• Tissues are a group of similar cells that are structurally adapted to perform a particular

function.
• Cells are adapted for specific functions through a process of cell differentiation.
• Examples of plant tissues include xylem, phloem, parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma,
epidermis, and meristematic tissue.
• Examples of animal tissues are epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nerve
tissue.
• Various plant tissues are important ingredients in traditional medicine.
• Biotechnology is a modern science that involves manipulating the properties of tissues and
cells.
• Many tissues group to form an organ, which has a very specific role in an organism.
• The leaf is an example of a plant organ that is made up of several tissues that collectively
enable the process of photosynthesis.
Previous chapters have discussed the molecular and cellular levels of organization of living
organisms. In this chapter, we will examine how similar cells associate together to form tissues.

atom→→molecule→→cell→→tissue→→organ→→system→→organism→POPULATION→ecosyste
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Tissues

Tissues are made up of a group of similar cells that are adapted for a particular function. Organs
are then formed by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues.

Animal tissues

Tissues are groups of similar cells that perform a particular function. We will be examining human
tissues as an example of animal tissues.
Human bodies, like most animal bodies, are made up of four different types of tissue:

1. Epithelial tissue forms the outer layer of the body and also lines many of the body cavities
where it has a protective function.
2. Connective tissue assists in the support and protection of organs and limbs and depending
on the location in the body it may join or separate organs or parts of the body.
3. Muscle tissue enables various forms of movement, both voluntary and involuntary.
4. Nerve tissue is responsible for the carrying of electrical and chemical signals and impulses
from the brain and central nervous system to the periphery, and vice versa.
Epithelial tissue
Epithelial tissues are formed by cells that cover surfaces (e.g. skin) and line tubes and cavities
(e.g. digestive organs, blood vessels, kidney tubules and airways). Epithelial tissue usually
consists of a single layer of cells, however in certain cases there may
 be more than one layer. All
epithelial tissues are free surfaces attached to the underlying layers of a basement membrane.

There are different types of epithelial tissue which are named according to the number of layers
they form and the shape of the individual cells that make up those layers. Simple epithelium refers
to a single layer of cells. Stratified epithelium refers to two or more layers of cells. Squamous
epithelium refers to flattened cells, cuboidal epithelium refers to cells that are cube-shaped and
columnar epithelium refers to vertically elongated cells. Ciliated epithelium refers to epithelial cells
that contain many tiny hair-like projections.

Pseudostratified epithelium refers to epithelium consisting of one layer but looking as though it
consists of more than one layer.
General functions of epithelial tissue
• Provides a barrier between the external environment and the organ it covers.

• Specialised to function in secretion and absorption.

• Protects organisms from microorganisms, injury, and fluid loss.

• Excretes waste products such as sweat from the skin.

The skin is the largest human organ.

The different types of epithelial tissue are classified according to their shape. The major
categories we are going to examine are squamous, columnar and cuboidal epithelium. The table
presents each of them in detail.

Epithelial
Location in
tissue Structure Function
body
type
Simple Simple: Thin and flat cells that are elliptically Responsible for diffusion. The thin
squamous capillaries, shaped and lie on the basement structure allows for the movement
and alveoli (in membrane. Simple squamous of substances across the cells.
stratified lungs); epithelium is one cell thick. The
squamous stratified: skin stratified squamous epithelium consists
of many layers.
Xxxxxx

Epithelial
Location in body Structure Function
tissue type
Serve a protective function
Kidney tubules or Cube-like in structure; may
against bacteria and the
glands (regions of the occasionally have structures
Cuboidal wearing away of certain organs
body responsible for called microvilli on surface to aid
by lining various structures.
excretion). absorption.
Also prevent water loss.
Epithelial Location in
Structure Function
tissue type body
Digestive tract, Elongated cells, nuclei located at the Main function is protective.
Columnar reproductive base of the cell. Cells connected by Prevents against bacterial
organs tight junctions and receive their infection. Can also secrete
 nutrients from the basement mucus to protect surface from
membrane. damage.

A sub-type of columnar epithelium called ciliated columnar epithelium is found in some places in
the body. Ciliated columnar epithelium contains little finger-like projections called cilia. These cilia
beat in a wave-like motion to move particles, mucus or other substances around the body. Ciliated
epithelium is found in the trachea and bronchi of the respiratory system and in the fallopian tubes
of the female reproductive tract.

Muscle tissue
There are three types of muscle tissue:

1. skeletal
2. smooth
3. cardiac
Skeletal and cardiac muscle are striated. Striated muscle cells are striped, with regular patterns of
proteins responsible for contraction. Striated muscle contracts and relaxes in short bursts,
whereas smooth muscle contracts for longer.

1. Skeletal muscle is a voluntary muscle. It is striated in appearance. Skeletal muscle tissue has
regularly arranged bundles. It is anchored by tendons and is used to affect skeletal muscle
movement, such as locomotion, and maintain posture. The muscles have a reflex action but can
also respond to conscious control.

2. Smooth muscle is an involuntary, non-striated muscle with tapered ends. It is found within the
walls of blood vessels such as arteries and veins. Smooth muscle is also found in the digestive
system, urinary tract, and in trachea. It is responsible for involuntary rhythmic contractions of
peristalsis, required for moving food down the alimentary canal, and for the dilation and
construction of blood vessels to control blood pressure.

3. Cardiac muscle is the major tissue making up the heart. It is an involuntary muscle that is
striated in appearance. However, unlike skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle connects at branching,
irregular angles. The connected branches help with coordinated contractions of the heart.

Nervous tissue

Cells making up the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system are classified as
nervous tissue. In the central nervous system, nervous tissue forms the brain and spinal cord. In
the peripheral nervous system, the nervous tissue forms the cranial nerves and spinal nerves,
which include the sensory and motor neurons.

The function of nerve tissue is to transmit nerve impulses around the body. Nerves consist of
a cell body (soma), dendrites, which receive impulses, and axons which send impulses. The axons
of neurons are surrounded by a myelin sheath. The myelin sheath consists of layers of myelin, a
white fatty substance. The myelin sheath's main function is to insulate nerve fibres and it also
increases the speed of the impulses transmitted by the nerve cell. There are three types of nerve
cells: sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons.

Sensory neuron Motor neuron Interneuron

Sensory neurons are responsible
for sending information about These neurons are very short Motor neurons carry impulses from
the environment (called stimuli) compared to the sensory and the CNS to muscles or glands. In
to the central nervous system. motor neurons. The connectors most cases the motor neuron causes
They are activated by touch, or interneurons connect a muscle contraction (movement), but
light, temperature, pressure, sensory neuron with a motor motor neurons can also cause
hearing etc. Sensory nerve cells neuron. The impulse travels secretion of substances by glands.
(or sensory neurons) carry from the cell body at the head The motor neuron causes a response
impulses (electrical signals) end along the short axon to the via chemicals known as
from a receptor to the central dendrites. neurotransmitters.
nervous system (CNS).

Connective tissue
Connective tissue is a biological tissue that is important in supporting, connecting, or separating
different types of tissues and organs in the body. All connective tissue is made up of cells, fibres
(such as collagen), and extracellular matrix. The type of intercellular matrix differs in different
connective tissues. There are different types of connective tissues with different functions. The
following table lists some of the different types of connective tissue.

Connective
Structure Function Location Diagram/Photo
tissue type

holds the organs in surrounds blood

Areolar jelly matrix; has a place, cushions and vessels and nerves
(loose network of elastic protects organs (acts found in the mesentery
connective) fibres that attach as a packing which surrounds the
material) intestine

in tendons, ligaments
acts as a shock
consists of non-elastic and many tough
White fibrous absorber, transfers or
fibres membrane sheaths that
absorbs forces
surround organs
 gives structure,
rubbery matrix, which shape, and strength; joints, nose, sternum,
Cartilage
can be flexible or rigid reduces friction; trachea
provides support

made up of collagen provides strength and

fibres; mineralized with support; creates red bones found all over
Bone tissue
calcium and phosphates blood cells and white the body
to make it solid blood cells

Blood
Blood is regarded as a specialized form of connective tissue because it originates in the bones
and has some fibres. Blood is composed of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. These
components are suspended in a yellow fluid known as plasma. Red blood cells: called
erythrocytes are made in the red bone marrow. They do not have a nucleus and are biconcave in
shape. Their biconcave shape makes them flexible so that they can squeeze through narrow
capillaries. It also gives them a bigger surface-to-volume ratio, so that they absorb and release
gases faster. Red blood cells have a short life span of approximately 120 days. Red blood cells
contain the protein known as haemoglobin. Haemoglobin contains the pigment known as heme
that has an iron (Fe) at its centre that combines with oxygen. Haemoglobin releases oxygen as
required and takes up carbon dioxide. Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the
tissues and return carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.

White blood cells: Are commonly known as leukocytes and are produced in the yellow bone
marrow and lymph nodes. The cells have one or more nuclei. White blood cells are slightly larger
than red blood cells and are more irregular in shape. Their main function is to protect the body
from diseases. There are several types of white blood cells.
Platelets: Also known as thrombocytes are produced in the bone marrow and are fragments of
bone marrow cells. They have no nuclei. Platelets assist in the clotting of blood and prevent
excessive bleeding.

The number of leukocytes is often a measure of disease. They make up approximately 1%1% of
the blood in a healthy adult. A change in the number of leukocytes can often be used to diagnose
disease.
Plasma: Plasma is the pale-yellow component of blood that allows the rest of the components of
blood to float in suspension. It makes up about 55%55% of total blood volume. It contains
dissolved proteins, hormones, urea, and carbon dioxide. Its main functions are to transport
nutrients, cells and metabolic waste products and maintain blood volume.
Plasma donations are important in blood transfusion. During World War 2, the blood plasma
transferred to wounded soldiers was important in saving thousands of lives.
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