model is designed to assist in the
selection of a reservoir management strategy that is technically feasible, which maximizes the net
economic benefits of a reservoir using four explicit options of sediment management namely: Flushing;
Hydrosuction; Traditional Dredging and Tracking. In addition the do nothing alternative (i.e. no sediment
removal), where eventual decommissioning is required is also analysed. The RESCON requires project
specific technical and economic data in addition to environmental and social safeguards parameters. The
important parameters with respect to flushing are representative flushing discharge; duration of flushing
events in addition to the parameters related to reservoir geometry, outlet capacities, sediments and water
flow. Before detailed calculations, the flushing scenarios are checked for technical feasibility, by
comparing the amounts of sediments evacuated with respect to amount of sediments inflow in a year. The
tracking and dredging options are always considered as technically feasible. For the baseline case for no
sediment removal, the model assumes two alternatives: run of river and eventual decommissioning. All
options are taken through an optimization routine to find economically viable options for each. The
results are compared and ranked for final decision by the user (Palmeri et al, 2003, Kawashima et al,
2003). This model was applied to the Tarbela dam in Pakistan and it was found that the reservoir can
achieve a sediment balance ratio of more than 1 even with a flushing for 20 days in a year with a water
depth of 417 m above mean sea level and a discharge of 3,787 m3/s.(Tinsanchi and Khan, 2006).
An empirical reservoir classification system was developed (Basson, 2004) based on a plot of the storage
capacity- mean annual runoff (MAR) against the capacity-sediment yield ratio gives some useful results.
Most reservoirs have a capacity- MAR ratio of between 0.2 to 3 and a life span of 50 to 2000 years when
considering reservoir sedimentation. When the capacity- MAR ratio is less than 0.03 especially in semi-
arid regions, sediment sluicing or flushing, should be carried out during the floods and through large
bottom outlets. When capacity – MAR ratios are however, larger than 0.2, not enough excess water is
available for flushing and the typical operational model is storage operation. The operating rules for a
reservoir need not be inflexible, but can change with different stsges of storage loss Storage operation
may be continued in reservoirs with large capacities relative to the sediment loads, while sluicing
/flushing operation can be introduced once the loss of storage capacity reaches a certain stage. This is
shown in Fig 10.4.

Fig 10.4 Empirical reservoir classification system in terms of storage runoff and sediment yield
Source: Basson, 2004

10.6 Sediment Load Formulae

10.6.1 A Sediment Rating Curve

Segments of a sediment rating curve are usually approximated by the power relationship of the form;

Qs = mQn (10.3)

where: Qs = suspended sediment transport (Mtons/day)

Q = water discharge (m3/s)
 m = coefficient
n = exponent

The exponent n for many rivers ranges about a mean of 2 (Garde and Ranga Raju, 1985). They could for
instance have one for the rising flood stage and the other for the falling stage. Observations indicate that
for higher discharges, the exponent will diminish and approach the value of unity.

Sediment rating curves are usually based on short term data unlike water discharge measurements.
However, long term sediment load estimates are required for reservoir sedimentation. As a consequence
Miller (1951) developed a method for finding the average sediment yield by combining the short term
sediment rating curve, with the long term flow duration curve to become the Flow Duration Sediment
Rating Curve Method. Experience indicates that the flow duration sediment rating curve is most reliable
when i) the recording period is long, ii) sufficient data at high flows are available and iii) the sediment
rating curve shows considerable scatter (Julien, 1995).

It is possible to calculate the total load or sediment load from the sum of the bed load and suspended load.
Separate equations are available for bed load and for suspended load. However, experimental data are still
rather sparse, and it is very difficult to separate bed and suspended load from these data. For this reason,
some researchers have tackled directly the problem of total load. Three examples of total load formulae
are outlined below.

10.6.2 Ackers and White Formula

Ackers and White (1973) applied dimensional analysis techniques to develop a general sediment transport
function in terms of three dimensionless groups, Ggr, Fgr and Dgr: Ggr is the sediment transport parameter,
which is based on the stream power concept. For bed load, the effective stream power is related to the
velocity of flow and to the net shear force acting on the grains. Suspended load is assumed to be a
function of total stream power, P. The particle mobility number, Fgr, is a function of shear stress/immersed
weight of grains. The critical value of Fgr (i.e. the magnitude representing inception of motion) is denoted
by A. Finally, a dimensionless particle size number, Dgr, expresses the relationship between immersed
weight of grains and viscous forces (Chadwick and Morfett, 1989). Ackers and White showed that the
transport of fine materials is best related to the total shear velocity and the transport of coarse sediments is
related to the mean velocity.

The equations are then as follows:

m
⎡ Fgr ⎤
n
q D ⎡U ∗ ⎤
G gr = S m ⎢V ⎥ = C ⎢ − 1⎥
sD ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ A ⎦ (10.4)

1− n
U ∗n ⎡ V ⎤
Fgr = ⎢ ⎥
gD [s − 1] ⎢⎣ 32 log (10 D m D ) ⎥⎦
(10.5)

⎛ g [s − 1] ⎞
1
3
D gr = D⎜ ⎟
⎝ ν
2
⎠ (10.6)

Where qS = volume of sediment transported per second per unit channel width
 q = flow discharge
Dm = mean flow depth
D = representative grain size (Usually D35, that is the size of sediment for which 35% of the
sample is finer)
U∗ = shear velocity
V = mean cross-section velocity
s = grain specific gravity = ρS ρ
ρS = density of sediments
ρ = density of water
ν = Kinematic viscosity

The index n does have a physical significance, since its magnitude is related to Dgr. For fine grains n =
1, for coarse grains n = 0, and for transitional sizes n = f (log Dgr).

The values for n, m , A, and C are as follows:

For Dgr > 60
n = 0, m = 1.5, A = 0.17 , C = 0.025

For 1 < Dgr < 60

n = 1 − 0.56 log D gr
m = 1.34 + 9.66 / D gr
A = 0.14 + 0.23 / D gr
log C = 2.86 log D gr − (log D gr ) − 3.53
2

10.6.3 Yang’s Formula

Yang (1979) hypothesized that the unit stream power, VS, defined as the time rate of potential energy
dissipated per unit weight of water, is the dominant factor in determining the sediment concentration in
alluvial channels. The relationship between the unit stream power and the total sediment concentration,
Ct, is expressed by
⎛ VS ⎞
log C t = I + J log ⎜ ⎟
⎝ w ⎠

wD 50 U
J = 1 .780 − 0 .360 log − 0 .480 log ∗
v w

wD 50 U
I = 5 .165 − 0 .153 log − 0 .297 log ∗
v w (10.8, 10.9,10.10)

Where Ct = total sediment concentration in ppm

U∗ = shear velocity
V = mean cross-section velocity
S = water slope
 w = fall velocity
VS w = dimensionless unit stream power
v = Kinematic viscosity

I and J are parameters determined from multiple regression analysis of a large range of experimental data.

10.6.4 Karim and Kennedy’s Formula

Karim and Kennedy (1983) used dimensional analysis to develop a power relationship between the total
sediment discharge, qt, and the flow velocity, V, shear velocity, U ∗ , the fall velocity, w, and the mean
particle diameter, D50

2.97
⎧⎪ ⎫⎪ 1.47
⎛U∗ ⎞
g (s − 1)D50
V
qt = k1 ⎨ ⎬ ⎜ ⎟
3

⎪⎩ g (s − 1)D50 ⎪⎭ ⎝ w⎠
(10.11)

Where qt is the total sediment discharge per metre width in m2/s and k1 = 0.00139 is a coefficient of
proportionality.

10.6.5 Discussion of Sediment Transport Formulae

In a study Karamisheva et al (2006) investigated nine sediment load transport formulae with experimental
data obtained during inbank and overbank flows in compound channels with straight and meandering
planforms. The comparison between measured and predicted sediment discharge gave the following
results:
• The formulae, which gave good prediction for sediment discharge for inbank flows also predicted
the sediment discharges for overbank flow with good accuracy.
• The Yang formula gave very good results for all the data studied.
• The Karim and Kennedy formula could be a good predictor of sediment discharge for inbank and
overbank flows in channels with straight and meandering planforms except that the constant of
proportionality needs calibration.
• The Ackers and White formula gave a very good prediction for the flood channel facility and a
good overall mean discrepancy ratio, but over predicted the sediment discharge in the smaller
experimental channel.

10.7 Sediment Estimation Examples

Example 10.1 (after Garg, 1999)

The following information is available regarding the relationship between trap efficiency and capacity
inflow ratio.
Capacity 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
inflow ratio

Trap 87 93 95 95.5 96 96.5 97 97 97 97.5

efficiency
percent

Find the probable life of the reservoir with an initial reservoir capacity of 25 million cubic meters, if the
average annual flood inflow is 50 million cubic meters and the average annual sediment inflow is 200,000
tons. Assume a specific weight of the sediment equal to 1.2 gm per c.c. The usual life of the reservoir will
terminate when 80% of its initial capacity is filled with sediment.

Solution
Average annual sediment inflow = 200,000 tons
= 2 ×105tonnes= 2 ×1011gm
Volume of average annual sediment inflow
2 × 1011 2 × 1011 3 0.2
= c.c = m = × 10 6 m 3
1.2 1.2 × 10 6 1.2
1
= M .m 3
6

= 0.1667 x 106 m3
Initial Reservoir Capacity = 25 M.m3
Annual flood inflow=50 M. m3
Let us assume that 20% of the capacity,i.e 5 M. m3 is filled up in the first interval .

25
Capacity inflow ratio at the start of the interval = = 0 .5
50
Trap efficiency at the start of the interval =0.96
20
Capacity inflow at the end of the interval = = 0 .4
50
Trap efficiency at the end of interval=0.955
0.96 + 0.955
Average trap efficiency during the interval = = 0.9575
2
1
Volume of sediment deposited annually till the 20% capacity is filled = × 0.9575M .m
3

6
= 0.1596 x 106m3
Therefore number of years during which 20% of the capacity, i.e 5 M. m3 shall be filled up
5
= = 31.3 years
0.1596

Similarly, in the 2nd interval

20
Capacity inflow ratio at the start = = 0.4
50
 15
Capacity inflow at the end = = 0 .3
50
Trap efficiency at the start = 0.955
Trap efficiency at the end = 0.95
Average trap efficiency = 0.9525
Volume of sediment deposited annually during this interval = 0.1667 x 106 m3 x 0.9525 = 0.15875 x106 m3

Number of years during which the next 20% of capacity shall be filled up
5
= = 31.5 years
0.15875

Similarly, in the 3rd interval

15
Capacity inflow ratio at the start = = 0 .3
50
10
Capacity inflow at the end = = 0 .2
50
Trap efficiency at the start = 0.95
Trap efficiency at the end = 0.93
Average trap efficiency = 0.94
Volume of sediment deposited annually during this interval = 0.1667 x 106m3x 0.94 = 0.1567 x 106 m3
Number of years during which the next 20% of capacity shall be filled up
= 5
= 31.9 years
0.1567

Similarly, in the 4th interval

10
Capacity inflow ratio at the start = = 0 .2
50
5
Capacity inflow at the end = = 0 .1
50
Trap efficiency at the start = 0.93
Trap efficiency at the end = 0.87
Average trap efficiency = 0.90
Volume of sediment deposited annually during this interval = 0.1667 x106 x 0.9 = 0.15 x 106 m3
Number of years during which the next 20% of capacity shall be filled up
= 5
= 33 . 3 years
0 . 15

Total probable life till 80% capacity gets filled up

= 31.3 + 31.5 + 31.9 + 33.3 = 128 years

The above calculations of dividing the entire capacity into intervals (20% each in the above case can also
be carried out in a tabular form, as shown below.
Capacity
% Capacity Col.(2) Trap Av. Trap Sediment Years reqd. to
Capacity/inflow=
Vol. 50Mcum efficiency eff. trapped per fill up 20%
M.cum η During year ;Col 5x capacity(6
the Av. Annual Mcum)
interval sediment 6
inflow=Col =
Col .( 6)
5x (1/6)
M.cum
100 25 0.5 0.96
0.9575 0.1596 31.3
80 20 0.4 0.955
0.9525 0.1588 31.5
60 15 0.3 0.95
0.94 0.1567 31.9
40 10 0.2 0.93
0.90 0.15 33.3
20 0.1 0.8
∑ =128.0
years

Example 10.2
A proposed reservoir has a capacity of 400 ha-m. The catchment area is 100km2 and the annual stream
flow averages 12 cm of runoff. If the annual sediment production is 0.03 ha.m, what is the probable life of
the reservoir before its capacity is reduced by 10% of its initial capacity by sedimentation? The
relationship between the trap efficiency η (%) and capacity inflow C/I is given below:

C/I 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7
η % 43 60 74 80 84 87 93 95 96 97

Average annual stream flow = 12 cm of runoff

Area of catchment = 100 km 2 = 100 × 10 6 m 2

Thus Annual flood inflow = (100 × 10 ). 100 m

6 12 3

12 × 10 6 m 3 = 12 M .m 3

Annual sediment inflow = 0.03 ha-m/km2 of the catchment

= 0.03 × 100ha − m = 0.03 × 100 × 10 4 m 3
= 0.03Mm 3

It means that 0.03 Mcum of sediment flows every year into the dam/reservoir site, but the quantity of this,
which is trapped in the reservoir, depends on the average trap efficiency, in turn depends on the C/I ratio.

In the question, the total capacity to be filled up by sediment is 10% of the initial reservoir capacity,
i.e. 10% x 4 Mcum=0.4 Mcum

Capacity of reservoir at the end = 3.6 Mcum

 4 Mcum
Capacity/inflow ratio at the start = = 0.3333
12 Mcum

η at start =95%
3 .6
Capacity/inflow at the end = = 0.30
12
η at the end of the interval = 95%
Average η = 95%
Sediment trapped per year = 0.0375x 95% = 0.035625
0.4
Number of years during which 0.5 Mcum 0f sediment will be trapped = years = 11.2 years
0.035625
Hence, after 14 years, the 10% reservoir will get filled up.

Example 10.3
Ackers and White Formula

In a flow of these characteristics

Depth, Dm 2.0 m
Mean velocity, V 1.5 m/s
Surface gradient, S 0.001

Over a bed characterized by

Representative grain size, D35 0.0003 m
Grain specific gravity, s 2.65
What rate of sediment transport should we expect per metre width of flow?

Solution
⎛ g [s − 1] ⎞ 3 = 6.954
1

First determine D gr = D⎜ ⎟
⎝ ν
2
⎠
(Use ν = 0.00000114 m2/s, appropriate to 15oC)

Next determine the four Dgr – dependent parameters n, m, A, and C

n = 1 − 0.56 log D gr = 0.5283
m = 1.34 + 9.66 / D gr = 2.729
A = 0.14 + 0.23 / D gr = 0.2272
(
2.86 log D gr − log D gr )2 −3.53
C = 10 = 0.01477

With these we can get the dimensionless particle mobility, Fgr:

1− n
U ∗n ⎡ V ⎤
Fgr = ⎢ ⎥
gD [s − 1] ⎣⎢ 32 log (10 D m D ) ⎥⎦

We need the shear velocity U ∗ , which we calculate from the standard formula for parallel flow
 U∗ = g Dm S = 0.1401 m/s

0.4717
0.3540 ⎛ 1.5 ⎞
So Fgr = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.293
0.06968 ⎝ 27 .29 ⎠

And hence we get the mean concentration qS as

m
⎡ Fgr ⎤
n
⎡U ∗ ⎤
c Dm
G gr = ⎢V ⎥ = C ⎢ − 1⎥
sD⎣ ⎦ ⎣ A ⎦
n m
CsD ⎛ V ⎞ ⎡ Fgr ⎤
c= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢ − 1⎥
Dm ⎝ U ∗ ⎠ ⎣ A ⎦
= 0.000005872 X 3.5 X 67.90
= 0.001396

The units of this are strictly dimensionless that is to say Kg/Kg, and must be multiplied by ρ , density of
water, to convert to mass / volume, the usual expression of concentration. Therefore to convert to the
customary mg/l we multiply by 1000000 ( ρ in mg/l) and obtain
ρ c = 1396 mg / l

To express sediment transport we use

qs = cVDmρ

Working entirely in Kg-m units we get

qS = 0.001396 X 1.5 X 2.0 X 1000 = 4.19 Kg/m/s

Example 10.4
Ackers and White Formula

A stream has a mean flow depth of 0.815m and mean cross section velocity of 1.57ms-1. The sediment in
this stream has a representative grain size of 1.14mm, shear velocity of 0.098ms-1, and a density of
2.65g/cm3. Taking acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81ms-2 and kinematic viscosity of water, υ = 1.04 x
10-6 m2/s, determine;

i) Particle size number, Dgr

− Representative grain size, D = 1.14 x 10-3m

− Density of sediment, ρs = 2.65g/cm3, density of water, ρ = 1 g/cm3

− Specific gravity of sediment, s = ρs/ρ = 2.65/1 =2.65

− Dgr = = 1.14 x 10-3(9.81(2.65-1)/( 1.04 x 10-6)2)1/3

 − Dgr = 28.09

ii) Particle mobility number, Fgr

− Fgr =

− Shear velocity of sediment, = 0.098ms-1

− mean cross section velocity, V = 1.57ms-1

− mean flow depth, Dm = 0.815m

− n = 1 – 0.56logDgr = 1 – 0.56 log 28.09 = 0.189

− Fgr =

− Fgr = 0.562

iii) Sediment transport parameter, Ggr

− Ggr =
− m = 1.34 + (9.66/Dgr) = 1.34 + 9.66/28.09 = 1.684
− A = 0.14 + (0.23/√ Dgr) = 0.14 + (0.23/√28.09) = 0.183
− Log C = 2.86 log Dgr – (log Dgr)2 – 3.53 = 2.86 log 28.09 – (log 28.09)2 – 3.53
− C = 0.0327

− Ggr = 0.0327
− Ggr = 0.111

Summary
The deposition of sediment in a reservoir is known as reservoir silting or sedimentation. During
sedimentation, when the water reaches a reservoir in the vicinity of a dam, the velocity and the turbulence
are considerably reduced. The deposition of sediments will reduce the water storing capacity of the
reservoir and if the process of deposition continues without being addressed it will lead to a significant
reduction in reservoir capacity with unfavourable consequences. In this chapter, river classification based
on sediment yield is discussed, followed by land degradation and the processes of sedimentation.This is
followed by the different effects of sedimentation, measures to control reservoir sedimentation and
various methods of estimating sediment load with examples in the region.
References
1. Ackers P., White W.R. Sediment Transport: A New Approach and Analysis, Journal of the
Hydraulic Division, ASCE, 1973, 99, No NY11 2041-2060, New York, USA.
2. Arora S.O. Water Resources Hydropower and Irrigation Engineering, Standard Publishers and
Distributors, 1996, New Dehli, India.

3. Azza N., The Dynamics of Shoreline Wetlands and Sediments of Northern Lake Victoria PhD
Thesis, UNESCO-IHE Delft 2006, The Netherlands.
4. Bamutaze, Y.,Tenywa, M.M.,Mwanjalolo,M., The Effect of Land Use on Runoff and Soil Loss
from Wanale Micro- Catchment, Mt Elgon, Uganda, , International Sediment Initiative
Conference, 12-15 November 2006, UNESCO Chair in Water Resources, Khartoum, Sudan.
5. Basson, G., Hydropower Dams and Fluvial Morphological Impacts – An African Perspective,
Proceedings United Nations Symposium on Hydropower and Sustainable Development, 27th –
29th October 2004, Beijing, China.
6. Brune, G.M. Trap Efficiency of Reservoirs, Transactions of American Geophysical Union; 1953,
Vol 344, No 3.
7. Chadwick A., Morfett J., Hydraulics in Civil Engineering, Allen and Unwin, 1989, London, UK.
8. Churchill M,A., Discussion of Analysis and Use of Reservoir Sedimentation Data, by L.C.
Gottschalk, Proceedings, Federal Inter Agency Sedimentation Conference 1948, Denver,
Colorado, USA.
9. Das G,, Hydrology and Soil Conservation Engineering, Prentice Hall, 2002, New Dehli, India.
10. Garde, R.J., Ranga Raju, K.G., Mechanics of Sediment Transportation and Alluvial Stream
Problems 3rd Edition, 1985,Wiley Eastern, New Delhi, India.
11. Garg, S.K. Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering, Khanna Publishers, 1998, New Dehli,
India.
12. Julein P.Y. Erosion and Sedimentation, Cambridge University Press, 1995 Cambridge UK.
13. Karamisheva R.D. Lyness J.F., Myers W.R.C., Cassells J.B.C. O’ Sullivan J., Sediment Transport
Formulae for Compound Channel Flows, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Water
Management 159, September 2006 Issue WM3, Pages 183-193 London,UK.
14. Karim M.F., Kennedy, J.F. Computer based Predictors for Sediment Discharge and Friction
Factor of Alluvial Streams, Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research, University of Iowa,1983,
Report No 242, Iowa, USA.
15. Kawashima S., Johndrow T. Annandale G.W. Shah F. Reservoir Conservation Vol II: Rescon
Model and User Manual, The World Bank 2003, Washington D.C. USA.
16. Kimaro, D., Isabirye, M., Semalulu, O., Magunda, M.K., Poesen, J.,Deckers, J., Magnitude of
Lake Victoria Sedimentation: Evaluation of Sediments and Agricultural Land Use on a Shoreline
Microcatchment, International Sediment Initiative Conference, 12-15 November 2006, UNESCO
Chair in Water Resources, Khartoum, Sudan.
17. Magunda, M.K., Tenywa, M.M., Soil and Water Conservation in Agriculture in Uganda, Vol 1,
General Information, 2001, Fountain Publishers/National Agriculture Research Organisation,
Technical Centr for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation, Kampala, Uganda
18. Miller C.R., Analysis of Flow Duration, Sediment Rating Curve Method of Computing Sediment
Yield, United States Bureau of Reclamation,1953, Virginia USA
19. Mwebembezi L, Kyoburungi G, A Report on Sediment Sampling 2001, Water Resources
Management Department, Entebbe, Uganda.
20. Novak, P., Moffat, A.I.B., Nalurri, C., Naranyanan, R., Second Edition, Hydraulic Structures,
E&FN Spon, 1996, London UK.
21. Palmieri A., Shah F., Annandale, G.W., Dina A, Reservoir Conservation Vol I, The Rescon
Approach, The World Bank 2003, Washington D.C. USA.
 22. Raghunath H.M., Hydrology, Principles, Analysis and Design, New Age International Ltd, 2005,
New Dehli, India.
23. Read, H.H., Watson, J., Beginning Geology, George Allen and Unwin Ltd/ Macmillan Education
Ltd, 1972, London, UK..
24. Rowntree K.M., Wadeson R.A, A Hierarchical Geomorphological Model for the Classification of
selected South African Rivers, Water Research Commission, Report No 497/1/99, Pretoria, South
Africa.
25. Rugumayo A.I., Mwondha I., Musiime T; Sediment Yield Assessment and River Classification
with Limited Data Sets; Proceedings: Sustainable Water Resources Management in the Changing
Environment of Monsoon Region, 2004 Colombo, Sri Lanka.
26. Siyam A.M., El Zein S., El Sayed S.M., Mirghani M, Golla S., Saleh A, Klaassen G.,,
Assessment of the Current State of the Nile Basin Reservoir Sedimentation Problems, NBCBN-
RE, 2005, Khartoum, Sudan
27. Tingasanchali, T. Khan N.M. Combating Reservoir Sedimentation, Proceedings, International
Seminar on Managing Water Supply for Growing Demand Bangkok, Thailand, UNESCO 2006,
Jakarta, Indonesia.
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123-138, London, UK.

Further Reading

1. Dake,J.M.K.., Essentials of Engineering Hydraulics, 3rd Edition, Macmillan, 1982,London, UK.

2. Design of Small Dams, United States Department of the Interior, A Water Resources Technical
Publication,1974, Washington, USA.

3. Linsely and Franzini: Water Resources Engineering, McGraw, 1979, London, UK

4. Viessman, W., J.W. Knapp, G.L. Lewis & T.E. Harbaugh (1977). Introduction to Hydrology,
Harper Row, New York

Questions
1. The following information is available regarding the relationship between trap efficiency and capacity
inflow ratio.

Capacity inflow ratio 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Trap efficiency percent 87 93 95 95.5 96 96.5 97 97 97 97.5

Find the probable life of the reservoir with an initial reservoir capacity of 25 million cubic meters, if the
average annual flood inflow is 50 million cubic meters and the average annual sediment inflow is 150,000
tons. Assume a specific weight of the sediment equal to 1.2 gm per c.c. The usual life of the reservoir will
terminate when 80% of its initial capacity is filled with sediment.

2. Explain the terms: i) Trap Efficiency ii) Capacity Inflow Ratio

3. How can we control reservoir sedimentation?

4. In a flow of these characteristics:

Depth, Dm 1.5 m
Mean velocity, V 2.0 m/s
Surface gradient, S 0.0015
over a bed characterized by
Representative grain size, D35 0.0003 m
Grain specific gravity, s 2.65

and using the Ackers and White formula, determine the rate of sediment transport expected per metre
width of flow?

5. Distinguish between suspended load and bed load.

6. Describe the process of sedimentation in the different stages of a river.
7. What factors that affect the amount of sediment load in a river.
8. Explain the effects of sedimentation in a river.
9 Discuss the performance of three different formula for estimating sediment load.
10.Why should land degradation be addressed in engineering designs?