100 BIOLOGY

CHAPTER 7
STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN

ANIMALS
7.1 Animal Tissues In the preceding chapters you came across a large variety of organisms,
both unicellular and multicellular, of the animal kingdom. In unicellular
7.2 Organ and Organ
organisms, all functions like digestion, respiration and reproduction
System
are performed by a single cell. In the complex body of multicellular
7.3 Earthworm animals the same basic functions are carried out by different groups of
7.4 Cockroach cells in a well organised manner. The body of a simple organism like
Hydra is made of different types of cells and the number of cells in each
7.5 Frogs
type can be in thousands. The human body is composed of billions of
cells to perform various functions. How do these cells in the body work
together? In multicellular animals, a group of similar cells alongwith
intercellular substances perform a specific function. Such an organisation
is called tissue.
You may be surprised to know that all complex animals consist of
only four basic types of tissues. These tissues are organised in specific
proportion and pattern to form an organ like stomach, lung, heart and
kidney. When two or more organs perform a common function by their
physical and/or chemical interaction, they together form organ system,
e.g., digestive system, respiratory system, etc. Cells, tissues, organs and
organ systems split up the work in a way that exhibits division of labour
and contribute to the survival of the body as a whole.

7.1 ANIMAL TISSUES

The structure of the cells vary according to their function. Therefore, the
tissues are different and are broadly classified into four types : (i) Epithelial,
(ii) Connective, (iii) Muscular and (iv) Neural.
 STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS 101

7.1.1 Epithelial Tissue

We commonly refer to an epithelial tissue as epithelium (pl.: epithelia).
This tissue has a free surface, which faces either a body fluid or the outside
environment and thus provides a covering or a lining for some part of the
body. The cells are compactly packed with little intercellular matrix. There
are two types of epithelial tissues namely simple epithelium and
compound epithelium. Simple epithelium is composed of a single layer
of cells and functions as a lining for body cavities, ducts, and tubes. The
compound epithelium consists of two or more cell layers and has protective
function as it does in our skin.
On the basis of structural modification of the cells, simple epithelium
is further divided into three types. These are (i) Squamous, (ii) Cuboidal,
(iii) Columnar (Figure 7.1).

Flattened cell
(a)
Cube-like cell
(b)

Tall cell
(d)
(c)

Figure 7.1 Simple epithelium: (a) Squamous (b) Cuboidal (c) Columnar
(d) Columnar cells bearing cilia

The squamous epithelium is made of a single thin layer of flattened

cells with irregular boundaries. They are found in the walls of blood vessels
and air sacs of lungs and are involved in a functions like forming a diffusion
boundary. The cuboidal epithelium is composed of a single layer of
cube-like cells. This is commonly found in ducts of glands and tubular
parts of nephrons in kidneys and its main functions are secretion and
absorption. The epithelium of proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) of
nephron in the kidney has microvilli. The columnar epithelium is
composed of a single layer of tall and slender cells. Their nuclei are located
at the base. Free surface may have microvilli. They are found in the lining
of stomach and intestine and help in secretion and absorption. If the
columnar or cuboidal cells bear cilia on their free surface they are called
ciliated epithelium (Figure 7.1d). Their function is to move particles or
mucus in a specific direction over the epithelium. They are mainly present
in the inner surface of hollow organs like bronchioles and fallopian tubes.
 102 BIOLOGY

Some of the columnar or cuboidal cells

get specialised for secretion and are called
glandular epithelium (Figure 7.2). They
unicellular are mainly of two types: unicellular,
gland
consisting of isolated glandular cells (goblet
cells of the alimentary canal), and
multicellular, consisting of cluster of cells
Multicelluar
gland (salivary gland). On the basis of the mode of
(a) (b) pouring of their secretions, glands are
divided into two categories namely
Figure 7.2 Glandular epithelium : (a) Unicellular
(b) Multicellular exocrine and endocrine glands. Exocrine
glands secrete mucus, saliva, earwax, oil,
milk, digestive enzymes and other cell
products. These products are released
through ducts or tubes. In contrast,
endocrine glands do not have ducts. Their
products called hormones are secreted
directly into the fluid bathing the gland.
Compound epithelium is made of more
Multi-
layered than one layer (multi-layered) of cells and thus
cells has a limited role in secretion and absorption
(Figure 7.3). Their main function is to provide
protection against chemical and mechanical
stresses. They cover the dry surface of the skin,
Figure 7.3 Compound epithelium
the moist surface of buccal cavity, pharynx,
inner lining of ducts of salivary glands and of
pancreatic ducts.
All cells in epithelium are held together with little intercellular material.
In nearly all animal tissues, specialised junctions provide both structural
and functional links between its individual cells. Three types of cell junctions
are found in the epithelium and other tissues. These are called as tight,
adhering and gap junctions. Tight junctions help to stop substances
from leaking across a tissue. Adhering junctions perform cementing to
keep neighbouring cells together. Gap junctions facilitate the cells to
communicate with each other by connecting the cytoplasm of adjoining
cells, for rapid transfer of ions, small molecules and sometimes big molecules.

7.1.2 Connective Tissue

Connective tissues are most abundant and widely distributed in the body
of complex animals. They are named connective tissues because of their
special function of linking and supporting other tissues/organs of the
body. They range from soft connective tissues to specialised types, which
 STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS 103

Macro-
phage

Fat storage
Fibroblast area

Collagen Nucleus
fibers
fibres
Plasma
Membrane

(b)
(a) Mast
cell
Figure 7.4 Loose connective tissue : (a) Areolar tissue (b) Adipose tissue

include cartilage, bone, adipose, and blood. In all

connective tissues except blood, the cells secrete fibres of
structural proteins called collagen or elastin. The fibres
provide strength, elasticity and flexibility to the tissue.
These cells also secrete modified polysaccharides, which
accumulate between cells and fibres and act as matrix
(ground substance). Connective tissues are classified into
three types: (i) Loose connective tissue, (ii) Dense
connective tissue and (iii) Specialised connective
tissue.
Loose connective tissue has cells and fibres loosely
arranged in a semi-fluid ground substance, for example,
areolar tissue present beneath the skin (Figure 7.4). Often
it serves as a support framework for epithelium. It (a)
contains fibroblasts (cells that produce and secrete fibres), Collagen fibre
macrophages and mast cells. Adipose tissue is another
type of loose connective tissue located mainly beneath the
skin. The cells of this tissue are specialised to store fats.
The excess of nutrients which are not used immediately
are converted into fats and are stored in this tissue.
Fibres and fibroblasts are compactly packed in the
dense connective tissues. Orientation of fibres show a
regular or irregular pattern and are called dense regular
and dense irregular tissues. In the dense regular
connective tissues, the collagen fibres are present in rows
between many parallel bundles of fibres. Tendons, which
attach skeletal muscles to bones and ligaments which
attach one bone to another are examples of this tissue. (b)
Dense irregular connective tissue has fibroblasts and Figure 7.5 Dense connective tissue:
many fibres (mostly collagen) that are oriented differently (a) Dense regular
(Figure 7.5). This tissue is present in the skin. Cartilage, (b) Dense irregular
 104 BIOLOGY

bones and blood are various types of specialised

connective tissues.
Collagen fibres The intercellular material of cartilage is solid and pliable
and resists compression. Cells of this tissue (chondrocytes)
Cartilage cell are enclosed in small cavities within the matrix secreted by
(chondrocyte) them (Figure 7.6a). Most of the cartilages in vertebrate
embryos are replaced by bones in adults. Cartilage is
(a) present in the tip of nose, outer ear joints, between adjacent
Compact bone bones of the vertebral column, limbs and hands in adults.
tissue Bones have a hard and non-pliable ground substance
rich in calcium salts and collagen fibres which give bone
Bone cell its strength (Figure 7.6b). It is the main tissue that provides
(osteocyte) structural frame to the body. Bones support and protect
softer tissues and organs. The bone cells (osteocytes) are
present in the spaces called lacunae. Limb bones, such as
(b) the long bones of the legs, serve weight-bearing functions.
They also interact with skeletal muscles attached to them
to bring about movements. The bone marrow in some bones
RBC is the site of production of blood cells.
Blood is a fluid connective tissue containing plasma,
Platelets
red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC) and platelets
(Figure 7.6c). It is the main circulating fluid that helps in
WBC the transport of various substances. You will learn more
(c) about blood in Chapters 17 and 18.

Figure 7.6 Specialised connective

tissues : (a) Cartilage 7.1.3 Muscle Tissue
(b) Bone (c) Blood
Each muscle is made of many long, cylindrical fibres
arranged in parallel arrays. These fibres are composed of
numerous fine fibrils, called myofibrils. Muscle fibres
contract (shorten) in response to stimulation, then relax
(lengthen) and return to their uncontracted state in a
coordinated fashion. Their action moves the body to adjust
to the changes in the environment and to maintain the
positions of the various parts of the body. In general,
muscles play an active role in all the movements of the body.
Muscles are of three types, skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
Skeletal muscle tissue is closely attached to skeletal
bones. In a typical muscle such as the biceps, striated
(striped) skeletal muscle fibres are bundled together in a
parallel fashion (Figure 7.7a). A sheath of tough connective
tissue encloses several bundles of muscle fibres (You will
learn more about this in Chapter 20).
 STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS 105

Smooth Striations
Striations muscle
fibers
Nucleus

Junction
between
Nucleus adjacent
cells

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7.7 Muscle tissue : (a) Skeletal (striated) muscle tissue (b) Smooth muscle tissue
(c) Cardiac muscle tissue

The smooth muscle fibres taper at both ends (fusiform) and do not
show striations (Figure 7.7b). Cell junctions hold them together and they
are bundled together in a connective tissue sheath. The wall of internal
organs such as the blood vessels, stomach and intestine contains this type
of muscle tissue. Smooth muscles are ‘involuntary’ as their functioning
cannot be directly controlled. We usually are not able to make it contract
merely by thinking about it as we can do with skeletal muscles.
Cardiac muscle tissue is a contractile tissue present only in the heart.
Cell junctions fuse the plasma membranes of cardiac muscle cells and
make them stick together (Figure 7.7c). Communication junctions
(intercalated discs) at some fusion points allow the cells to contract as a
unit, i.e., when one cell receives a signal to contract, its neighbours are
also stimulated to contract.

7.1.4 Neural Tissue

Axon
Neural tissue exerts the greatest control over
the body’s responsiveness to changing
conditions. Neurons, the unit of neural Cell
system are excitable cells (Figure 7.8). The body
neuroglial cell which constitute the rest of with
nucleus
the neural system protect and support
Dendrite
neurons. Neuroglia make up more than one-
half the volume of neural tissue in our body.
When a neuron is suitably stimulated, Neuroglea
an electrical disturbance is generated
which swiftly travels along its plasma Figure 7.8 Neural tissue (Neuron with
neuroglea)
 STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS 111

Earthworms are known as ‘friends of farmers’ because they make

burrows in the soil and make it porous which helps in respiration and
penetration of the developing plant roots. The process of increasing fertility
of soil by the earthworms is called vermicomposting. They are also used
as bait in game fishing.

7.4 COCKROACH

Cockroaches are brown or black bodied animals that are included in

class Insecta of Phylum Arthropoda. Bright yellow, red and green coloured
cockroaches have also been reported in tropical regions. Their size ranges
from ¼ inches to 3 inches (0.6-7.6 cm) and have long antenna, legs and
flat extension of the upper body wall that conceals head. They are
nocturnal omnivores that live in damp places throughout the world. They
have become residents of human homes and thus are serious pests and
vectors of several diseases.

7.4.1 Morphology
The adults of the common species of cockroach, Periplaneta americana
are about 34-53 mm long with wings that extend beyond the tip of the
abdomen in males. The body of the cockroach is segmented and divisible
into three distinct regions – head, thorax and abdomen (Figure 7.14).
The entire body is covered by a hard chitinous exoskeleton (brown in
colour). In each segment, exoskeleton has hardened plates called sclerites
(tergites dorsally and sternites ventrally) that are joined to each other by
a thin and flexible articular membrane (arthrodial membrane).

Filiform antennae
Compound eye Head

Pronotum

Mesothorax Tegmina

Prothoracie leg
Hind wing
Metathorax

Mesothoracic leg

Metathoracic leg Abdomen

Anal cerci

Figure 7.14 External features of cockroach

112 BIOLOGY

Head is triangular in shape and lies anteriorly at right angles to the

longitudinal body axis. It is formed by the fusion of six segments and
shows great mobility in all directions due to flexible neck (Figure 7.15).
The head capsule bears a pair of compound eyes. A pair of thread like
antennae arise from membranous sockets lying in front of eyes. Antennae
have sensory receptors that help in monitoring the environment. Anterior
end of the head bears appendages forming biting and chewing type of
mouth parts. The mouthparts consisting of a labrum (upper lip), a pair
of mandibles, a pair of maxillae and a labium (lower lip). A median flexible
lobe, acting as tongue (hypopharynx), lies within the cavity enclosed by
the mouthparts (Figure 7.15b). Thorax consists of three parts – prothorax,
mesothorax and metathorax. The head is connected with thorax by a
short extension of the prothorax known as the neck. Each thoracic segment
bears a pair of walking legs. The first pair of wings arises from mesothorax
and the second pair from metathorax. Forewings (mesothoracic) called
tegmina are opaque dark and leathery and cover the hind wings when at
rest. The hind wings are transparent, membranous and are used in flight.
The abdomen in both males and females consists of 10 segments. In
females, the 7th sternum is boat shaped and together with the 8th and 9th
sterna forms a brood or genital pouch whose anterior part contains female
gonopore, spermathecal pores and collateral glands. In males, genital pouch
or chamber lies at the hind end of abdomen bounded dorsally by 9th and
10th terga and ventrally by the 9th sternum. It contains dorsal anus, ventral
male genital pore and gonapophysis. Males bear a pair of short, thread-
like anal styles which are absent in females. In both sexes, the 10th segment
bears a pair of jointed filamentous structures called anal cerci.

Ocellus
Compound eye
Labrum
Grinding
region
Incising
Mandible region
Mandible

Hypopharynx

Maxilla

Mandible

Labrum

Maxilla Maxilla
Labium
(a) Labium
(b)
Figure 7.15 Head region of cockroach : (a) parts of head region (b) mouth parts
 STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS 113

7.4.2 Anatomy Salivary gland

Pharynx

The alimentary canal present in the body cavity

is divided into three regions: foregut, midgut Salivary
reservoir
and hindgut (Figure 7.16). The mouth opens
into a short tubular pharynx, leading to a Oesophagus
narrow tubular passage called oesophagus.
This in turn opens into a sac like structure Crop
called crop used for storing of food. The crop
is followed by gizzard or proventriculus. It has Gizzard
an outer layer of thick circular muscles and
Hepatic caeca
thick inner culicle forming six highly chitinous
plate called teeth. Gizzard helps in grinding the Mesentron
food particles. The entire foregut is lined by or midgut
cuticle. A ring of 6-8 blind tubules called Malpighian
hepatic or gastric caecae is present at the tubules
Rectum
junction of foregut and midgut, which secrete Ileum
digestive juice. At the junction of midgut and
hindgut is present another ring of 100-150 Colon
yellow coloured thin filamentous Malphigian
Figure 7.16 Alimentary canal of cockroach
tubules. They help in removal of excretory
products from haemolymph. The hindgut is
broader than midgut and is differentiated into
ileum, colon and rectum. The rectum opens Anterior aorta
out through anus.
Blood vascular system of cockroach is an
open type (Figure 7.17). Blood vessels are
Alary muscles
poorly developed and open into space
(haemocoel). Visceral organs located in the
haemocoel are bathed in blood (haemolymph).
The haemolymph is composed of colourless
plasma and haemocytes. Heart of cockroach
consists of elongated muscular tube lying
along mid dorsal line of thorax and abdomen.
It is differentiated into funnel shaped chambers
with ostia on either side. Blood from sinuses
enter heart through ostia and is pumped Chambers
of heart
anteriorly to sinuses again.
The respiratory system consists of a
network of trachea, that open through 10 pairs
of small holes called spiracles present on the
lateral side of the body. Thin branching tubes
(tracheal tubes subdivided into tracheoles)
carry oxygen from the air to all the parts. The Figure 7.17 Open circulatory system of cockroach
114 BIOLOGY

opening of the spiracles is regulated by the sphincters. Exchange of gases

take place at the tracheoles by diffusion.
Excretion is performed by Malpighian tubules. Each tubule is lined
by glandular and ciliated cells. They absorb nitrogenous waste products
and convert them into uric acid which is excreted out through the hindgut.
Therefore, this insect is called uricotelic. In addition, the fat body,
nephrocytes and urecose glands also help in excretion.
The nervous system of cockroach consists of a series of fused,
segmentally arranged ganglia joined by paired longitudinal connectives
on the ventral side. Three ganglia lie in the thorax, and six in the abdomen.
The nervous system of cockroach is spread throughout the body. The
head holds a bit of a nervous system while the rest is situated along the
ventral (belly-side) part of its body. So, now you understand that if the
head of a cockroach is cut off, it will still live for as long as one week. In
the head region, the brain is represented by supra-oesophageal ganglion
which supplies nerves to antennae and compound eyes. In cockroach,
the sense organs are antennae, eyes, maxillary palps, labial palps, anal
cerci, etc. The compound eyes are situated at the dorsal surface of the
head. Each eye consists of about 2000 hexagonal ommatidia
(sing.: ommatidium). With the help of several ommatidia, a cockroach can
receive several images of an object. This kind of vision is known as mosaic
vision with more sensitivity but less resolution, being common during
night (hence called nocturnal vision).
Cockroaches are dioecious and both sexes have well developed
reproductive organs (Figure 7.18). Male reproductive system consists of
a pair of testes lying one on each lateral side in the 4th -6th abdominal
segments. From each testis arises a thin vas deferens, which opens into
ejaculatory duct through seminal vesicle. The ejaculatory duct opens into
male gonopore situated ventral to anus. A characteristic mushroom-
shaped gland is present in the 6th-7th abdominal segments which functions
as an accessory reproductive gland. The external genitalia are represented
by male gonapophysis or phallomere (chitinous asymmetrical structures,
surrounding the male gonopore). The sperms are stored in the seminal
vesicles and are glued together in the form of bundles called
spermatophores which are discharged during copulation. The female
reproductive sysytem consists of two large ovaries, lying laterally in the
2nd – 6th abdominal segments. Each ovary is formed of a group of eight
ovarian tubules or ovarioles, containing a chain of developing ova.
Oviducts of each ovary unite into a single median oviduct (also called
vagina) which opens into the genital chamber. A pair of spermatheca is
present in the 6th segment which opens into the genital chamber.
Sperms are transferred through spermatophores. Their fertilised eggs
are encased in capsules called oothecae. Ootheca is a dark reddish to
blackish brown capsule, about 3/8" (8 mm) long. They are dropped or
 STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS 115

Testis

Phallic gland
Small tubules
Long tubules

Seminal vesicle
Vas deferens
Ejaculatory duct
Right phallomere
Ventral phallomere
Anal cercus
Caudal style
Left phallomere Pseudopenis
Titillator (a)

Ovary

Oviduct
Spermatheca
Common oviduct
or vagina

Collaterial glands

]
Genital chamber Genital
pouch
gonapophyses Vestibulum
(b)
Figure 7.18 Reproductive system of cockroach : (a) male (b) female

glued to a suitable surface, usually in a crack or crevice of high relative

humidity near a food source. On an average, females produce 9-10
oothecae, each containing 14-16 eggs. The development of P. americana
is paurometabolous, meaning there is development through nymphal
stage. The nymphs look very much like adults. The nymph grows by
moulting about 13 times to reach the adult form. The next to last nymphal
stage has wing pads but only adult cockroaches have wings.
Many species of cockroaches are wild and are of no economic importance.
A few species thrive in and around human habitat. They are pests because
they destroy food and contaminate it with their smelly excreta. They can
transmit a variety of bacterial diseases by contaminating food material.