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C HAPTER 7
S TRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN
ANIMALS
7.1 Animal Tissues In the preceding chapters you came across a large variety of organisms,
both unicellular and multicellular, of the animal kingdom. In unicellular
7.2 Organ and Organ
organisms, all functions like digestion, respiration and reproduction
System
are performed by a single cell. In the complex body of multicellular
7.3 Earthworm animals the same basic functions are carried out by different groups of
7.4 Cockroach cells in a well organised manner. The body of a simple organism like
Hydra is made of different types of cells and the number of cells in each
7.5 Frogs
type can be in thousands. The human body is composed of billions of
cells to perform various functions. How do these cells in the body work
together? In multicellular animals, a group of similar cells alongwith
intercellular substances perform a specific function. Such an organisation
is called tissue.
You may be surprised to know that all complex animals consist of
only four basic types of tissues. These tissues are organised in specific
proportion and pattern to form an organ like stomach, lung, heart and
kidney. When two or more organs perform a common function by their
physical and/or chemical interaction, they together form organ system,
e.g., digestive system, respiratory system, etc. Cells, tissues, organs and
organ systems split up the work in a way that exhibits division of labour
and contribute to the survival of the body as a whole.
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Flattened cell
(a)
Cube-like cell
(b)
Tall cell
(d)
(c)
Figure 7.1 Simple epithelium: (a) Squamous (b) Cuboidal (c) Columnar
(d) Columnar cells bearing cilia
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Macro-
phage
Fat storage
Fibroblast area
Collagen Nucleus
fibers
fibres
Plasma
Membrane
(b)
(a) Mast
cell
Figure 7.4 Loose connective tissue : (a) Areolar tissue (b) Adipose tissue
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Smooth Striations
Striations muscle
fibers
Nucleus
Junction
between
Nucleus adjacent
cells
The smooth muscle fibres taper at both ends (fusiform) and do not
show striations (Figure 7.7b). Cell junctions hold them together and they
are bundled together in a connective tissue sheath. The wall of internal
organs such as the blood vessels, stomach and intestine contains this type
of muscle tissue. Smooth muscles are ‘involuntary’ as their functioning
cannot be directly controlled. We usually are not able to make it contract
merely by thinking about it as we can do with skeletal muscles.
Cardiac muscle tissue is a contractile tissue present only in the heart.
Cell junctions fuse the plasma membranes of cardiac muscle cells and
make them stick together (Figure 7.7c). Communication junctions
(intercalated discs) at some fusion points allow the cells to contract as a
unit, i.e., when one cell receives a signal to contract, its neighbours are
also stimulated to contract.
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7.3 EARTHWORM
Earthworm is a reddish brown terrestrial invertebrate that inhabits the
upper layer of the moist soil. During day time, they live in burrows made
by boring and swallowing the soil. In the gardens, they can be traced by
their faecal deposits known as worm castings. The common Indian
earthworms are Pheretima and Lumbricus.
7.3.1 Morphology
Earthworms have long cylindrical body. The body is divided into more
than hundred short segments which are similar (metameres about
100-120 in number). The dorsal surface of the body is marked by a dark
median mid dorsal line (dorsal blood vessel) along the longitudinal axis of
the body. The ventral surface is distinguished by the presence of genital
openings (pores). Anterior end consists of the mouth and the prostomium,
a lobe which serves as a covering for the mouth and as a wedge to force
open cracks in the soil into which the earthworm may crawl. The prostomium
is sensory in function. The first body segment is called the peristomium
(buccal segment) which contains the mouth. In a mature worm, segments
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Figure 7.9 Body of earthworm : (a) dorsal view (b) ventral view (c) lateral view
showing mouth opening
7.3.2 Anatomy
The body wall of the earthworm is covered externally by a thin non-cellular
cuticle below which is the epidermis, two muscle layers (circular and
longitudinal) and an innermost coelomic epithelium. The epidermis is made
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7.4 COCKROACH
7.4.1 Morphology
The adults of the common species of cockroach, Periplaneta americana
are about 34-53 mm long with wings that extend beyond the tip of the
abdomen in males. The body of the cockroach is segmented and divisible
into three distinct regions – head, thorax and abdomen (Figure 7.14).
The entire body is covered by a hard chitinous exoskeleton (brown in
colour). In each segment, exoskeleton has hardened plates called sclerites
(tergites dorsally and sternites ventrally) that are joined to each other by
a thin and flexible articular membrane (arthrodial membrane).
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Ocellus
Compound eye
Labrum
Grinding
region
Incising
Mandible region
Mandible
Hypopharynx
Maxilla
Mandible
Labrum
Maxilla Maxilla
Labium
(a) Labium
(b)
Figure 7.15 Head region of cockroach : (a) parts of head region (b) mouth parts
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Testis
Phallic gland
Small tubules
Long tubules
Seminal vesicle
Vas deferens
Ejaculatory duct
Right phallomere
Ventral phallomere
Anal cercus
Caudal style
Left phallomere Pseudopenis
Titillator (a)
Ovary
Oviduct
Spermatheca
Common oviduct
or vagina
Collaterial glands
Genital chamber
gonapophyses
(b)
Vestibulum ] Genital
pouch
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7.5 FROGS
Frogs can live both on land and in freshwater and belong to class
Amphibia of phylum Chordata. The most common species of frog found
in India is Rana tigrina.
They do not have constant body temperature i.e., their body
temperature varies with the temperature of the environment. Such animals
are called cold blooded or poikilotherms. You might have also noticed
changes in the colour of the frogs while they are in grasses and on dry
land. They have the ability to change the colour to hide them from their
enemies (camouflage). This protective coloration is called mimicry. You
may also know that frogs are not seen during peak summer and winter.
During this period they take shelter in deep burrows to protect them
from extreme heat and cold. This is known as summer sleep (aestivation)
and winter sleep (hibernation) respectively.
7.5.1 Morphology
Have you ever touched the skin of frog? The skin is smooth and slippery
due to the presence of mucus. The skin is always maintained in a moist
condition. The colour of dorsal side of body is generally olive green with
dark irregular spots. On the ventral side the skin is uniformly pale yellow.
The frog never drinks water but absorb it through the skin.
Body of a frog is divisible into head and trunk (Figure 7.19). A neck
and tail are absent. Above the mouth, a pair of nostrils is present. Eyes
are bulged and covered by a nictitating membrane that protects them
while in water. On either side of eyes a membranous
Head tympanum (ear) receives sound signals. The
Trunk
forelimbs and hind limbs help in swimming,
Eye
walking, leaping and burrowing. The hind limbs end
in five digits and they are larger and muscular than
fore limbs that end in four digits. Feet have webbed
digits that help in swimming. Frogs exhibit sexual
Fore limb dimorphism. Male frogs can be distinguished by the
presence of sound producing vocal sacs and also a
Hind limb copulatory pad on the first digit of the fore limbs
which are absent in female frogs.
Figure 7.19 External features of frog
7.5.2 Anatomy
The body cavity of frogs accommodate different organ systems such as
digestive, circulatory, respiratory, nervous, excretory and reproductive
systems with well developed structures and functions (Figure 7.20).
The digestive system consists of alimentary canal and digestive glands.
The alimentary canal is short because frogs are carnivores and hence the
length of intestine is reduced. The mouth opens into the buccal cavity that
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Heart
Oesophagus
Liver
Gall
bladder
Lung
Stomach
Fat bodies
Kidney
Ureter Intestine
Urinary
bladder Rectum
Cloaca
Cloacal Aperture
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On land, the buccal cavity, skin and lungs act as the respiratory organs.
The respiration by lungs is called pulmonary respiration. The lungs are
a pair of elongated, pink coloured sac-like structures present in the upper
part of the trunk region (thorax). Air enters through the nostrils into the
buccal cavity and then to lungs. During aestivation and hibernation
gaseous exchange takes place through skin.
The vascular system of frog is well-developed closed type. Frogs have
a lymphatic system also. The blood vascular system involves heart, blood
vessels and blood. The lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymph
channels and lymph nodes. Heart is a muscular structure situated in the
upper part of the body cavity. It has three chambers, two atria and one
ventricle and is covered by a membrane called pericardium. A triangular
structure called sinus venosus joins the right atrium. It receives blood
through the major veins called vena cava. The ventricle opens into a sac-
like conus arteriosus on the ventral side of the heart. The blood from the
heart is carried to all parts of the body by the arteries (arterial system).
The veins collect blood from different parts of body to the heart and form
the venous system. Special venous connection between liver and intestine
as well as the kidney and lower parts of the body are present in frogs. The
former is called hepatic portal system and the latter is called renal portal
system. The blood is composed of plasma and cells. The blood cells are
RBC (red blood cells) or erythrocytes, WBC (white blood cells) or leucocytes
and platelets. RBC’s are nucleated and contain red coloured pigment
namely haemoglobin. The lymph is different from blood. It lacks few
proteins and RBCs. The blood carries nutrients, gases and water to the
respective sites during the circulation. The circulation of blood is achieved
by the pumping action of the muscular heart.
The elimination of nitrogenous wastes is carried out by a well
developed excretory system. The excretory system consists of a pair of
kidneys, ureters, cloaca and urinary bladder. These are compact, dark
red and bean like structures situated a little posteriorly in the body cavity
on both sides of vertebral column. Each kidney is composed of several
structural and functional units called uriniferous tubules or nephrons.
Two ureters emerge from the kidneys in the male frogs. The ureters act as
urinogenital duct which opens into the cloaca. In females the ureters and
oviduct open seperately in the cloaca. The thin-walled urinary bladder is
present ventral to the rectum which also opens in the cloaca. The frog
excretes urea and thus is a ureotelic animal. Excretory wastes are carried
by blood into the kidney where it is separated and excreted.
The system for control and coordination is highly evolved in the frog. It
includes both neural system and endocrine glands. The chemical
coordination of various organs of the body is achieved by hormones which
are secreted by the endocrine glands. The prominent endocrine glands
found in frog are pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, pineal body,
pancreatic islets, adrenals and gonads. The nervous system is organised
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Vasa
into a central nervous system (brain and spinal efferentia
cord), a peripheral nervous system (cranial and
spinal nerves) and an autonomic nervous system
Fat
(sympathetic and parasympathetic). There are ten
bodies
pairs of cranial nerves arising from the brain. Brain
is enclosed in a bony structure called brain box Testis
Kidney
(cranium). The brain is divided into fore-brain,
mid-brain and hind-brain. Forebrain includes Adrenal
olfactory lobes, paired cerebral hemispheres and gland
Urino
unpaired diencephalon. The midbrain is
genital duct
characterised by a pair of optic lobes. Hind-brain
consists of cerebellum and medulla oblongata. Rectum
The medulla oblongata passes out through the Cloaca
foramen magnum and continues into spinal cord, Urinary Cloacal
which is enclosed in the vertebral column. bladder aperture
Frog has different types of sense organs, namely
organs of touch (sensory papillae), taste (taste Figure 7.21 Male reproductive system
buds), smell (nasal epithelium), vision (eyes) and
hearing (tympanum with internal ears). Out of
these, eyes and internal ears are well-organised
structures and the rest are cellular aggregations
around nerve endings. Eyes in a frog are a pair of
spherical structures situated in the orbit in skull.
These are simple eyes (possessing only one unit).
External ear is absent in frogs and only tympanum
can be seen externally. The ear is an organ of Oviduct
hearing as well as balancing (equilibrium).
Frogs have well organised male and female
reproductive systems. Male reproductive organs
consist of a pair of yellowish ovoid testes (Figure Ovary
7.21), which are found adhered to the upper part Ova
of kidneys by a double fold of peritoneum called
mesorchium. Vasa efferentia are 10-12 in
number that arise from testes. They enter the Ureter
kidneys on their side and open into Bidder’s
canal. Finally it communicates with the
urinogenital duct that comes out of the kidneys
and opens into the cloaca. The cloaca is a small,
median chamber that is used to pass faecal Cloaca
matter, urine and sperms to the exterior. Cloacal aperture
The female reproductive organs include a pair
Urinary
of ovaries (Figure 7.22). The ovaries are situated
bladder
near kidneys and there is no functional
connection with kidneys. A pair of oviduct arising Figure 7.22 Female reproductive system
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from the ovaries opens into the cloaca separately. A mature female can
lay 2500 to 3000 ova at a time. Fertilisation is external and takes place in
water. Development involves a larval stage called tadpole. Tadpole
undergoes metamorphosis to form the adult.
Frogs are beneficial for mankind because they eat insects and protect
the crop. Frogs maintain ecological balance because these serve as an
important link of food chain and food web in the ecosystem. In some
countries the muscular legs of frog are used as food by man.
SUMMARY
Cells, tissues, organs and organ systems split up the work in a way that ensures
the survival of the body as a whole and exhibit division of labour. A tissue is
defined as group of cells along with intercellular substances performing one or
more functions in the body. Epithelia are sheet like tissues lining the body’s surface
and its cavities, ducts and tubes. Epithelia have one free surface facing a body
fluid or the outside environment. Their cells are structurally and functionally
connected at junctions.
Diverse types of connective tissues bind together, support, strengthen, protect,
and insulate other tissue in the body. Soft connective tissues consist of protein
fibres as well as a variety of cells arranged in a ground substance. Cartilage, bone,
blood, and adipose tissue are specialised connective tissues. Cartilage and bone
are both structural materials. Blood is a fluid tissue with transport functions.
Adipose tissue is a reservoir of stored energy. Muscle tissue, which can contract
(shorten) in response to stimulation, helps in movement of the body and specific
body parts. Skeletal muscle is the muscle tissue attached to bones. Smooth muscle
is a component of internal organs. Cardiac muscle makes up the contractile walls
of the heart. Connective tissue covers all three types of tissues. Nervous tissue
exerts greatest control over the response of body. Neurons are the basic units of
nervous tissue.
Earthworm, Cockroach and Frog show characteristic features in body
organisation. In Pheretima posthuma (earthworm), the body is covered by cuticle.
All segments of its body are alike except the 14th, 15th and 16th segment, which are
thick and dark and glandular, forming clitellum. A ring of S-shaped chitinous
setae is found in each segment. These setae help in locomotion. On the ventral
side spermathecal openings are present in between the grooves of 5 and 6, 6 and
7, 7 and 8 and 8 and 9 segments. Female genital pores are present on 14th segment
and male genital pores on 18th segment. The alimentary canal is a narrow tube
made of mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx, gizzard, stomach, intestine and anus.
The blood vascular system is of closed type with heart and valves. Nervous system
is represented by ventral nerve cord. Earthworm is hermaphorodite. Two pairs of
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testes occur in the 10th and 11th segment, respectively. A pair of ovaries are present
on 12 and 13th intersegmental septum. It is a protandrous animal with cross-
fertilisation. Fertilisation and development take place in cocoon secreted by the
glands of clitellum.
The body of Cockroach (Periplaneta americana) is covered by chitinous
exoskeleton. It is divided into head, thorax and abdomen. Segments bear jointed
appendages. There are three segments of thorax, each bearing a pair of walking
legs. Two pairs of wings are present, one pair each on 2nd and 3rd segment. There
are ten segments in abdomen. Alimentary canal is well developed with a mouth
surrounded by mouth parts, a pharynx, oesophagus, crop, gizzard, midgut,
hindgut and anus. Hepatic caecae are present at the junction of foregut and
midgut. Malpighian tubules are present at the junction of midgut and hindgut
and help in excretion. A pair of salivary gland is present near crop. The blood
vascular system is of open type. Respiration takes place by network of tracheae.
Trachea opens outside with spiracles. Nervous system is represented by
segmentally arranged ganglia and ventral nerve cord. A pair of testes is present in
4th-6th segments and ovaries in 2nd-6th segments. Fertilisation is internal. Female
produces 9-10 ootheca bearing developing embryos. After rupturing of single
ootheca sixteen young ones, called nymphs come out.
The Indian bullfrog, Rana tigrina, is the common frog found in India. Body is
covered by skin. Mucous glands are present in the skin which is highly vascularised
and helps in respiration in water and on land. Body is divisible into head and trunk.
A muscular tongue is present, which is bilobed at the tip and is used in capturing
the prey. The alimentary canal consists of oesophagous, stomach, intestine and
rectum, which open into the cloaca. The main digestive glands are liver and pancreas.
It can respire in water through skin and through lungs on land. Circulatory system
is closed with single circulation. RBCs are nucleated. Nervous system is organised
into central, peripheral and autonomic. The organs of urinogenital system are kidneys
and urinogenital ducts, which open into the cloaca. The male reproductive organ is
a pair of testes. The female reproductive organ is a pair of ovaries. A female lays
2500-3000 ova at a time. The fertilisation and development are external. The eggs
hatch into tadpoles, which metamorphose into frogs.
EXERCISES
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