SAN JACINTO CATHOLIC SCHOOL, INC. Gen. Bio.

2
San Jacinto, Pangasinan
General Biology 2 ( STEM 12)
GRADE 12 LEARNER’S MODULE # 1&2 – 3rd Quarter, Weeks 1-4

UNIT 1: SURVIVING IN THE NATURAL WORLD

Lesson 1: Animal’s Specialized Structures

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this set of lesson, you will be able to:
• Describe the animals’ epithelial tissue and its function;
• Describe the characteristics of the animals’ connective tissue;
• Compare and contrast the different muscle tissue in the animals’ body;
• Describe how nervous tissues allow us to communicate;
• Describe the structure and functions of plant tissues;
• Describe the structure and function of the different plant organs.

INTRODUCTION
All animals have structures that help them survive in their environment.
Some structures help animals find food, like the amazing eyesight of an eagle.
Other animals have camouflage to help them hide from predators. Some
structures are very unique to certain animals, like the water monitor lizard’s long,
forked tongue. They use it to smell and find food. One special structure that
insects have is their hard outer skeleton, called an exoskeleton. Exoskeletons
are like wearing armor. It protects insects from predators and keeps insects from
drying out. Exoskeletons can also have special structures on them, like the
horns on some beetles that are used to compete with other beetles for mates.

INSTRUCTION/DISCUSSION
Animal cells grow, mature, and undergo differentiation. Tissues
are formed as a result of cell differentiation. The human body, for
example, is made up of more than 200 differentiated cells. A tissue is a
group of similar cells that performs a common function. The study of
animal and plant tissues is called histology. Histology involves the
preparation of thin tissue sections, differentially stained and examined
under the microscope. A microtome is an instrument used to cut tissues
into ultrathin sections. Tissue sections are treated with biological stains
(dyes) to differentiate cells and tissues, and to have a clearer view of the
different parts under the microscope.
There are four types of tissues found in animals: epithelial,
connective, muscular, and nervous. These different types of tissues have
distinct structures and functions. An organ is made up of different types of
tissues. The stomach, for example, is made up of four types of tissue.
The inner wall of the stomach is lined by columnar epithelial cells for absorption of digested food. The stomach
is surrounded by smooth muscle tissues that are responsible for the movement (peristalsis) during digestion.
The stomach walls contain nervous tissue (nerves) that transmits signals to and from the brain. Blood is a type
of connective tissue, is responsible for the transport of nutrients from absorbed loose connective tissues are
also found in the stomach. These different tissues have specialized with a common objective to digest food,
the function of the stomach

EPITHELIAL TISSUE COVER

Animals are multicellular organisms, which means that their bodies
are composed of many cells. Animal cells are organized into specialized
groups with distinct functions that form different tissues. For example, the
leg muscle tissues make animals move. Tissues may be recombined to
form an organ, which is a group of tissues working together to perform a
complex job. The stomach, for example, is made up of nervous tissues that
allow it to respond to messages coming from the brain as well as muscular
tissues that allow peristalsis. In most animals, different organs form organ
systems.
Epithelial tissues may be simple or stratified. A simple epithelium is
made up of a single layer of cells. A stratified epithelium has more than one
layer of cells. There are three types of epithelium based on their shape:
squamous, cuboidal, and columnar.
Simple squamous epithelium consists of a single layer of flattened cells. These flattened cells are
usually found in thin barriers where exchange of nutrients, wastes, and respiratory gases occur. They are
found in the alveoli of the lungs where gas exchange takes place, and in capillaries where diffusion and

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osmosis take place. All blood vessels and the heart are lined with simple squamous cells. Simple cuboidal
epithelium is a single layer of cube-shaped cells. Cuboidal cells have larger cytoplasm’s compared to
squamous cells; thus, they can perform more complex functions such as absorption and secretion. The
secretory cells of different glands are made up of cuboidal cells. Cuboidal cells are also found in the tubules of
the kidneys and the ducts of most glands. Simple columnar epithelium is a single layer of elongated cells. This
type of epithelium is ideal for absorption and secretion as it contains large cytoplasmic volumes with enough
organelles and energy reserves to engage in complex activities. The simple columnar epithelium lining the
small intestines is responsible for about 90 percent absorption that takes place in the digestive tract. It has
special structures called microvilli, which are extensions of the cell membrane to increase their surface area for
absorption. Goblet cells are specialized columnar cells found in the lining of the stomach and small intestines
responsible for mucus secretion. Ciliated simple columnar epithelium is found in the small bronchioles of the
respiratory tract for mucus movement, and in the fallopian tubes of the female reproductive tract for the
reproductive cell movement. Pseudostratified epithelium, as the name implies, is the "falsely stratified"
epithelium. It is made up of columnar cells that are tall and thin, forming irregular shapes. The cells appear to
form several layers but are actually arranged in a single layer, and all its cells rest on the basement membrane.
Pseudostratified epithelium is found in the upper respiratory tract as ciliated types. The cilia are hairlike
extensions of the cell that propel the mucus secreted by the goblet cell along the cell surface.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE CONNECT

Connective tissues include a large group of different tissues characterized by having dispersed cells
and large extracellular space called extracellular matrix. The extracellular matrix includes protein fibers
(collagen, elastic, or reticular) and ground substances secreted mostly by the cells of the connective tissue.
The extracellular matrix may be solid (bone), soft (connective tissue), or liquid (blood). The functions of
connective tissues are varied, depending on the type. Their main function is to bind and support other tissues.
Their other functions include:
• Protection,
• Provision of cushion,
• Maintenance of body form,
• Filling body space,
• Storage of fats,
• Transport of nutrients and wastes,
• Body defense, and
• Repair of body parts.

Connective tissues can be broadly classified into three large groups; connective tissue proper,
supportive connective tissue (cartilage and bones), and fluid connective tissues (blood and lymph).

CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER

Loose connective tissues are also called areolar connective tissues. They are connective tissues with
watery matrix (ground substance) where the cells, mostly fibroblasts, are located. Special white blood cells
called macrophages can also be found in the matrix. Collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers are likewise found in
the matrix. Loose connective tissues are found beneath the epithelia of the skin around blood vessels,
muscles, and nerves; and in internal organs such as the lungs and the urinary bladder. Their functions include
binding and supporting one tissue to another (as skin connects to muscles), protecting and nourishing the
organs and structures as it binds (as it forms a protective layer over muscles, nerves, and blood vessels), and
storing body fluids. Dense connective tissues are made up of closely packed bundles of collagen fibers with
few cells. They are less flexible than loose connective tissues but are more rigid. Dense connective tissues are
found in tendons that connect muscles to bones, in ligaments that connect bones to other bones, and in the
dermis of the skin.
Reticular connective tissues are made up of cells called reticulocytes
(specialized fibroblasts) and a matrix that contains reticular fibers. They give
support to soft organs such as the spleen, lymph nodes, and liver. They also
provide the supporting framework for the bone marrow and lymphoid (blood
cell-making) organs. Elastic connective tissues, as the name implies, are
highly elastic (flexible), with flattened fibroblast cells with a matrix that contains
bundles of elastic fibers and interspersed collagen fibers. Elastic fibers can
stretch 1.5 times its normal length and then recoil. These fibers provide
elasticity to tissues. They are found in large arteries such as the aorta,
bronchial tubes, and in the ligaments of the vertebral column. Adipose tissues, or fat tissues, are special types
of connective tissues that store fats. The fat cells or adipocytes appear as translucent fat globules. Adipocytes
contain a large vacuole that stores the fats. As a result, the nucleus is pushed to one side, giving the cell the
appearance of a signet ring. Adipose tissues are found anywhere in the body, especially in empty spaces. The
fat cells serve as energy reservoirs for organs and may provide insulation. Adipose tissues found in the
subcutaneous layer of the skin help shape, cushion, and insulate the body. The kidneys, heart, and the orbit of
the eyes are all cushioned by adipose tissues.

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SUPPORTIVE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Cartilage is a type of connective tissue with cells called chondrocytes, which are separated by a strong
yet flexible matrix made up of a substance called chondrin, a protein-carbohydrate complex. The chondrocytes
are located in a chamber called lacuna (plural: lacunae), which is surrounded by a membrane called
perichondrium. In humans, cartilage is found in the ears, nose, and joints. It forms the embryonic skeleton of
vertebrates and the adult skeleton of sharks. Cartilage gives strength, support, and protection to the soft parts
of the body. Bones are hardened connective tissues containing cells called osteocytes, a matrix with collagen
fibers, and mineral deposits such as calcium phosphate, magnesium, carbonate, and fluoride ions. Like the
cells of cartilages, osteocytes are also found in the lacuna. Bones serve as the structural framework of the
body, and together with muscles, are needed for movement and locomotion. Inside long bones are cavities
filled with bone marrow, the site where blood cells are produced. Bones also serve as the reservoir for calcium.

FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Blood is a special type of connective tissue with a liquid matrix called the blood plasma. The cells of the
blood include the erythrocytes or red blood cells for the transport of oxygen, leukocytes or white blood cells for
the body's defense against infection, and the thrombocytes or blood platelets for blood clotting. In addition, the
blood transports nutrients to cells and removes carbon dioxide and other wastes. The blood also regulates the
fluids, ions, and pH balance of the body.

MUSCULAR TISSUE CONTRACT

Muscular tissues are contractile tissues responsible for movement. The muscle cells (or more
accurately called muscle fibers) that make up muscle tissues contain myosin and actin, the proteins involved in
muscle contraction. There are three types of muscular tissues: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
Skeletal muscular tissues, as the name implies, are attached to bones through tendons. They are
responsible for the movement of most body parts and for locomotion. The contractions of skeletal muscles are
under voluntary control. A skeletal muscle fiber is long and cylindrical, unbranched, and contains multiple
nuclei. Under the microscope, its fibers appear as alternating dark and light bands; thus, it is called striated
(with striations) muscles. These bands are due to the arrangement of myosin and actin filaments.
Cardiac muscular tissues are found only in the walls of the heart. The contraction of cardiac muscles
causes the heart to beat, which pumps blood. Cardiac muscles are also striated but its contraction is
involuntarily controlled. Cardiac muscle fibers are branching, with only one nucleus per muscle cell. Cardiac
muscular tissues are both separate and individual cells but are compactly arranged with each other.
Intercalated discs join one muscle fiber to another. They allow impulses to move freely from one muscle fiber
to another. This results in a coordinated contraction called the heartbeat.
Smooth muscular tissues are non-striated, spindle-shaped muscles that are involuntarily controlled.
They are unbranched with a single nucleus per cell. Smooth muscles are found in the walls of the stomach,
intestines, urinary bladder, uterus, and blood vessels. The contraction of the smooth muscles causes these
organs to constrict its diameter. In the stomach and small intestines, these muscle contractions cause
peristalsis. In the urinary bladder, contractions cause the expulsion of urine.

NERVOUS TISSUE CONDUCT

The nervous tissue is made up of nerve cells called neurons, which are found in the brain and spinal
cord. Neurons are specialized cells that conduct impulses to and from the brain. A typical neuron is made up of
three parts: dendrites, cell body, and axon. Dendrites receive impulses and send them to the cell body. The
cell body is like a typical cell where the nucleus and organelles are found. Axon is a long fiber-like part that
transmits the impulses away from the cell body to the next neuron.

TISSUES FOR, ORGANS AND ORGAN SYSTEMS

Tissues are groups of similar types of cells that perform diverse similar functions. A group of different
tissues united to perform a common function forms an organ. Several organs that perform together for a
common function make up an organ system. The human body is made up of 11 organ systems.

Table 1-1
Organ systems: Major Organs and Their Functions
System Major Structure Functions
Integumentary Skin, nail, and hair Protects against injury, infection and fluid
loss provides structure and support
Muscular Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscular Moves limbs and trunk
tissue Moves substance through the body
Provides structure and support
Skeletal Bones and joints Protects and supports the body and organs
Interacts with skeletal muscles
Circulatory Heart blood vessels, blood lymph nodes Transports nutrients, gases, ions,
and vessels, and lymph hormones, and wastes
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves and sense Regular behavior
organs Maintains homeostasis
Controls sensory and motor function

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 Digestive Mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, Extracts and absorbs nutrients from food
pancreas, and small and large intestines Removes wastes
Maintains water and chemical balances
Respiratory Lungs, nose, mouth and trachea Moves air into and out of lungs
Excretory Kidney, urinary bladder, ureters, and Removes wastes from the blood
urethra Regulates concentration of body fluids
Endocrine Hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, Regulates body temperature, metabolism,
parathyroid, pineal body, adrenal glands, development and reproduction
pancreas, testes and ovaries Maintains homeostasis
Reproductive Testes and penis, ovaries and uterus Produces gametes and offspring
Immune WBC, lymph node and vessels and skin Defends against pathogens and diseases

PRACTICE
What will happen when bone marrow doesn’t produce blood cell anymore?
___________________________________________________________________________________

Lesson 2: Plants Have Organs Too

INTRODUCTION
Plant organs grow to characteristic, species-specific sizes and shapes. At the cellular level, organ
growth is initially characterized by cell proliferation, which gives way to cell expansion at later stages. Using
mainly Arabidopsis thaliana as a model species, a number of factors have been isolated in recent years that
promote or restrict organ growth, with the altered organ size being associated with changes in cell number, in
cell size, or in both.

INSTRUCTION/DISCUSSION

PLANT TISSUES
Associated with the presence of vascular tissues is the development of plant organs that are
specialized for essential plant functions. Organs that allow the plant to live and grow are called vegetative
organs. These include the roots, stems, and leaves. The root anchors the plant to the soil for support and
absorbs water and minerals from the soil. The stem is the main axis of the plant together with its branches. It
functions as a support and for the transport of water and nutrients absorbed by the roots to the leaves. It also
distributes the products of photosynthesis to the other plant parts. The leaves are responsible for the
manufacture of food by photosynthesis. Flowers, fruits, and seeds are organs involved in reproduction. All
these plant organs are made up of groups of similar cells with a common function: the plant tissues.
Compared to animals, plants have fewer types of tissues. There are two main types of tissues in
vascular plants: meristematic and permanent. Permanent tissues are further divided into surface (dermal),
fundamental (ground), and vascular. These plant tissues are either made up of one type of cells, or two or
more different cell types with a common function. Table 1-2 summarizes the tissues and cell types of flowering
plants.
Table 1-2
Tissues and Cell Types of Flowering Plants
Basic Tissue System Tissue Cell Types
Epidermis (primary growth) Parenchyma cells
Surface (dermal) Guard cells
Trichomes
Sclerenchyma cells
Periderm (secondary growth) Parenchyma cells
Sclerenchyma cells
Fundamental (ground) Parenchyma Parenchyma cells
Collenchyma Collenchyma cells
Sclerenchyma Fibers
Sclereids
Vascular Xylem Tracheids
Vessel members
Sclerenchyma cells
Parenchyma cells

Phloem Sieve tube members

Companion cells
Parenchyma cells
Sclerenchyma cells

MERISTEMATIC TISSUES ALLOW GROWTH

A plant grows because it has meristems. Meristems are made up of embryonic tissues called
meristematic tissues. Meristems are part of the plant where growth is fastest. Apical meristems are found in the

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tip of the stems or roots that allow these organs to grow longer. Lateral meristems (also called secondary
meristems or lateral buds) are found on the nodes of stems and are involved in the formation of branches. The
cambium is a ring of meristematic tissues found inside a mature stem, which allows growth in diameter or
increase in the thickness of stems or roots. A vascular cambium produces new layers of vascular tissues,
whereas a cork cambium produces new layers of surface tissue called cork. The cells found in meristematic
tissues are usually small, thin-walled, and with no central vacuole and specialized features. Their main function
is to undergo cell division called mitosis. The cells produced by meristematic tissues grow, mature, and
differentiate into either a surface, fundamental, or vascular tissue.

SURFACE TISSUES PROTECT

Surface or dermal tissues cover and protect the surface of
the different plant organs. The cells that make up surface tissues
are usually flattened with their top and bottom surfaces parallel. The
epidermis of the leaf is an example of surface tissue. The outer cell
wall of the epidermis is covered with a layer of cuticle that is made
up of a substance called cutin. Cutin is a waxy substance that
prevents water loss. The cuticle also protects against bacteria and
other organisms that may cause harm to the plant. Epidermis is also
found in the outer layer of leaves, stems, roots, flowers, and even
seeds. Root hairs are slender projections found in the epidermal
cells of roots, which enable a cell's modification to increase the
surface area of the root for absorption. Guard cells are modified
epidermal cells found on leaves that function to open or close the stomata, the leaf opening for gas exchange.
During daytime, carbon dioxide diffuses in and oxygen diffuses out of the stomata.
Cork is another example of surface tissue that covers the outer surface of the bark of woody stems and
roots. The cork is made up of dead cork cells that may be sloughed off. As mentioned above, cork cells are
produced by the cork cambium. The cork protects the plant from mechanical injury.

FUNDAMENTAL TISSUE FILL

Fundamental or ground tissues form the main bulk of plants. They fill most of the spaces in any plant
organ. The cells that form the fundamental tissues are involved in the production and storage of food, and
serves as support for the plant. Fundamental tissues are made up of three types of cells: parenchyma,
collenchyma, and sclerenchyma.
Parenchyma cells best represent a typical plant cell. They are large, thin-walled, and usually have a
large central vacuole. They are found in the leaves, stems, roots, flowers, and fruits. Parenchyma cells usually
contain plastids. In areas exposed to light, such as green leaves, chloroplastids are found where
photosynthesis takes place.
In areas not exposed to light, such as stems, fruits, and roots, colorless plastids predominate. The main
function of these areas is as food storage. Parenchyma cells are capable of cell division and could give rise to
more specialized cells, such as when roots develop from stem cuttings placed in water.
Collenchyma cells function mainly as support. They are similar in structure to parenchyma cells except
that they have a thicker cell wall, which explains their support function. The thickness of the cell is usually
uneven and occurs on the corners of the cell. They are in the stem as part of vascular bundles just beneath the
epidermis. They can be found in areas that are growing rapidly and needed to be strengthened. The leaf stalk
or petiole is usually reinforced with collenchyma cells.
Sclerenchyma cells have a thick secondary cell wall in addition to the primary cell wall. The secondary
cell wall is impregnated with lignin, an organic substance that makes the cell wall tough and hard. Most
sclerenchyma cells are nonliving and function as a support to the mature parts of the plant. There are two
types of sclerenchyma cells: fibers and sclereids. Fibers are long and slender, whereas sclereids are irregular
in shape. For example, abaca and pineapple fibers are used to make cloth. Sclereids are responsible for the
tough seed coats and nutshells.

VASCULAR TISSUE TRANSPORT

Vascular tissues are complex conducting tissues that extend from the roots to the leaves of plants.
There are two types of vascular tissues: xylem and phloem. The xylem transports water and minerals from
roots to leaves via the stem. On the other hand, the phloem transports organic nutrients in both directions
along the length of the plant. The phloem is usually located outside the xylem.
There are two types of conducting cells found in the xylem: tracheids and vessel elements. Tracheids
are elongated, hollow, and nonliving cells with tapered ends. Water and minerals can pass between tracheids
through the pits or depressions found in its end walls. Vessel elements are also hollow and nonliving, but are
larger and without end walls. Vessel elements form a continuous pipeline of water and minerals from the roots
to the leaves. In addition, the xylem also contains parenchyma cells that store substances.
The phloem contains living conducting cells called sieve tube members, each of which has a
companion cell. The sieve tube members are elongated cells with few organelles and no nucleus. The end
walls of the sieve tube members called sieve plates are perforated, allowing cytoplasmic connections between
vertically stacked cells.
This vertical stacking of the sieve tube members forms the sieve tube. The products of photosynthesis,
such as sugars and amino acids, are transported through sieve tube from the site where they are

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manufactured (e.g., leaves) to the sites where they are consumed or stored (e.g., roots, fruits, tubers, corms,
growing tips of stems and leaves, flowers, etc.). Companion cells are believed to control the transport activities
of the sieve tube cells.
Plant tissues eventually form organ systems. In angiosperms or flowering plants, organ systems are
divided into the root system found underground and shoot system usually found above the ground, elevating
the plant above the soil. The shoot system is composed of the stem, the leaves, and the flowers, whereas the
root system consists of the roots alone. Allowing the plants to survive and grow in diverse environments is
possible through these vegetative organs the leaf, the stem, and its roots.

LEAVES
Leaves are the chief organs of plants for photosynthesis.
Because of this, leaves need a constant supply of vital elements of
solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water. Aside from photosynthesis,
some leaves also function in asexual reproduction. Some
modifications are also seen in leaves they become tendrils that allow
plants to attach to objects, leaves of the Venus flytrap catch insects,
and spines of cactus prevent water loss and act as protection from
browsing animals.
The surface layers have stomata or pores that close and
open to let essential gases enter and leave the leaf. Stoma is a
Greek word that means "mouth," that is why the stomata looks like
tiny mouths. In between the layers are veins with the xylem and phloem. The structure of the leaf itself is
adapted to perform photosynthesis. The cells containing chloroplasts are found near the surface of the leaf,
allowing it to collect more light. Carbon dioxide enters the stomata when it opens while water is being absorbed
via the roots and travels up to the stem toward the leaf via the xylem. As by-products of photosynthesis, sugar
and oxygen are produced from the raw materials of carbon dioxide and water. Oxygen then exits out of the
open stomata. Sugar enters the phloem and is transported throughout the plant.

STEM
A stem is an above ground structure that supports the leaves, transports water and important nutrients
between roots and leaves, and produces new tissue for growth. At the end of the stem is a terminal bud, also
known as the apical bud, which produces new leaves and other tissues during primary growth. On the sides,
branches grow from the lateral bud, which is also known as the axillary bud, where a leaf connects with the
stem. A node is where the leaf or leaves are attached to the stem, whereas the region in between nodes is an
internode. Stems also support plants in various ways. Trees have stems that support numerous branches,
while vines have stems that require support. Some plants have stems that creep on the ground, whereas some
have stems that stay underground.
Stems can also be herbaceous or woody. A herbaceous stem has no relation to cambium growth, that
is why it is soft. Daisy plants have herbaceous stems. Woody stems, on the other hand, are hard and rigid, as
seen in trees. Herbaceous and woody stems both consist of vascular tissues in the form of xylem and phloem.
Vascular tissues make up the stem that transports water and minerals from the roots through the stem and to
the leaves, while it also transports photosynthetic products, usually in the opposite direction. Stems can also
perform other functions. Stems in cactus can serve as the primary organ for photosynthesis and as water
reservoir

ROOTS
The root systems enable a plant to anchor itself in the soil while
absorbing water and minerals (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and other
inorganic molecules) to the rest of its body. The extent of the root system is
usually equivalent to the length of the plant's shoot system. Roots have a slimy
surface and cylindrical shape that allow the plants to penetrate the soil as they
grow in size and also allow water to be absorbed from all directions. The tip of
the root is round in shape and covered with a structure called root cap. It
protects the plants from rock injury that may damage the roots as it grows. A
certain area near the root tip has numerous root hairs that increase the
absorptive capacity of roots and also help anchor the plant in the soil. Just like body cells, the root hair cells
are replaced constantly. When you uproot a plant from the soil, it may not be successfully replanted because of
the damage caused in its root system, particularly the root hairs. Some roots, called adventitious roots arise
from an organ other than the roots, such as the stem or a leaf.

Lesson 3: The Need to Respire and Exchange Essential Gases

At the end of this set of lesson, you will be able to:

• Compare the structure or organs involved on gas exchange in plants and animals;
• State factors that affect gas exchange;
• Explain breathing mechanism in vertebrates;
• Trace the pathway of air in a mammalian respiratory system through the organs and their roles;

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 • Explain the coordination of their respiratory system with the circulatory system in the transport of gases
to the body tissues;
• Describe the major processes, structures, and mechanisms for gas exchange in plants;
• Describe the transport of substances in the xylem and phloem;
• Explain the functions of structures in animal circulation;
• Compare the body’s innate defenses and adaptive immune responses.

INTRODUCTION
Almost all organisms in the planet need oxygen to survive. The oxygen comes from the atmosphere,
which contains a mixture of gases that blankets the planet. The air that you breathe is composed of 21 percent
oxygen, 78 percent nitrogen, about one percent carbon dioxide, and minute proportions of other gases. Your
body constantly needs oxygen and nutrients, and gets rid of wastes to function properly and keep you alive.
The respiratory and circulatory systems work cooperatively to maintain this homeostasis. The circulatory
system moves blood to all parts of the body to bring vital supplies to the cells and take away the wastes.

INSTRUCTION/DISCUSSION

GAS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS

One of the major physiological challenges of multicellular
animals is obtaining sufficient oxygen and expelling excessive
amounts of carbon dioxide in a process called respiration. You
may recall that oxygen is needed by the cells to harness energy
from food through cellular respiration, while carbon dioxide is
produced as a waste product. In addition, gas exchange requires
an aqueous environment. Cells are in stable condition because
their plasma membrane is surrounded by water molecules. In
fact, when terrestrial vertebrates breathe in, oxygen from air dissolves in a thin layer of fluid that cover the
respiratory surfaces. Specifically, oxygen diffuses into the epithelial cells that line the respiratory organs.
In animals, there are four major types of gas exchange systems that allow them to obtain oxygen from
the environment: body surface, gills, tracheae, or lungs. The process involved in the bringing of oxygenated
water or air into contact with respiratory organs is called ventilation. Gas exchange in unicellular organisms,
such as protists and in primitive phyla of animals, takes place in the cells in the organism's surface in which the
plasma membrane is moist all the time. Single-celled protists, being small in size, can easily diffuse essential
gases and thus will not require complex respiratory organs.
Invertebrates such as cnidarians, sponges, and worms can easily exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide
by diffusion also because their skin is only a few layers thick. Earthworms use their entire outer skin to
exchange gases. This is known as integumentary exchange or cutaneous respiration. Amphibians, in addition
to the usage of their lungs, breathe through their skin as a gas exchange surface, and that is why they have to
be moist all the time. Amphibians rely heavily on their lungs and cannot breathe air when they are underwater.
When completely submerged in water, oxygen diffuses into a dense net of thin-walled capillaries beneath their
skin, which allows them to spend prolonged time underwater.
Some animals have a skin surface that is not adequate
to allow gas exchange all over its body. That is why certain
parts of their bodies evolved as highly branched large
respiratory surfaces in the form of tracheal systems among
insects, gills in fishes so they could exchange gases in water
environments, and lungs in land animals. Arthropods, such as
insects and spiders, have a tracheal system that consists of
branched internal tubes that extend throughout the body. On
the surface of the insect's body are tiny openings called
spiracles. Arising from these spiracles are sturdy tubes known
as tracheae. The tracheal system uses these fine air-
conducting tubules to carry out gas exchange. The tracheae branch off further into smaller tubes called
tracheoles that can become smaller enough, with tips that reach all its cells. The tips of the tracheoles are filled
with small amounts of an aqueous substance where oxygen can be dissolved from air, whereas carbon dioxide
diffuses in the opposite direction.
Gills are found in more advanced marine invertebrates and
vertebrates. Gills are thin sheets of tissue that wave through the water,
increasing the surface area available for diffusion. Marine invertebrates,
such as mollusks and echinoderms, have external gills that are often in
the form of extensive projections. These gills are highly folded, thin-
walled vascularized epidermis that project outward of the organism's
body. Organisms that use this gas exchange mechanism ventilate by
waving these gills back and forth through the water, an action that is
important for sessile invertebrates that rely on water currents for
ventilation. Despite having this adaption, external gills have some
limitations they are susceptible to damage from the environment as they
are exposed, a considerable amount of energy is needed to move them

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continually through the water, and their appearance and motion make the animal susceptible to predators by
drawing attention to it.
Fishes, on the other hand, have a set of feather-like internal gills found on each side of its head that
flap open and close with the exchange of gases. The gills are covered by a bony plate called operculum. The
gills are supported by gill arches that contain gill filaments composed of numerous plate-like structures called
lamellae. Dissolved oxygen from the water that enters the mouth diffuses across the gill surfaces into the
capillaries, with carbon dioxide diffusing in the opposite direction to the outside environment. This mechanism
is called countercurrent exchange, which is highly efficient in extracting oxygen dissolved in water where
oxygen content is lower than in air. Different fishes can ventilate in three possible ways: actively drawing water
in through their mouth and out of their operculum, swimming while their mouth is open so that water can
continuously flow across the gills, and resting near a water current while keeping their mouth open. Through
this flow-through system, it allows the fish to constantly be in contact with fresh oxygenated water, making the
water move in one direction, and thus improving gas exchange.
Mammals, in particular, use their lungs to obtain oxygen and expel carbon dioxide by receiving
deoxygenated blood from the heart and returning oxygenated blood to the heart. Although less efficient than
that of birds, mammals are well adapted to terrestrial environments.

FACTORS AFFECTING GAS EXCHANGE

Several other factors affect the efficiency of gas exchange. Have you experienced the popping in your
ears when the plane descends during a flight? Then you have experienced air pressure in your ears. Similarly,
gases in the air exert pressure on the body surfaces of animals when they breathe. Air pressure is measured in
millimeters of mercury (mmHg), which is similar to blood pressure. At sea level, the atmospheric pressure is
760 mmHg and it decreases as you ascend to high elevations because there are a few gas molecules in a
given volume of air. Atmospheric pressure refers to the sum total of the exerted pressures by each gas mixed
in the air, corresponding to the exact proportion of their amounts. Each individual gas pressure is called partial
pressure symbolized as P, and a subscript of the gas. Therefore, oxygen's partial pressure symbol is Po.
Because oxygen's amount in air is at 21 percent, the computation of the atmospheric pressure of oxygen in
sea level is 0.21 x 760 mmHg = 160 mmHg. Although the percentage of oxygen and other gases in the air is
constant regardless of altitude, the lower the atmospheric pressure is, the lower the partial pressure oxygen in
the air. It is the partial pressure of oxygen in the air that provides a major force that could affect the diffusion
from air or water environment across the animal's respiratory surface and into its blood.
As you have studied, all gases diffuse from a region of higher
pressure to a region of lower pressure. The direction of diffusion is driven by
the concentration difference in pressure gradients. Because of this, the rate
of oxygen diffusion into the blood of a terrestrial animal decreases when the
animal moves from sea level to a higher altitude where the oxygen's partial
pressure is lower (low Po2). The rate of diffusion between these two regions
can be studied in a relationship known as Fick's Law of Diffusion. Fick's law
states that the diffusion rate is affected by the concentration difference and
surface of the membrane area.
Aside from pressure, temperature and the presence of other solutes
influence the solubility of gases. Gases in air can mix with freshwater,
seawater, and body fluids. In this case, oxygen can exert its biological effects
into the solution wherein gases dissolve poorly in water due to the less
oxygen concentration in a given volume of water than in air. In terms of
temperature, more gas can dissolve in a given volume of cold water than in warm water. It is because at higher
temperatures, there is more thermal energy present in gases in solution that can likely drive them to escape
from the liquid. Thus, animals living in warm waters will have less oxygen available than those living in colder
environments. The presence of ions and other solutes also decreases the amount of gas dissolved in water.
Oxygen dissolves less in warm, salty water than in cold water.
While red blood cells are unloading oxygen, they are also
absorbing carbon dioxide from the tissue. Carbon dioxide is converted to
carbonic acid in the red blood cells by an enzyme known as carbonic
anhydrase, and then dissociates into hydrogen (H+) and bicarbonate
(HCO3) ions. The hydrogen ions bind to hemoglobin, and bicarbonate is
transported out of the red blood cells. Oxygen-poor blood is carried back
to the heart and pumped into the lungs. In the lungs, carbon
dioxide diffuses outward from the blood into the alveoli.
The diffusion of carbon dioxide out of the red blood
cells causes the hemoglobin within the cells to release the CO₂
and take up oxygen instead. In this step, the red blood cells with
a new load of O₂ will start the respiratory cycle again.

MAMALIAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

You learned that oxygen is needed for the energy-
releasing chemical reactions that take place inside the cells. As a
result of this process, your cells are able to perform all the

Gen. Bio. 2 - Page 8 of 12

various tasks that keep you alive. You know that fire burns only if there is enough oxygen in the air. Similarly,
each body cell burns up the food it gets from the blood and releases energy locked within the food only if it
gets enough oxygen. The energy-releasing process that is fueled by oxygen is called cellular respiration. In
addition to energy, carbon dioxide is also produced during respiration. Carbon dioxide, as a waste product
of aerobic respiration, is toxic to cells and must be removed. The body system that is responsible for
performing the task of getting oxygen into the body and removing carbon dioxide out of the body is the
respiratory system. Gas exchange in animals and humans happens in several phases- breathing, transport of
gases by the circulatory system and exchange of gases in cells.
The mammalian respiratory system consists of the lungs
and various passageways that allow the air to reach the lungs.
Before the air reaches the lungs during breathing, inhaled air
must first be filtered out and moistened through the nostrils
where coarse hairs coated with mucus trap dusts and other
particles that may damage your lung tissue. The processed air
now moves through a muscular tube in your upper throat known
as the pharynx that soon divides into the passageway for food
and water. One passageway leads to the digestive system while
the other leads air into the larynx or voice box.
Here, a flap of cartilage known as epiglottis directs the air
down the respiratory path while food and water are directed to
the digestive tract. A tubelike structure, made up of flexible rings
of cartilage, called the trachea or windpipe connects the larynx to the lungs. Here, the mucus lining traps dust
particles and bacteria that have passed the nose. The filtered air now travels to the main organs of the
respiratory system, which are the sponge-like lungs that are located in the chest cavity bounded on the sides
by the ribs and the diaphragm at the bottom. The diaphragm is a powerful muscle that aids in breathing. The
lungs are an asymmetrical pair divided into sections called lobes.
The second phase of gas exchange happens with the help of the circulatory system. The oxygen
diffuses into the blood and attaches itself to the hemoglobin present in the blood. The blood vessels help
transport the oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the capillaries of body tissues and vice versa. Although gas
exchange mainly focuses on the respiratory system, other body systems help make the respiration process
possible. Several organ systems are involved in bringing in oxygen and harnessing glucose from food. The
circulatory system then carries both the oxygen and glucose to your cells.
The third phase, known as internal respiration, involves the body cells that take up oxygen from the
blood and release carbon dioxide to the blood. Internal respiration is gas exchange at the level of body cells. It
is responsible for bringing oxygen from your lungs to all the other tissues in your body, and taking out carbon
dioxide from the tissues back to your lungs as a waste product.

Inside the lungs, the air reaches the trachea that branches into two tubes called the left and right
bronchi (singular: bronchus). The left bronchus enters the left lung whereas the right bronchus enters the right
lung. They continue to divide into narrower and narrower passages until they become tiny tubes like the size of
twigs called bronchioles. At the end of these tiny tubes are hundreds of grapelike air sacs called alveoli that
inflate during inhalation and deflate during exhalation. These air sacs are gateways for oxygen into the body.
Each of about 600 million alveoli is surrounded by tiny blood vessels or capillaries where gas exchange
happens. As the wall of the alveoli and the blood vessel share a fused basement, oxygen and carbon dioxide
can easily diffuse between the alveoli and the bloodstream.

GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS

Plants do not have breathing organs such as gills and lungs to exchange gases with the environment.
Plants do the reverse of respiration by taking in carbon dioxide and expelling out oxygen through the process
of photosynthesis. The process highlights the leaves as the primary organ for photosynthesis. However, it is
important to note as well that plants respire constantly, too, and that it must also absorb oxygen and give off
carbon dioxide. During the day, both respiration and photosynthesis occur simultaneously in the leaf. The leaf's
surface is covered by a thin waterproof coating or cuticle. In order for the exchange of gases to happen, the
cuticle is perforated with pores known as stomata. Stomata are found in numerous amounts at the lower
surface of plant leaves. The exchange of gases in plants take place mainly in the stomata of the leaves and
young stems. Each of the stoma contains a pore at the center surrounded by two bean-shaped cells, called
guard cells, that control the exchange of gases and prevent the plant from losing too much water. When the
stomata are open, the exchange of gases could take place between the atmosphere and the interior of the leaf.
The leaf cells, which are mostly close to each other, have moist surfaces that permit the gaseous exchange
through the process of diffusion.
Plants that have either a flexible stem or a thick, old woody stem such as hard wood trees contain small
pores. The flexible stems of grasses and other nonwoody plants also contain stomata. Like in the leaves,
stomata in the stems are used for gas exchange. In woody stems, such as in trees, a layer of waterproof cork
tissue develops beneath the epidermal layer of the stems. The layer is waterproof and lined with parenchyma
cells, called lenticels, the tiny openings in the stem. Through the small pores on the bark, oxygen is able to
diffuse into intercellular spaces to reach the cells in stems. Inside the plant, the oxygen dissolves in water from
the moist cell membrane and then diffuses across the cell membrane into the cell. Carbon dioxide flows in the
opposite direction, diffusing from the cell membrane into the cellular air space and out into the atmosphere via

Gen. Bio. 2 - Page 9 of 12

the openings.
Plants also respire through their roots. The roots are covered by tiny outgrowths called root hairs, which
increase the surface absorptive capacity of the roots and provide a moist surface area for gas exchange. In soil
that is constantly aerated and watered, oxygenated air can easily flow from the air into the spaces between soil
particles. The oxygen diffuses into the root hairs of the plant and into the other cells of the root. During the
plant's cellular respiration, oxygen is used and carbon dioxide is produced, which is then released through the
same root hairs. Although the rate of diffusion is low, its rate is enough to meet the gas exchange requirement
of the roots. Some plants evolve root adaptations in the environment where they live. In a mangrove
environment where oxygen is poor and unstable, mangrove plants develop lateral breathing roots called
pneumatophores. These roots grow upward (negative geotropism) as an extension of the underground root
system. As they are not submerged underwater, they can obtain oxygen in an oxygen-poor mudflat.

PRACTICE
How do plants respire?
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REFERENCES:
• Anna Cherylle Morales-Ramos, John Donnie A. Ramos. (2017). Exploring Life Through Science Series:
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2(Senior High School). 927 Quezon Avenue, Quezon City, Philippines: PHOENIX
PUBLISHING HOUSE, INC.
• K-to-12-MELCS-with-CG-Codes.pdf

Prepared by:
CHRISTIAN DAVE P. ABELLA
Subject Teacher

Checked by:

LAILANIE L. DE GUZMAN
SHS Gr. 12 Coordinator

Gen. Bio. 2 - Page 10 of 12

 Gen. Bio.12
SAN JACINTO CATHOLIC SCHOOL, INC.
Evaluation for General Biology 2 –Module 1
WW: ____
Name: __________________________ Strand/Section: St. Raphael-STEM Date: _______ Score- PT: ______
NOTE: Do your evaluation here. This page should be detached and be submitted for next schedule of
modules delivery/pick-up.

WRITTEN WORKS (25%)

IDENTIFICATION. Instruction: Identify what textual feature is being asked in the following distinctive properties
attribute to a film genre.

________________1. Are formed as a result of cell differentiation. The human body, for example, is made up
of more than 200 differentiated cells.
________________2. Is a type of connective tissue, is responsible for the transport of nutrients from absorbed
loose connective tissues are also found in the stomach.
________________3. The __________ walls contain nervous tissue (nerves) that transmits signals to and
from the brain
________________4. Consists of a single layer of flattened cells. These flattened cells are usually found in
thin barriers where exchange of nutrients, wastes, and respiratory gases occur.
________________5. They are found in the alveoli of the lungs where gas exchange takes place, and in
capillaries where diffusion and osmosis take place. All blood vessels and the heart are
lined with?
________________6. Meristems are made up of embryonic tissues called?
________________7. Also called secondary meristems or lateral buds are found on the nodes of stems and
are involved in the formation of branches
________________8. Produces new layers of vascular tissues, whereas a cork cambium produces new layers
of surface tissue called cork.
________________9. The outer cell wall of the epidermis is covered with a layer of cuticle that is made up of a
substance called?
________________10. They are large, thin-walled, and usually have a large central vacuole. They are found in
the leaves, stems, roots, flowers, and fruits.

ESSAY. How do animal organs adapt to perform essential functions? Criteria: 10-Content; 5-Organization; 5-
Mechanics
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PERFORMANCE TASK (45%)

Using your analytical mind and creativity, Draw a figure of yourself. Track and point where in your body
you can find the different types of epithelial tissue in your body and put a note what those epithelial tissue
does.

Criteria
Accuracy of information 20
Creativity 15
Presentation 15
Total Points 50 points

Gen. Bio. 2 - Page 11 of 12

 Gen. Bio.12
SAN JACINTO CATHOLIC SCHOOL, INC.
Evaluation for General Biology 2 – Module 2
WW: ____
Name: __________________________ Strand/Section: St. Raphael-STEM Date: _______ Score- PT: ______
NOTE: Do your evaluation here. This page should be detached and be submitted for next schedule of
modules delivery/pick-up.

WRITTEN WORKS (25%)

_________________1. The air that you breathe is composed of________, 78 percent nitrogen, about one
percent carbon dioxide, and minute proportions of other gases
_________________2. One of the major physiological challenges of multicellular animals is obtaining sufficient
oxygen and expelling excessive amounts of carbon dioxide in a process called.
_________________3. The process involved in the bringing of oxygenated water or air into contact with
respiratory organs is called.
_________________4. Invertebrates such as cnidarians, sponges, and worms can easily exchange oxygen
and carbon dioxide by ________ also because their skin is only a few layers thick
_________________5. Such as insects and spiders, have a tracheal system that consists of branched internal
tubes that extend throughout the body.
_________________6. On the surface of the insect's body are tiny openings called ______. Arising from these
spiracles are sturdy tubes known as tracheae.
_________________7. The tracheae branch off further into smaller tubes called _______ that can become
smaller enough, with tips that reach all its cells.
_________________8. These are thin sheets of tissue that wave through the water, increasing the surface
area available for diffusion.
_________________9. They have a set of feather-like internal gills found on each side of its head that flap
open and close with the exchange of gases.
_________________10. The gills are supported by gill arches that contain gill filaments composed of
numerous plate-like structures called?

ESSAY.
How do gas exchange systems facilitate the exchange of gases between the environment and the cells
of organisms? Criteria: 10-Content; 5-Organization; 5-Mechanics

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Gen. Bio. 2 - Page 12 of 12