CHAPTER VIII

GROUNDWATER,
RIVER, AND FLOOD
HAZARDS

GEOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 Prepared by:

GROUP 5
NICA B. ARANDIA
CINDY BARO
LESLIE ROSE A. CABACANG
FRITCHENE DUNE KLARIZ DUAN
MYRRH KATHRYN B. GUMARAO
JESSALYN PONCE
FRANZ COLISAO
SEAN ZON BASTI S. DELA ROSA
DAN LEANDRO C. LANANG

Submitted to:
ENGR. RIC GONZAGA
Professor
 TAB L E O F C O N T E N T S

8.1. Introduction 1
8.2. Sources of Stream Water 3
8.3. Flow, Energy, Erosion,
Transportation and Deposition Stream 4
8.4. Cycle of Erosion 7
8.5. Groundwater Zones 9
8.6. Movement of Groundwater 10
8.7. Discharge of Groundwater 11
8.8. Erosion due to Groundwater 12
8.9. Transportation and Deposition
by Groundwater 14
8.10. Areas that are prone to and
generally safe from flood 15
Summary 20
References 21
 CHAPTER VIII: GROUNDWATER, RIVER, AND FLOOD HAZARDS

The following topics are to be discussed in this chapter, to wit:

Introduction to groundwater, river, and flood hazards; sources of stream wa-
ter; flow, energy, erosion, transportation and deposition of stream; cycle of ero-
sion; groundwater zones; movement of groundwater; discharge of groundwater;
erosion due to groundwater; transportation and deposition by groundwater; and
areas that are prone to and generally safe from flood.

Learning Outcomes:

• Apply the geologic formations that affect the structures built on natural materials
and geologic structures.
• Identify the application of the general principles of engineering geology.
• Formulate case studies of engineering geology in relation to civil engineering
problems.
• Apply engineering geology into site assessment in response to Civil Engineering
problems.

8.1 INTRODUCTION
The impact of groundwater on an underground construction project can be
enormous. Water affects the design of the structure, the construction procedures,
and the overall project cost. Water problems of unexpected severity cause major
delays, often requiring drastic redesigns. A high proportion of the claims and litiga-
tion in construction contracting arises from groundwater issues. There have been
cases where entire projects were abandoned because of water, despite substan-
tial investment in already completed construction. The concurrent trends of popu-
lation growth and population concentration have sent land values soaring, creating
a demand for the development of sites that were previously considered unsuitable;
often groundwater, as it affects construction and long-term maintenance of a facili-
ty, must be addressed early in the planning stages.

1
 The interrelationship between changes in groundwater conditions
and engineering construction:
The presence of groundwater and its effects are often major considerations
in the design of civil engineering works. The engineering geologist is expected to
provide reliable information on this subject by means of appropriate site investi-
gation techniques. In many instances possible changes in groundwater levels
beyond the normal seasonal variations are not considered. Large changes can
occur, for example, a reduction in groundwater pumping will cause water tables
to rise, flooding basements and tunnels and possibly changes in the load bearing
properties of soils. Civil engineering construction can have a similarly significant
effect on local water supplies especially in the case of road cuttings, tunnels and
pipelines.

2
8.2 SOURCES OF STREAM WATER

CHANNEL PRECIPITATION
The moisture falling directly on the water surface, and in most
streams, it adds very little to discharge.

OVERLAND FLOW
The movement of water over the land, downslope toward a surface
water body.

INTERFLOW
Interflow is the lateral movement of water in the unsaturated zone, or
vados zone, that first returns to the surface or enters a stream prior to be-
coming groundwater.
GROUNDWATER FLOW
Part of the streamflow that has infiltrated the ground, entered the
phreatic zone, and has been (or in a particular time) discharged into a
stream channel or springs; and seepage water.

3
8.3 FLOW, ENERGY, EROSION, TRANSPORATION AND DESPOSITION OF
STREAM

FLOW OF STREAM
A stream is a continuous flow of
water on the earth's surface. Steam
can be similar to a river since they
both have a continuous flow of bodies
of water, but they can differ in size.
The river contains a huge quantity of
water, and it flows only into a larger,
deeper, longer, and wider bank. A
stream can flow into a narrow bank
and a small river.

EROSION OF STREAM
The movement of the water in a stream pushes along the soil and
breaks down pieces of rock in the process of erosion. It is breaking the land
down.

Four (4) Types of Erosion

1. Abrasion — is the process of sediments wearing down the bedrock

and the banks.
2. Attrition — is the collision between sediment particles that break into
smaller and more rounded pebbles.
3. Hydraulic action — is the force of water against the banks, compress-
ing air pockets into cracks that expand and fracture the rock over time.
4. Solution — is the process of acidic water dissolving soluble sediment.

4
ENERGY OF STREAM
The energy of the flowing stream comes from the force of gravity, which
pulls the water downward. The steeper the slope of a stream is, the faster the
stream moves and the more energy it has.

TRANSPORTATION OF STREAM
Transportation refers to the movement of earth's materials by water in a
stream.

Four (4) Ways of Stream Transportation in Sediments

1. Solution — minerals are dissolved in the water and carried along in

solution. This typically occurs in areas where the underlying bedrock
is limestone.
2. Suspension — fine light material is carried along in the water.
3. Saltation — small pebbles and stones are bounced along the
stream bed.
4. Traction — large boulders and rocks are rolled along the stream
bed.

5
DEPOSITION OF STREAM
The deposition of a stream is the dropping of transported earth's material.
This process slows down the velocity of the water, and it has low energy to car-
ry the sediments, which is why it drops off.

6
8.4 CYCLE OF EROSION
The geographic cycle, or cycle of ero-
sion, is an idealized model that explains the
development of relief in landscapes. The
model starts with the erosion that follows up-
lift of land above a base level and ends, if
conditions allow, in the formation of a pene-
plain. Cycle of Erosion, Theory of the evolu-
tion of landforms. In this theory, first set forth
by William M. Davis between 1884 and 1934,
landforms were assumed to change through
time from “youth” to “maturity” to “old age,”
each stage having specific characteristics. William Morris Davis

7
 1. YOUTH STAGE
In this stage, potential energy (m×g×h) maximises due to the maximum
upliftment of the landscape. Some consequent streams and their tributaries
primarily take part in the erosion process and develops ‘V’-shaped river val-
ley. There exists no flood-land, and water-divider is one of the most promi-
nent features in this stage. In this primary stage, cascades may develop
within the way of river-flow. River meander is a rare feature that develops
based on the primary ridges and slopes. Bottom erosion of river is the main
erosional process in the youth stage.

2. MATURE STAGE
Gradually the landscape evolves towards the mature stage. Surface
roughness maximizes and various drainage patterns become prominent in
this stage, and accordingly side erosion by river majorly takes part rather
than the bottom erosion. Wide flood-plain develops in the mature stage
which results the water-dividers to become less prominent. The width of the
valley floor almost resembles with the width of the meander belt.

3. OLD STAGE
Chronologically the landform get to its old stage when the river valley
floor becomes extremely wide and develops almost a plain land, which Davis
identified as ‘Peneplain’. In this stage the landscape comes to its base level
of erosion. Two most important and prominent features of old stage of ero-
sion are ‘Monadnock’ and ‘Oxbow Lake’. Monadnock are the remaining part
of the eroded water-dividers, and in the other side, oxbow lake develops
when a river intersects its well-formed curves and flows in a straight line.

8
8.5 GROUNDWATER ZONES

UNZATURATED ZONE
The unsaturated zone, immediately below the land surface, contains
water and air in the open spaces, or pores.

SATURATED ZONE
The saturated zone is the zone in which all the pores and rock fractures
are filled with water, underlies the unsaturated zone. The top of the saturat-
ed zone is called the water table. The water table may be just below or hun-
dreds of feet below the land surface.

9
8.6 MOVEMENT OF GROUNDWATER
The movement of groundwater depends on the porosity and hydraulic
conductivity of sediments and rocks.

POROSITY
• The percentage of voids or openings in sediment or rock fragments.
• The measurement of rock’s ability to hold water.
- Loose sand 30 to 50 % porosity
- Compacted sandstone 10-20% porosity
• Loose sand will have higher hydraulic conductivity than compacted
sandstone.
HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
• The capacity of rock to transmit fluid through pores and fractures.

HYDRAULIC HEAD
• Hydraulic Head is also used to assess groundwater movement.
• It takes into account differences in elevation and pressure.
• For example water moving from high pressure to low pressure.

RATES
• Water usually moves underground at a very slow rates.
- Can be 1ft./year or 1ft./decade
• However, California’s largest springs can discharge 1 million gallons of
water per minute.

10
8.7 DISCHARGE TO GROUNDWATER
Construction activities have the potential to create discharges to ground wa-
ters, with the risk of pollution and degradation of groundwater quality.
Common examples include leakages and spills of fuels and lubricants, runoff
from operations such as: concrete placement, and surface water runoff from topsoil
removal and excavation.
The pollution risk can be reduced by the adoption of good practices, following
guidance from environmental regulators. The risk of pollution is increased if ground-
water pathways are associated with the works. Open excavations often form a
ready pathway for inadvertent discharges to groundwater.
Good site practice should include prohibiting refueling of plant (and storage of
fuels) in or near excavations, and surface water drainage should be arranged to re-
duce the risk of spills or runoff entering the excavation.
Structures with deep basements or below-ground spaces can also provide a
long-term potential for discharges into the aquifer. If the structure is not watertight
and penetrates confining beds, leaks, spillages or surface water may be able to per-
colate more freely into groundwater. Individually, such leakages can be small, but
their combined effect can lead to significant regional groundwater contamination.

11
8.8 EROSION DUE TO GROUNDWATER
Ground water is a strong erosional force, as it works to dissolve away solid
rock. Carbonic acid is especially good at dissolving the rock limestone. Working
slowly over many years, ground water travels along small cracks. The water dis-
solves and carries away the solid rock gradually enlarging the cracks, eventually
forming a cave. The minerals may then be deposited, for example, as stalagmites or
stalactites.

How does groundwater causes erosion?

Groundwater erodes rock beneath the ground surface. Limestone is a car-
bonate and is most easily eroded. Groundwater dissolves minerals and carries the
ions in solution. Groundwater erosion creates caves and sinkholes If a stalactite
and stalagmite join together, they form a column.

How erosion due to groundwater can form a cave?

Groundwater can cause erosion through chemical weathering. First water that
sinks into the ground mixes with carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid a weak acid.
Over time these pockets develop into large holes underground—caves or caverns.

12
 EROSION DUE TO GROUNDWATER

Ground water is a strong erosional force, as it works to dissolve away solid

rock. Carbonic acid is especially good at dissolving the rock limestone. Working
slowly over many years, ground water travels along small cracks. The water dis-
solves and carries away the solid rock gradually enlarging the cracks, eventually
forming a cave. The minerals may then be deposited, for example, as stalagmites
or stalactites.

How does groundwater causes erosion?

Groundwater erodes rock beneath the ground surface. Limestone is a car-
bonate and is most easily eroded. Groundwater dissolves minerals and carries the
ions in solution. Groundwater erosion creates caves and sinkholes If a stalactite
and stalagmite join together, they form a column.

13
8.9 TRANSPORTATION AND DEPOSITION OF GROUNDWATER
TRANSPORTATION
The material taken into solution by the groundwater is carried along
with the water as it moves through the rocks. The dominant circulation is
through cracks, joints and fissures all of which are tabular opening lying at
all angles in the rocks and crossing each other at all angles.
Water moves through sandstone, channeled limestone and tuff in any
direction at low rate. Water may work its way downward along one set of
joints and find its way upward again along another set.

DEPOSITION
While possibly a good part of the mineral matter dissolved by ground-
water is carried in solution directly to the sea, some quantities are deposit-
ed below and at the surface. The groundwater is capable of dissolving only
a limited amount of mineral matter. When it has taken all it can hold it is
said to be saturated and then slight changes will cause the deposition of
some of the material.

Causes of Deposition
Deposition by groundwater may be brought about in several ways. The
water may be over charged and deposit because of:
(i) Evaporation
(ii) Lowering of temperature
(iii) Fall in pressure
(iv) Loss of part or all of the gas contained
(v) Mixing of water having different things in solution.

14
8.10 AREAS THAT ARE PRONE TO AND ARE GENERALLY SAFE FROM
FLOOD

AREAS PRONE TO FLOOD

Generally, the natural behavior of water (and flowing water) is that it
moves from higher ground to lower ground. This means if there is a higher
ground adjacent to lower ground, the lower ground is a lot more likely
to experience floods.
Additionally, anywhere that rains fall, floods can develop. This is so
because anytime there are more rains, bringing more water than it can be
drained or absorbed by the soil, there is a flood potential.
In many cities, there are buildings springing up in places where they
have not been authorized. Some of these buildings are placed in water-
ways. Other places also have very bad and chocked drainage systems.
The danger is that, with the rains, water will find its level if it cannot find its
way. The result is flooding and your home could be submerged.
Any plain low-lying area adjacent to a river, lagoon, or lake is also
more likely to have floods anytime the water level rises. This includes
coastal areas and shorelines, as seawater can easily be swept inland by
strong winds, tides, and tsunamis.

15
 AREAS SAFE FROM FLOOD — PHILIPPINES
Take a look at some of the areas in Metro Manila that are surprisingly
flood free based on the Geohazard Map of the Philippines, which is made
by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources – Mines and
GoeSciences Bureau.

1. Makati is ranked the 16th most densely populated city in the world, in
addition to containing the majority of the country’s businesses. Aside
from commuter traffic, the city government also needs to ensure that it
remains flood-free despite the fact that it is right smack in the middle of
two large bodies of water: Manila Bay and Laguna de Bay. Makati is al-
so near Pasig River, which connects both bays. The effects of flooding
as based on the geohazard map, it’s been reported that Mayor Jejomar
Erwin Binay has since ordered daily dredging operations of the Makati
diversion channel to avoid future flash floods and traffic jams.

16
 2. Muntinlupa, it is the fact that it is home to one of the most exclusive
communities in the country: Ayala Alabang (Alabang is home to Alabang
Town Center, Ayala Alabang Village, El Molito Complex, and Madrigal
Business Park). The city has been dedicated to ensuring that its water-
ways remain open by being the first in the metro to issue a citywide ban
on the use of styro-foam and plastic products. Garbage from said prod-
ucts has long been credited as the main item found in blocked drainage
systems.
Las Piñas, on the other hand, is barely mentioned even in the
news whenever a storm is expected to hit Manila. Despite the fact that
the city’s location is threatened with the possibility of flooding due to its
proximity to both Manila and Laguna Bays, the city is known as one of
the cleanest cities in the metro.

17
 3. Despite the fact that Quezon City has made the rounds in the news
every time flooding is reported, most major parts of the city are relatively
passable during storms. The city government under Mayor Herbert Bau-
tista reasoned that there are certain residential establishments and a
few facilities that were built in low-lying areas or near bodies of water.
The LGU has also since declared that Bagong Silangan is not fit for resi-
dential living as it is a natural plain. Moreover, civil engineering professor
Andres Winston C. Oreta of the De La Salle University said in one of his
published white papers that the main cause of flash-floods in the city is
because of blocked drainage. Since Typhoon Ondoy, Quezon City has
since stepped up its dredging and de-clogging of all waterways in the
area.

18
 4. Parañaque City is regarded as a major business and trade center in
the metro due to its close location to the sea. Its location has proven to
be a big problem when the country started being plagued with aggres-
sive weather disturbances in the recent decade, a flood control program
has been set in place by Paranaque City Mayor Edwin L. Olivarez ever
since his ascension to office in 2009. The program, which was first test-
ed last year, was regarded as a success because the city’s flood-prone
areas did not experience heavy floods unlike the other neighboring cit-
ies.

19
SUMMARY
The presence of groundwater and its effects are often major considerations in
the design of civil engineering works. The engineering geologist is expected to pro-
vide reliable information on this subject by means of appropriate site investigation
techniques.
In many instances possible changes in groundwater levels beyond the normal
seasonal variations are not considered. Large changes can occur, for example, a
reduction in groundwater pumping will cause water tables to rise, flooding base-
ments and tunnels and possibly changes in the load bearing properties of soils. Civil
engineering construction can have a similarly significant effect on local water sup-
plies especially in the case of road cuttings, tunnels and pipelines.

• A stream is a continuous flow of water on the earth's surface. Steam can be

similar to a river since they both have a continuous flow of bodies of water, but
they can differ in size.
• The geographic cycle, or cycle of erosion, is an idealized model that explains
the development of relief in landscapes.
1. Youth Stage
2. Mature Stage
3. Old Stage
• The unsaturated zone, immediately below the land surface, contains water
and air in the open spaces, or pores.
• The saturated zone is the zone in which all the pores and rock fractures are
filled with water, underlies the unsaturated zone. The top of the saturated
zone is called the water table.
• The movement of groundwater depends on the porosity and hydraulic conduc-
tivity of sediments and rocks.
• Construction activities have the potential to create discharges to ground wa-
ters, with the risk of pollution and degradation of groundwater quality.
• Common examples include leakages and spills of fuels and lubricants, runoff
from operations such as: concrete placement, and surface water runoff from
topsoil removal and excavation.

20
 REFERENCES

https://youtu.be/3YdEkegvJCQ
https://youtu.be/mhvWQhSC_UY
https://youtu.be/YoZZZQ2lxOc
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-earth-science-
flexbook-2.0/section/14.3/primary/lesson/erosion-by-groundwater-ms-
es/#:~:text=Groundwater%20erodes%20rock%20beneath%
20the,erosion%20creates%20caves%20and%20sinkholes.
https://www.slideshare.net/dwinter1/groundwater-75711574
https://eschooltoday.com/learn/areas-prone-to-flooding/
https://www.zipmatch.com/blog/flood-free-areas-in-metro-manila/

https://www.clearias.com/erosion-deposition-running-water-ground-
water/
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/project-reports/groundwater-project-
reports/project-report-on-groundwater-geology/91278

21