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ANTENNA THEORY

by CONSTANTINE A. BALANIS

ch. 4

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4.1 Introduction

• It should not then come as a surprise to the reader that we begin our analysis of antennas by
considering some of the oldest, simplest, and most basic configurations.

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4.2 Infinitesimal Dipole

• Since the end plates are assumed to be small, their radiation is usually negligible.
• The wire, in addition to being very small ( l << λ ), is very thin (a << λ).
• The spatial variation of the current is assumed to be constant and given by

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4.2.1 Radiated Field

• To find the fields radiated by the current element, the two-step procedure of Figure 3.1 is used
• Since the source only carries an electric current Ie, Im and the potential function F are zero
• To find A we write

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4.2.1 Radiated Field

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4.2.1 Radiated Field

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4.2.1 Radiated Field

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4.2.1 Radiated Field

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4.2.2 Power Density and Radiation Resistance

• For a lossless antenna, the real part of the input impedance was designated as radiation
resistance.
• It is through the mechanism of the radiation resistance that power is transferred from the
guided wave to the free-space wave.
• The total power radiated by the source is found.

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4.2.2 Power Density and Radiation Resistance

• The transverse component Wθ of the power density does not contribute to the integral.
• Thus (4-14) does not represent the total complex power radiated by the antenna.
• Since Wθ , as given by (4-12b), is purely imaginary, it will not contribute to any real radiated
power. However, it does contribute to the imaginary (reactive) power which along with the
second term of (4-14) can be used to determine the total reactive power of the antenna.

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4.2.2 Power Density and Radiation Resistance

• Equation (4-13), which gives the real and imaginary power that is moving outwardly,
can also be written as

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4.2.2 Power Density and Radiation Resistance

• Since the antenna radiates its real power through the radiation resistance, for the
infinitesimal dipole it is found by equating (4-16) to

• for a free-space medium (η ≃ 120π).

• It should be pointed out that the radiation resistance of (4-19) represents the total radiation
resistance since (4-12b) does not contribute to it.
• For a wire antenna to be classified as an infinitesimal dipole, its overall length must be very
small. l ≤ λ / 50

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4.2.3 Radian Distance and Radian Sphere

• At a distance r = λ/2π, which is referred to as the radian distance, the magnitude of the first
and second terms within the brackets of (4-8b) and (4-10a) is the same. Also at the radian
distance the magnitude of all three terms within the brackets of (4-10b) is identical; the only
term that contributes to the total field is the second, because the first and third terms cancel
each other.

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4.2.3 Radian Distance and Radian Sphere

• At distances less than the radian distance r < λ/2π , the magnitude of the second term within
the brackets of (4-8b) and (4-10a) is greater than the first term and begins to dominate as r ≪
λ/2π. For (4-10b) and r < λ/2π, the magnitude of the third term within the brackets is greater
than the magnitude of the first and second terms while the magnitude of the second term is
greater than that of the first one; each of these terms begins to dominate as r ≪ λ/2π. The
region r < λ/2π (kr <1) is referred to as the near-field region, and the energy in that region is
basically imaginary.

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4.2.3 Radian Distance and Radian Sphere

• At distances greater than the radian distance r > λ/2π (kr >1), the first term within the
brackets of (4-8b) and (4-10a) is greater than the magnitude of the second term and begins to
dominate as r ≫ λ/2π (kr ≫ 1). For (4-10b) and r > λ/2π, the first term within the brackets is
greater than the magnitude of the second and third terms while the magnitude of the second
term is greater than that of the third; each of these terms begins to dominate as r ≫ λ/2π.
The region r > λ/2π (kr >1) is referred to as the intermediate-field region while that for r ≫
λ/2π (kr ≫ 1) is referred to as the far-field region, and the energy in that region is basically
Real.

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4.2.3 Radian Distance and Radian Sphere

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4.2.3 Radian Distance and Radian Sphere

• The sphere with radius equal to the radian distance (r = λ/2π) is referred as the radian sphere,
and it defines the region within which the reactive power density is greater than the radiated
power density. Outside the radian sphere the radiated power density is greater than the reactive
power density and begins to dominate as r λ/2π. Therefore the radian sphere can be used as a
reference, and it defines the transition between stored energy pulsating primarily in the ±θ
direction and energy radiating in the radial (r) direction. Similar behavior, where the power
density near the antenna is primarily reactive and far away is primarily real, is exhibited by all
antennas, although not exactly at the radian distance.

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4.2.4 Near-Field (kr ≪ 1) Region

• An inspection of (4-8a)–(4-8b) and (4-10a)–(4-10c) reveals that for kr ≪ λ or r ≪ λ/2π they

can be reduced in much simpler form and can be approximated by

In-Phase

Quadrature

• The E-field components, Er and Eθ , are in time-phase but they are in time-phase quadrature
with the H-field component Hφ; therefore there is no time-average power flow associated
with them. This is demonstrated by forming the time-average power density as

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4.2.4 Near-Field (kr ≪ 1) Region

• The condition of kr ≪ 1 can be satisfied at moderate distances away from the antenna
provided that the frequency of operation is very low. Equations (4-20a) and (4-20b) are similar
to those of a static electric dipole and (4-20d) to that of a static current element. Thus we
usually refer to (4-20a)–(4-20d) as the quasistationary fields.

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4.2.5 Intermediate-Field (kr > 1) Region

• This is analogous to the polarization problem except that the vector rotates in a plane parallel
to the direction of propagation and is usually referred to as the cross field.
• As the values of kr become moderate (kr > 1), the field expressions can be approximated
Again but in a different form. Thus we can write for kr > 1

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4.2.6 Far-Field (kr ≫ 1) Region

• Since (4-23a)–(4-23d) are valid only for values of kr > 1 (r > λ), then Er will be smaller
than Eθ because Er is inversely proportional to r2 where Eθ is inversely proportional to r. In
a region where kr 1, (4-23a)–(4-23d) can be simplified and approximated by

• The E- and H-field components are perpendicular to each other, transverse to the radial
direction of propagation, and the r variations are separable from those of θ and φ. The shape
of the pattern is not a function of the radial distance r, and the fields form a Transverse
Electro Magnetic (TEM) wave whose wave impedance is equal to the intrinsic impedance
of the medium.
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4.2.7 Directivity
• The same expression can be obtained by first forming the average power density, using (4-
26a)–(4-26c). That is,

over a closed sphere of radius r reduces

• Associated with the average power density of (4-28) is a radiation intensity U which is given
by

• The normalized pattern of (4-29) is shown in Figure 4.3. The maximum value occurs at θ =
π/2 and it is equal to

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4.2.7 Directivity

• The radiation resistance of the dipole can be obtained by the definition of (4-18).
• Since the radiated power obtained by integrating (4-28) over a closed sphere is the same as
that of (4-16), the radiation resistance using it will also be the same as obtained previously
and given by (4-19).

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4.2.7 Directivity

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4.3 Small Dipole (λ/50 < l ≤ λ/10)

• The most convenient geometrical arrangement for the analysis of a dipole is usually to have
it positioned symmetrically about the origin with its length directed along the z-axis, as
shown in Figure 4.4(a). This is not necessary, but it is usually the most convenient. The
current is distribution of a small dipole (λ/50 < l ≤ λ/10) is the triangular variation as shown
in Figure 4.4(b), and it is given by

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4.3 Small Dipole

• The maximum phase error in(4-34) by allowing R = r for λ/50 < l ≤ λ/10, will be kl/2 = π/10
rad = 18◦ for l = λ/10. Smaller values will occur for the other lengths. Performing the
integration, (4-34) reduces to

• which is half ( 1/2 ) of that obtained for the infinitesimal dipole

The potential function given by (4-35) becomes a more accurate approximation as kr →∞.
This is also the region of most practical interest, and it has been designated as the far-field
region.

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4.3 Small Dipole

• Thus we can write the E and H-fields radiated by a small dipole as

• Since the directivity of an antenna is controlled by the relative shape of the field or power
pattern, the directivity, and maximum effective area of this antenna are the same as the ones
with the constant current distribution given by (4-31) and (4-32), respectively.
Thus the radiation resistance strongly depends on current distribution, hence reduces to

• which is also one-fourth ( 1/4 ) of that obtained for the infinitesimal dipole as given by
(4-19). Their relative patterns (shapes) are the same and are shown in Figure 4.3.

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4.4 Region Separation

• Before we attempt to solve for the fields radiated by a finite dipole of any length, it would be
very desirable to discuss the separation of the space surrounding an antenna into three
regions; namely, the reactive near-field, radiating near-field (Fresnel) and the far-field
(Fraunhofer) which were introduced briefly in Section 2.2.4.
• The same approximations used to simplify the formulation of the fields radiated by a finite
dipole are also used to formulate the fields radiated by most practical antennas.

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4.4 Region Separation

• For a finite dipole with sinusoidal current distribution, the integral of (4-38) can be reduced
to a closed form that is valid everywhere.
• The length R is defined as the distance from any point on the source to the observation point.
• The integral of (4-38) was used to solve for the fields of infinitesimal and small dipoles in
Sections 4.1 and 4.2.
• in the first case (infinitesimal dipole) R = r and in the second case (small dipole) R was
approximated by r(R ≃ r) because the length of the dipole was restricted to be l ≤ λ/10.
• The major simplification of (4-38) will be in the approximation of R.
• A very thin dipole of finite length l is symmetrically positioned about the origin with its
length directed along the z-axis, as shown in Figure 4.5(a). Because the wire is assumed to
be very thin (x` = y` = 0), we can write (4-38) as

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4.4 Region Separation

• Using the binomial expansion, we can write (4-40) in a series as

• whose higher order terms become less significant provided r ≫ z`.

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4.4.1 Far-Field (Fraunhofer) Region

Zero

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4.4.1 Far-Field (Fraunhofer) Region

• It has been shown by many investigators through numerous examples that for most practical
antennas, with overall lengths greater than a wavelength (l > λ), a maximum total phase
error of π/8 rad (22.5◦) is not very detrimental in the analytical formulations.
• Using that as a criterion we can write, using (4-43), that the maximum phase error should
always be

• Equation (4-45) simply states that to maintain the maximum phase error of an antenna equal
to or less than π/8 rad (22.5◦), the observation distance r must equal or be greater than 2l²/λ.
• These simplifications are designated as the far-field approximations and are usually denoted
in the literature as

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4.4.1 Far-Field (Fraunhofer) Region

• It may be advisable to illustrate the approximation(4-46) geometrically. For R ≃ r − z cos θ,
where θ is the angle measured from the z-axis, the radial vectors R and r must be parallel to
each other, as shown in Figure 4.5(b). For any other antenna whose maximum dimension is
D, the approximation of (4-46) is valid provided the observations are made at a distance

• Figure 2.9 where the patterns of a

paraboloidal antenna for R =∞ and
R = 2D2/λ differ at levels below −25 dB.
Allowing R to have a value of R = 4D2/λ
gives better results.

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4.4.2 Radiation Near-Field (Fresnel) Region

If it is necessary to choose observation distances smaller than(4-45), another term (the third)
in the series solution of (4-41) must be retained to maintain a maximum phase error of π/8
rad (22.5◦). Doing this, the infinite series of (4-41) can be approximated by

• A value of r greater than that of (4-52a) will lead to an error less than π/8 rad (22.5◦).

Thus the region where the first three terms of (4-41) are significant, and the omission of the
fourth introduces a maximum phase error of π/8 rad (22.5◦), is defined by

• This region is designated as radiating nearfield because the radiating power density is
greater than the reactive power density and the field pattern (its shape) is a function of the
radial distance r.
• This region is also called the Fresnel region because the field expressions in this region
reduce to Fresnel integrals.

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4.4.3 Reactive Near-Field Region

• If the distance of observation is smaller than the inner boundary of the Fresnel region, this
regionis usually designated as reactive near-field with inner and outer boundaries defined by

• The space surrounding an antenna is divided into three regions whose boundaries are
determined by

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4.5 Finite Length Dipole

- Previously we study infinitesimal dipole (𝑙 ≤ 𝜆/50)

- And we apply it for small dipoles ( 𝜆/50 < 𝑙 ≤ 𝜆/10)

Fig 4.1 Geometrical arrangement of an infinitesimal dipole and Fig 1.16 Current distribution on linear
its associated electric-field components on a spherical surface. dipoles

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4.5 Finite Length Dipole

4.5.1 Current Distribution

- For very thin dipole (ideally zero diameter), the current distribution can be written, to
good approximation, as

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4.5 Finite Length Dipole

4.5.2 Radiated Fields : Element Factor, Space Factor, and Pattern

Multiplication

- The finite dipole antenna of Figure 4.5 is subdivided into a number of infinitesimal
dipoles of length ∆𝑧. As the number of subdivisions is increased, each infinitesimal
dipole approaches a length dz. For an infinitesimal dipole of length dz positioned along
the z-axis at z, the electric and magnetic field components in the far field are given,
using (4-26a) – (4-26c), as

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4.5 Finite Length Dipole

4.5.2 Radiated Fields : Element Factor, Space Factor, and Pattern

Multiplication
- where R is given by (4-39) or (4-40).

- Using the far-field approximations given by (4-46),

(4-57a) can be written as

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4.5 Finite Length Dipole

4.5.2 Radiated Fields : Element Factor, Space Factor, and Pattern Multiplication

- The factor outside the brackets is designated as the element factor and that within the
brackets as the space factor. For this antenna, the element factor is equal to the field of a
unit length infinitesimal dipole located at a reference point (the origin). In general, the
element factor depends on the type of current and its direction of flow while the space
factor is a function of the current distribution along the source.

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4.5 Finite Length Dipole

4.5.2 Radiated Fields : Element Factor, Space Factor, and Pattern Multiplication

- After some mathematical manipulations, (4-60) takes the form of

- In a similar manner, or by using the established relationship between the 𝐸𝜃 and 𝐻𝜑 in

the far field as given by (3-58b) or (4-27), the total 𝐻𝜑 component can be written as

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4.5 Finite Length Dipole

4.5.3 Power Density, Radiation Intensity

- For the dipole, the average Poynting vector can be written as

- and the radiation intensity as

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4.5 Finite Length Dipole

4.5.3 Power Density, Radiation Intensity

- Using (4-63), we can write (4-66) as

- where C = 0.5772 (Euler’s constant) and Ci(x) and Si(x) are the cosine and sine integrals

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4.5 Finite Length Dipole

4.5.3 Current Distribution

- The current distribution for the dipoles

with l = λ/4, λ/2, λ, 3λ/2, and 2λ, as given
by (4-56), is shown in Figure 4.8.

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4.5 Finite Length Dipole

4.5.3 Power Density, Radiation Intensity

- The normalized (to 0 dB) elevation power patterns, as

given by (4-64) for l = λ/4, λ/2, 3λ/4, and λ are shown
plotted in Figure 4.6.
- Length of the antenna increases, the beam becomes
narrower.
- Because of that, the directivity should also increase with
length.
- The parameter that is used as a “figure of merit” for
directional properties of the antenna is the directivity
- It is found that 3-dB beamwidth of each is equal to

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4.5 Finite Length Dipole

4.5.3 Power Density, Radiation Intensity

- As the length of the dipole increases beyond one wavelength (l > λ), the number of
lobes begin to increase. The normalized power pattern for a dipole with l = 1.25λ is
shown in Figure 4.7.

Fig 4.7 Three- and two-dimensional amplitude patterns for a thin dipole of 𝑙 = 1.25𝜆 and sinusoidal current distribution

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Radiation Pattern of a finite length Dipole Antenna

Since the electric field is independent of ϕ , the H-plane radiation pattern is a circle
which is same as that of the Hertz dipole.

In general a dipole antenna has multiple beams and multiple nulls. Generally, findin
g the directions of the nulls is easier compared to finding the directions of the maxi
mum radiation.
We therefore obtain the directions of the nulls and place one maximum approximat
ely half way between two adjacent nulls.
The directions of the nulls can be obtained by equating F (θ) to zero.
(here, l/2 =H)

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Radiation Pattern of a finite length Dipole Antenna

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4.6 Half-Wavelength Dipole

- One of the most commonly used antennas is the half-wavelength (l = λ/2) dipole.
Because its radiation resistance is 73 ohms, which is very near the 50-ohm or 75-ohm
characteristic impedances of some transmission lines, its matching to the line is
simplified especially at resonance.

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4.6 Half-Wavelength Dipole

- The electric and magnetic field components of a half-wavelength dipole can be

obtained from (4-62a) and (4-62b) by letting l = λ/2. Doing this, they reduce to

- In turn, the time-average power density and radiation intensity can be written,
respectively, as

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4.6 Half-Wavelength Dipole

- The total power radiated can be obtained as a special case of (4-67)

Substitute 𝑙 = 𝜆/2

- which when integrated reduces, as a special case of (4-68), to

- By the definition of 𝐶𝑖𝑛 (x), as given by (4-69), 𝐶𝑖𝑛 (2π) is equal to

- where 𝐶𝑖𝑛 (2π) is obtained from the tables in

Appendix III.
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4.6 Half-Wavelength Dipole

- Using (4-87), (4-89), and (4-90), the maximum directivity of the

half-wavelength dipole reduces to

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4.6 Half-Wavelength Dipole

- The corresponding maximum effective area is equal to

- and the radiation resistance, for a free-space medium (η ≅ 120π), is

given by

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4.6 Half-Wavelength Dipole

- The radiation resistance of (4-93) is also the radiation resistance at the input terminals
(input resistance) since the current maximum for a dipole of l = λ/2 occurs at the input
terminals (see Figure 4.8). As it will be shown in Chapter 8, the imaginary part
(reactance) associated with the input impedance of a dipole is a function of its length
(for l = λ/2, it is equal to j 42.5). Thus the total input impedance for l = λ/2 is equal to

- To reduce the imaginary part of the input impedance to zero, the antenna is matched
or reduced in length until the reactance vanishes. The latter is most commonly used
in practice for half-wavelength dipoles where l ~ 0.47 λ

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4.7 Linear Elements near or on Infinite Perfect Conductors

- Thus far we have considered the radiation characteristics of antennas radiating into an
unbounded medium. The presence of an obstacle, especially when it is near the radiating
element, can significantly alter the overall radiation properties of the antenna system.
- In practice the most common obstacle that is always present, even in the absence of
anything else, is the ground. Any energy from the radiating element directed toward the
ground undergoes a reflection.
- The amount of reflected energy and its direction are controlled by the geometry and
constitutive parameters of the ground.
- To simplify the analysis, it will first be assumed that the ground is a perfect electric
conductor, flat, and infinite in extent. The effects of finite conductivity and earth curvature
will be incorporated later.
- To analyze assume virtual sources (images) will be introduced to account for the
reflections. As the name implies, these are not real sources but imaginary ones, which
when combined with the real sources, form an equivalent system.
- In general, the ground is a lossy medium (σ = 0) whose effective conductivity increases
with frequency. Therefore it should be expected to act as a very good conductor above a
certain frequency, depending primarily upon its composition and moisture content.

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4.7 Linear Elements near or on Infinite Perfect Conductors

4.7.1 Image Theory

- For a perfect electric conductor below the interface, the incident wave is completely reflected and
the field below the boundary is zero.
- According to the boundary conditions, the tangential components of the electric field must vanish
at all points along the interface.
- To excite the polarization of the reflected waves, the virtual source must also be vertical and with
a polarity in the same direction as that of the actual source (thus a reflection coefficient of +1).

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Monopole Antenna

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Monopole Antenna

❑ The monopole antennas are commonly used for the medium wave radio boadca
sting. They also find application in walkie talkies, other hand sets and cars.

❑ A monopole antenna is vertically mounted above the ground

❑ The radiation characteristics of a monopole antenna and a dipole of double it

s length are identical except the radiation resistance and the radiated power.

❑ Since the monopole antenna radiates only in half space (above the ground
), it radiates half the power compared to the corresponding dipole and c
onsequently has the radiation resistance half of that of the corresponding
dipole.
❑ The monopole antennas find applications at low frequencies where the wavel
engths become excessively long.
❑ This antenna is also suited for medium wave transmission, because for that
wavelength the earth behaves like a good conductor and therefore supports
only vertical polarization.
❑ The monopole antenna naturally provides vertically polarized waves and an is
-otropic radiation pattern on the ground which is most suited for broadcastin
g applications.
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4.7.4 Antennas for Mobile Communication Systems

Dipole Monopole L-Monopole

-The dipole and monopole are two of the most widely used antennas for wireless mobile
communication systems.

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4.7.4 Antennas for Mobile Communication Systems

<Inverted F Antenna>
<Loop Antenna>

<PIFA Antenna> <Helix antenna>

-An alternative to the monopole for the handheld unit is loop. Other elements include the inverted F,
planar inverted F antenna(PIFA), microstrip, spiral and others.

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