Students’ requirements

1. EXERCISE BOOK 1.
-Normal lesson notes
-Class works
- Home works
- Key word glossary
2. EXERCISE BOOK 2.
- Timed essay and case studies
3. PAST PAPER FILES.
- With paper 1, 2 and 4
4. TEXT BOOK
COMPLETE GEOGRAPHY FOR CAMBRIDGE IGCSE (K.David
&F.Muriel )
5. JOINING EDMODO ( Code: vt7atg )
 CIE Geography Topics

1: Population dynamics
2: Settlement
3: Earthquakes and volcanoes
4: Rivers and coasts
5: Weather and climate
6: Development
7: Food production and industry
8: Tourism
9: Energy and water
10: Environmental risks of economic development
 Learning objectives
By the end of the lesson students should be able
to;
i) Draw a pie chart to show the sources of
water on earth.
ii) Define and explain the global hydrological
system(hydrological cycle).
iii) ) Explain the concept of drainage basin as a
system and define the words input
output ,store and transfer.
 Learning objectives
iv) Label a diagram to show the drainage basins
system with key characteristics and inputs,
stores, transfers and outputs
v) Discuss on the factors affecting processes
within a drainage basin.
vi) Sketch and label drainage basin features such
as watershed, confluence and tributary.
vii) Label diagram to show the long profile of a
river and label each section.
 RIVERS

Sources of water on the earth shown by pie

chart (draw a pie chart to show the sources of
water on earth)
What did you notice about fresh water?
 Hydrological cycle
The hydrological cycle is also known as the water
cycle.
Seas and oceans contain 97 per cent of the world's
water, and ice holds 2 per cent. That leaves just 1 per
cent of the world's water as fresh water on land or in
the air. This water is recycled again and again through
the process of evaporation, condensation and water
transfers such as surface run-off.
Surface run-off ( flowing of water over the land
surface)
 Cont.

Water does not come into or leave planet earth.

Water is continuously transferred between the
atmosphere and the oceans. This is known as
the global hydrological cycle. This system is a
closed system. There are no inputs or outputs
 Hydrological cycle
(The global hydrological system)
 Drainage basin
• This illustration below shows the drainage basin
as a systems diagram. The drainage basin has
inputs and outputs, and water in the system is
either transferred or stored
A drainage basin is an example of an open system
because it is open to inputs from outside, such as
precipitation, and is responsible for outputs out
of the system, such as output of water into the
sea and evaporation of water into the atmosphere
Drainage basin as a system
 Input
Inputs – water coming into the system
The main input to the system is precipitation.
The type of precipitation (rain or snow, etc.), the
intensity, the duration and frequency all have an
effect on the amount of water in the system.
Each subsystem of the drainage basin system
will also have inputs and outputs, and the
output from one stage of the diagram will form
the input for another.
 Storage

Storage – water stored in the system

Water is stored in a drainage basin on the surface
in lakes and channels or underground in the
groundwater store. Water reaches the groundwater
store via the processes of infiltration and
percolation. During these processes, some water
will be stored in the soil and rock. The amount of
water stored will vary depending on the porosity of
the soil and on the permeability of the rock.
 Cont.

Water can also be temporarily stored via

interception. This refers to the storage of water
on leaf and plant stems.
Dense foliage may result in little water reaching
the ground, since it often evaporates from the
leaves
 Transfer
Transfer - water moving from one place to
another
The sum of all the water flowing over the
drainage basin’s surface is called runoff. It is
made up of stream flow, which is flow through
permanent river channels and overland flow or
surface runoff. Overland flow transfers water
through the basin either as sheet wash, across
the surface, or in tiny channels called rills.
 Cont.

Beneath the surface, water is transferred via

through flow, which is the movement of water
through the lower soil towards rivers, and
groundwater flow. Groundwater flow is typically
very slow. Water that has been intercepted by
foliage may also be transferred, either directly as
through fall, or by running down branches and
stems via stem flow.
 Outputs

The final release of the water in a drainage basin

is known as its output. Typically, rivers flowing
into the sea will be the main output of a
drainage basin. Some water will also be lost via
evapotranspiration. This process refers to direct
evaporation, and also to the extend that
moisture lost from leaves will result in plants
withdrawing water from the soil via their roots.
 Factors affecting processes within a
drainage basin
 Topography
 Soil type
 Bedrock type
 Climate
 Vegetation cover
 Human influence( deforestation, urbanization)
Key features of the drainage basin
 Cont.
Drainage basin- the area of land drained by a
river.
Catchment area - the area within the drainage
basin.
Watershed - the edge of highland surrounding
a drainage basin. It marks the boundary
between two drainage basins.
Source - The beginning or start of a river.
 Cont.
Confluence - the point at which two rivers or
streams join.
Tributary - a stream or smaller river which joins
a larger stream or river.
Mouth - the point where the river comes to
the end, usually when entering a sea
 The long profile of a river
The long profile of a river is a way of displaying
the channel slope of a river along its entire
course. Therefore, it shows how a river loses
height with increasing distance towards the sea
OR
A river changes shape as it flows from its source
(where a river starts) to its mouth (where a river
flows into a sea or lake)
The long profile of a river
 Rivers - Upper Course

 The upper course has a steep gradient,

 The valley floor is very narrow and the sides of
the valley are steep
 The river flows at a high velocity(speed)
 Rivers - Middle Course

 The middle course of the river has a wider

floor and the sides of the valley are more
gently sloping.
 The velocity is slower than the upper stage.
 The channel is wider as the amount of water
flowing in it increases as other streams and
rivers join it
 Rivers - Lower Course

 The lower course of the river is very gentle

sloping, almost flat.
 The channel is usually at its widest and
deepest here because the amount of water
flowing within the river is at its greatest
Cont.
 The Bradshaw Model

The Bradshaw Model attempts to show what

should happen to various river characteristics
from source to mouth along its long profile.

There are many changes that occur in rivers as a

result of changes within the water cycle and
drainage basin. The diagram below summarises
the changes that occur.
 Questions

November 2014 paper 22 QN 6

November 2012 paper 22QN 3
 Learning objectives
By the end of the lesson students should be
able to;
i) Define the term Load.
ii) Define the term Erosion, Transportation and
Deposition.
iii) Define the four processes of erosion –
corrosion, corrasion, hydraulic action and
attrition.
 Learning objectives

iv) Differentiate between vertical and lateral

erosion.
v) Define the four processes of transportation–
traction, saltation ,suspension, and solution.
 RIVER PROCESSES.

An understanding of the work of a river in

eroding, transporting and depositing
1. EROSION
Erosion involves the wearing away of rock and
soil found along the river bed and banks. Erosion
also involves the breaking down of the rock
particles being carried downstream by the river.
 1. EROSION
The four main forms of river erosion
Hydraulic action;
The force of the river against the banks can cause
air to be trapped in cracks and crevices. The pressure
weakens the banks and gradually wears it away.

Abrasion (corrasion);
Rocks carried along by the river wear down the
river bed and banks.
 cont.
Attrition ;
Rocks being carried by the river smash together
and break into smaller, smoother and rounder
particles.

Solution (corrosion) ;
Soluble particles are dissolved into the river.
 Cont.
Vertical erosion / Down cutting/downward
erosion is a geological process by hydraulic
action that deepens the channel of a stream or
valley by removing material from the stream's
bed or the valley's floor. Makes river channel
deeper and narrow.
Lateral erosion is the erosion that occurs on the
sides of the river(banks) making the river wider
in shape.
 2. Transportation
Rivers pick up and carry material as they flow
downstream.
load of a river: Material which it is carrying
The four different river transport processes
Solution - minerals are dissolved in the water
and carried along in solution.

Suspension - fine light material is carried along

in the water.
 Transportation

Saltation - small pebbles and stones are

bounced along the river bed.

Traction - large boulders and rocks are rolled

along the river bed
Transport of material in a river
 Cont.
Rivers need energy to transport material, and
levels of energy change as the river moves from
source to mouth.
When energy levels are very high, large rocks
and boulders can be transported. Energy levels
are usually higher near a river's source, when its
course is steep and its valley narrow. Energy
levels rise even higher in times of flood.
 Cont.

When energy levels are low, only small

particles can be transported (if any). Energy
levels are lowest when velocity drops as a river
enters a lake or sea (at the mouth)
 DEPOSITION
When a river loses energy, it will drop or deposit
some of the material it is carrying.
Deposition may take place when a river enters an
area of shallow water or when the volume of water
decreases - for example, after a flood or during times
of drought.
Deposition is common towards the end of a river's
journey, at the mouth.
Deposition at the mouth of a river can form deltas -
for example, the Mississippi Delta.
 QUESTIONS.
QN 1( a and b) pg. 122 and
QN 2 pg. 123 Complete Geography for Cambridge
Igcse.

JUNE 2014 PAPER 13 QN 4

JUNE 2011 PAPER 13 QN 4
JUNE 2011 PAPER 22 QN 4
NOV 2012 PAPER 13 QN 3
 Cont.

In pairs, discuss why and under what conditions a river might deposit material and
note down ideas – discuss and confirm in whole class discussion. Learners
annotate previous long profile diagram to show where erosion, transport and
deposition take place in a river. (I)

Revisit Bradshaw model diagram and whole class discussion as to why width,
depth and speed change with distance downstream – learners answer questions
to explain the changes. (I)

Learners could also be provided with data to show changes downstream – draw
graphs, river and valley cross sections, describe and explain changes, produce
scatter graphs to show the relationship between data sets – write up as a mini
investigation. Alternatively, this information could be collected through fieldwork
– see note below.
 Learning objectives
By the end of the lesson students should be able
to;
i) Mention the landforms formed in the upper
course of the river.

ii) Explain the formation of the landforms in the

upper course of the river.
 Questions.

Read Pg.(283) of the New wider world and

answer the following questions;
1. Name the Landforms(features) formed in
upper course (high land area) of the river.
2. Explain the formation of the landforms
mentioned (in question no. 1) above.
 Formation of the landforms associated
with river processes.

(A) Upper-course river:

Features formed in the upper course of the river
are;
i) Steep-sided V-shaped valleys,
ii) Interlocking spurs,
iii) Rapids,
iv) Waterfalls and gorges.
v) Potholes
 Cont.

As the river moves through the upper course it

cuts downwards. The gradient here is steep and
the river channel is narrow.
Vertical erosion in this highland part of the river
helps to create steep-sided V-shaped valleys,
interlocking spurs, rapids, waterfalls and gorges.
 1. Waterfall:

Waterfall: Waterfalls are where water descends

vertically. Waterfalls are usually created by a change
in rock type. As the river moves from hard rock to
soft rock, erosion increases creating a waterfall.
As the water falls over the waterfall it erodes the
river bed and the bottom of the waterfall. This
makes a plunge pool and causes some
undercutting.
 Cont.

The undercutting creates an overhang which will

eventually become too heavy to be supported
and collapse into the plunge pool. The whole
process then starts again, which means the
waterfall is constantly retreating upstream
towards the source.
As the waterfall retreats it leaves behind a
gorge.
Cont.
Cont.
 2. Gorge

A gorge is a deep sided valley left behind when a

waterfall retreats.
 3.Rapids

Are sections of rough turbulent (white water)

water. They are normally in a river's upper
course and are formed when you get layers of
hard and soft rock.
The layers of soft rock erode quicker than the
layers of hard rock. This makes the bed of the
river uneven creating rough turbulent water.
 Cont.

Rapids can become popular with tourists who want to

raft down them. Some of the most popular rafting
rivers are the Nile in Uganda and the Zambezi in
Zimbabwe.

However, rapids can cause problems with transport,

ships can not travel up and down rapids and it is very
hard to build bridges across them. They are also
extremely dangerous if people fall into them
Rapids
Rapids
 4. Potholes.

Potholes are holes found in the river bed.

Load carried by the river is washed around in a
circular motion causing vertical erosion.
 5. V-shaped Valley.

V-shaped valleys are found in a river's upper

course where vertical erosion is dominant. The
river will erode (cut) downwards while the sides
are weathered (attacked by the weather e.g.
rain, wind ).
The weathered material will then fall into the
river and be transported away leaving a v-
shaped valley.
V-shaped valley
 6. Interlocking Spurs

Interlocking spurs are the areas of the valley

(hills sides) that stick out into the river forcing
the river to meander(wind) around them.
Cont.
 Learning objectives
i) Define and explain the formation of Meander
and Oxbow lake.
ii) Draw a cross section of the meander and
Label key characteristics ; fastest flow, outside,
erosion, river cliff, inside, slow flow, river
beach, shallow.
iii)Draw fully annotated sketches to show a river
cliff and a river beach – describe and explain
their formation.
 (B) Middle course features

Middle-course river features include;

i) Wider valleys,
ii) Meanders, and
iii) Oxbow lakes.
READ PAGE 284( NEW WIDER WORLD) AND
EXPLAIN THE FORMATION OF MEANDER AND
OXBOW LAKE
 Cont.

In the middle course the river has more energy

and a high volume of water. The gradient here is
gentle and lateral (sideways) erosion has
widened the river channel.
The river channel has also deepened. A larger
river channel means there is less friction, so the
water flows faster.
 1. Meanders.

As the river erodes laterally, to the right side

then the left side, it forms large bends, called
meanders.
 Cont.

The formation of meanders is due to both deposition

and erosion and meanders gradually migrate
downstream.
The force of the water erodes and undercuts the river
bank on the outside of the bend where water flow
has most energy due to decreased friction.
On the inside of the bend, where the river flow is
slower, material is deposited, as there is more friction.
meanders
Cross-section of meander
S
Cont.
 Cont.

Over time the horseshoe become tighter, until

the ends become very close together. As the
river breaks through, e.g. during a flood when
the river has a higher discharge and more
energy, and the ends join, the loop is cut-off
from the main channel. The cut-off loop is called
an oxbow lake.
Meander river Cuckmere
Cont.
 2. Oxbow lakes.
Oxbow lakes are created when two meanders
connect (join). The river will often finally connect the
two meanders during a flood event when the river is
more powerful. The thalweg then shifts to the centre
of the river (and does not travel around the old
meander) causing deposition on the outside of the
river channel cutting off the old meander and creating
an oxbow lake.
The thalweg is simply where the channel flow is
quickest.
Oxbow lake
 Cont.

Bank full discharge: This is when the river channel is full and can not
hold any more water. If the river exceeds bank full discharge then it
floods.

Bluff Line: The outer limits of the floodplain. The bluff line is found
just before the gradient of the valley sides start to increase.

Strand line: This is the line of material left behind after a river has
flooded. The strand line is found on the outer limit of the flood
somewhere on the floodplain. A strand line normally consists of
pieces of wood and litter
 Question

Pg. 298 Qn. 5 ( a, b, c, d and e)The New wider

world
 Learning objectives;

i) Define and explain the formation of Flood

plain, Levees and Delta
ii) Explain the advantages of flood plain
iii) Sketch a diagram to show the formation of
Levees.
iii) Sketch diagrams and explain different types
of delta.
 Lower course features

1. Flood plain
2. Levees
3. Delta

Study pg. 285(New wider world) And explain the

formation of the features above
 Lower course features

In the lower course, the river has a high volume

and a large discharge. The river channel is now
deep and wide and the landscape around it is
flat. However, as a river reaches the end of its
journey, energy levels are low and deposition
takes place
 1. Floodplains.

The river now has a wide floodplain. A

floodplain is the area around a river that is
covered in times of flood. A floodplain is a very
fertile area due to the rich alluvium deposited by
floodwaters. This makes floodplains a good
place for agriculture. A build up of alluvium on
the banks of a river can create levees, which
raise the river bank
Alluvium
 2.Levees.
A levee is a natural or artificial wall that blocks water from going
where we don't want it to go
They form on the edge of the river channel.
When a river floods the velocity of the river travelling over the
flooded floodplain suddenly falls. Because of the fall in velocity
(and subsequent reduction in surplus energy) the river
immediately deposits its largest load creating embankments that
line the river channel.
Over time (and after many flood events) these embankments
begin to grow in size and become more stable. These are
sometimes strengthened by humans or completely made by
humans to try and reduce flooding
Levees
 3.Deltas.

Deltas are found at the mouth of large rivers - for

example, the Mississippi. A delta is formed when
the river deposits its material faster than the sea
can remove it. There are three main types of
delta, named after the shape they create; i)
Arcuate or fan-shaped .
ii) Cuspate .
iii)Bird’s foot.
Delta
 i) Arcuate or fan-shaped

- The land around the river mouth arches out

into the sea and the river splits many times on
the way to the sea, creating a fan effect
- Example the Niger delta
- Nile
Arcuate or fan-shaped
Arcuate or fan-shaped
 ii) Cuspate

- The land around the mouth of the river juts

out arrow-like into the sea
- Example Ebro delta
Cuspate
Cuspate
 iii)Bird's foot.

- The river splits on the way to the sea, each

part of the river juts out into the sea, rather
like a bird's foot
- Example; Mississippi Delta
Bird's foot
Bird's foot
 Exercise

Qn. 6 (Pg.298) The New wider world

Qn. 3 ( Pg. 297) Refer page 280

 Exercise

Qn. 3 ( Pg. 297) Refer page 280

Qn . 4 Explain the effects of floods and steps

which can be taken to manage flood
 FLOOD

Refers to an overflow of large amount of water

beyond its normal limits, especially over what is
called dry land
 Flood Hydrograph
A hydrograph may be used to show how the
water flow in a drainage basin (particularly river
runoff) responds to a period of rain.
Or
Is a graph showing how a river responds to a
particular flood / storm.
Discharge-The amount of water in the river
passing a given point at a given time.
Flood hydrograph/Storm hydrograph.
 Cont.
This type of hydrograph is known as a storm or
flood hydrograph and it is generally drawn with
two vertical axes.
One is used to plot a line graph showing the
discharge of a river in cumecs (cubic metres per
second) at a given point over a period of time.
The second is used to plot a bar graph of the
rainfall event which precedes the changes in
discharge
 Cont.

The scale on the horizontal axis is usually in

hours/days and this allows both the rain event
to be recorded and the subsequent changes in
river discharge to be plotted.
 Cont.

The base flow of the river represents the normal day

to day discharge of the river and is the consequence
of groundwater seeping into the river channel.
The rising limb of the hydrograph represents the
rapid increase in resulting from rainfall causing
surface runoff and then later through flow.
Peak discharge occurs when the river reaches its
highest level.
 Cont.

The time difference between the peak of the rain

event and the peak discharge is known as the lag
time or basin lag time.
The falling limb (or recession limb) is when discharge
decreases and the river’s level falls. It has a gentler
gradient than the rising limb as most overland flow
has now been discharged and it is mainly through
flow which is making up the river water.
 Cont.

The shape of the hydrograph varies according to

a number of controlling factors in the drainage
basin but it will generally include the following
features.(the characteristics of a drainage basin
that is more likely to flood)
The characteristics of a drainage basin that
is more likely to flood.

A number of factors (known as drainage basin

controls) influence the way in which a river
responds to precipitation and have an effect on
the shape of the hydrograph, These are;
1. Influence of basin shape.
2. Influence of steepness.
3. Land use.
1. Influence of basin shape.
 Cont.

The size, shape and relief of the basin are

important controls.
Water takes longer to reach the trunk stream in
a large, round basin than in does in a small,
narrow one.
2. Influence of steepness.
 Cont.

Where gradients are steep, water runs off faster,

reaches the river more quickly and causes a
steep rising limb.
Prolonged heavy rain causes more overland
flow than light drizzly rain.
3.The difference between two adjacent
drainage basin
 Cont.

Areas of permeable rocks and soil allow more

infiltration and so less surface run off.
4. Land use
 Cont.
The way in which the land is used will also have
an influence on the hydrograph – vegetation
intercepts precipitation and allows evaporation
to take place directly into the atmosphere so
reducing the amount of water available for
overland flow while the large number of
impermeable surfaces in urban areas
encourages run off into gutters and drains
carrying water quickly to the nearest river
 Causes of flooding
A flood occurs when a river bursts its banks and
the water spills onto the floodplain. Flooding
tends to be caused by heavy rain: the faster the
rainwater reaches the river channel, the more
likely it is to flood. The nature of the landscape
around a river will influence how quickly
rainwater reaches the channel
 The following factors may encourage
flooding
A steep-sided channel - a river channel
surrounded by steep slopes causes fast surface
run-off.
A lack of vegetation or woodland - trees and
plants intercept precipitation (i.e. they catch or
drink water). If there is little vegetation in the
drainage basin then surface run-off will be high
 Cont.

A drainage basin, consisting of mainly

impermeable rock –
This will mean that water cannot percolate
through the rock layer, and so will run faster
over the surface.
 Cont.

A drainage basin in an urban area - these

consist largely of impermeable concrete, which
encourages overland flow. Drains and sewers
take water quickly and directly to the river
channel. Houses with sloping roofs further
increase the amount of run-off
Cont.
 The impact of flooding.
Floods can cause damage to homes and
possessions as well as disruption to
communications. However, flooding can also
have positive impacts on an area.
Flooding deposits fine silt (alluvium) onto the
floodplain, making it very fertile and excellent for
agriculture. People living on or near floodplains
may rely upon regular flooding to help support
their farming and therefore provide food.
 Cont.

LEDCs tend to be affected more than MEDCs by

the effects of flooding. This is partly because
LEDCs have more farms, and farming
communities are attracted to fertile flood plains.
LEDCs often do not have the resources to
prevent flooding or deal with the aftermath of
flooding
Managing the impacts of river flooding.
Steps can be taken to manage flooding. Often these
steps involve trying to lengthen the amount of time it
takes for water to reach the river channel, thereby
increasing the lag time. Flood management
techniques can be divided into hard- and soft-
engineering options
Hard options tend to be more expensive and have a
greater impact on the river and the surrounding
landscape.
Soft options are more ecologically sensitive
 Hard-engineering options
1. Dam construction
Dams are often built along the course of a river in order to control
the amount of discharge. Water is held back by the dam and
released in a controlled way. This controls flooding.
Water is usually stored in a reservoir behind the dam. This water
can then be used to generate hydroelectric power or for recreation
purposes.
Building a dam can be very expensive.
Sediment is often trapped behind the wall of the dam, leading to
erosion further downstream.
Settlements and agricultural land may be lost when the river valley
is flooded to form a reservoir
 Cont.
2. River engineering
The river channel may be widened or deepened
allowing it to carry more water. A river channel may
be straightened so that water can travel faster along
the course. The channel course of the river can also
be altered, diverting floodwaters away from
settlements.
Altering the river channel may lead to a greater risk
of flooding downstream, as the water is carried there
faster
 Soft-engineering options
1. Afforestation
Trees are planted near to the river. This means
greater interception of rainwater and lower river
discharge. This is a relatively low cost option,
which enhances the environmental quality of
the drainage basin
 Cont.
2. Managed flooding (also called ecological
flooding)
The river is allowed to flood naturally in places,
to prevent flooding in other areas - for example,
near settlements
 Cont.
3. Planning
Local authorities and the national government
introduce policies to control urban development
close to or on the floodplain. This reduces the chance
of flooding and the risk of damage to property.
There can be resistance to development restrictions
in areas where there is a shortage of housing.
Enforcing planning regulations and controls may be
harder in LEDCs
 LEDC case study: Bangladesh

Bangladesh is an LEDC. The land is densely populated. Most of the

land forms a delta from three main rivers - Ganges, Brahmaputra
and Meghna - and 25 per cent of Bangladesh is less than 1 m above
sea level. Flooding is an annual event as the rivers burst their banks.
This seasonal flooding is beneficial as it provides water for the rice
and jute (two main crops in the area) it also helps to keep the soil
fertile. Bangladesh also experiences many tropical cyclones. The low-
lying land means it is easily flooded. Half the country is less than 6m
above sea level. The snowmelt in the Himalayas adds water into the
main rivers. There are human causes too - building on the
floodplains and cutting down trees both increase the effects of
flooding.
Bangladesh
 Cont.
There are advantages to living here:
The flat floodplains of the delta are very fertile. Rice is
grown.
The area can also be used for shrimp farming
There are disadvantages too:
The low-lying islands are very vulnerable and flood
easily. It is difficult to protect them.
There are poor communications. Many locals do not
own their own telephone or television so it is difficult to
give successful flood warnings
 Cont.

How can the risk of flooding be reduced?

Bangladesh is an LEDC and therefore does not have money to
implement large schemes.
It is always going to be threatened with flooding, so the focus is
on reducing the impact.
The Flood Action Plan is funded by the world bank. It funds
projects to monitor flood levels and construct flood
banks/artificial levees.
More sustainable ways of reducing the flooding include building
coastal flood shelters on stilts and early-warning systems
House on stilts, on low lying land
 Bangladesh (flood)

Pg. 288-289
i) The time(Months) when flood are common
ii) causes
iii) effects
iv) Advantages of flood to those people living in
bangladesh
v) Steps taken to manage flood (Bangladesh)
vi) Suggest your own steps taken to avoid any flood