PROJECT 2 of 2

ARMY PUBLIC SCHOOL, FATEHGARH CANTT
AISSCE 2023 – 2024 PHYSICS PROJECT
Physics Investigatory Project

Session: 2023 – 2024
Topic: To study the variations in current flowing in a circuit containing
an LDR because of a variation in (a) the power of the incandescent lamp,
used to 'illuminate' the LDR (keeping all the lamps at a fixed distance). (b)
the distance of an incandescent lamp (of fixed power) used to 'illuminate'
the LDR
Under Guidance Submitted by
Mr Nitin Chaturvedi Sir Name:
PGT Physics & Exam I/C Class:
Army Public School, Fatehgarh Roll No.:
Page 1 of 14
Certificate
This is certified to be the bonafide work of the
Master/Kumari of
Class & Sec
in the PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT on the topic
“To study the variations in current flowing in a
circuit containing an LDR because of a variation in
(a) the power of the incandescent lamp, used to
'illuminate' the LDR (keeping all the lamps at a fixed
distance). (b) the distance of an incandescent lamp (of
fixed power) used to 'illuminate' the LDR”
during the year 2023/ 2024.
................................ ............................
(Teacher In-Charge) (Examiner)
Principal
Army Public School, Fatehgarh
Page 2 of 14
Acknowledgement
I, of Class XII express my
gratitude to my school authorities for allowing me to undertake
the project entitled
' To study the variations in current flowing in a circuit
containing an LDR because of a variation in (a) the power of
the incandescent lamp, used to 'illuminate' the LDR (keeping
all the lamps at a fixed distance). (b) the distance of an
incandescent lamp (of fixed power) used to 'illuminate' the
LDR'
I naturally could not have done justice to my delicate
assignment, had i not been privileged to get the animate
guidance from -
Mrs Neethasha Hebbar K (Retd. Major) Offg Principal
Mr Nitin Chaturvedi, Physics teacher
I also express sincere thanks to my family who extended helping
hand in completing this project.
Page 3 of 14
Introduction
The general-purpose photoconductive cell is also known as LDR – light
dependent resistor. It is a type of semiconductor and its conductivity changes
with proportional change in the intensity of light.
There are two common types of materials used to manufacture the
photoconductive cells. They are Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) and Cadmium
Selenide (CdSe).
Extrinsic devices have impurities added, which have a ground state energy
closer to the conduction band - since the electrons don't have as far to jump,
lower energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are
sufficient to trigger the device. Two of its earliest applications were as part of
smoke and fire detection systems and camera light meters. The structure is
covered with glass sheet to protect it from moisture and dust and allows only
light to fall on it.
Page 4 of 14
Applications
Lead sulphide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs are used for the
mid infrared spectral region. GeCu photoconductors are among the best far-
infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared astronomy and infrared
spectroscopy.
Analog Applications
· Camera Exposure Control
· Auto Slide Focus - dual cell
· Photocopy Machines - density of toner
· Colorimetric Test Equipment
· Densitometer
· Electronic Scales - dual cell
· Automatic Gain Control – modulated light source
· Automated Rear View Mirror
Digital Applications
· Automatic Headlight Dimmer
· Night Light Control
· Oil Burner Flame Out
· Street Light Control
*LDR has a disadvantage that when its temperature changes, its resistance
changes drastically for a particular light intensity.

Page 5 of 14
AIM:
To study the variations, in current flowing in a circuit containing a LDR,
because of a variation: -
(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp, used to ‘illuminate’ the LDR.
(Keeping all the lamps at a fixed distance).
(b) In the distance of a incandescent lamp, (of fixed power), used to
‘illuminate’ the LDR.
APPARATUS:
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
Connecting Wires
Source of different power rating (bulbs)
Bulb Holder
Metre scale
Multi Meter
Battery
Page 6 of 14
1) LDR and its characteristics
When light is incident on it, a photon is absorbed and thereby it excites an
electron from valence band into conduction band. Due to such new electrons
coming up in conduction band area, the electrical resistance of the device
decreases. Thus, the LDR or photo-conductive transducer has the resistance
which is the inverse function of radiation intensity.
λ0 = threshold wavelength, in meters
e = charge on one electron, in Coulombs
Ew = work function of the metal used, in eV
Here we must note that any radiation with wavelength greater than the value
obtained in above equation CANNOT PRODUCE any change in the resistance of
this device.
The band gap energy of Cadmium Sulphide is 2.42eV and for Cadmium Selenide
it is1.74eV. Due to such large energy gaps, both the materials have extremely
high resistivity at room temperature.
Page 7 of 14
Characteristics of photoconductive cells
Now when the device is kept in darkness, its resistance is called as dark
resistance. This resistance is typically of the order of 1013 ohms. When light falls
on it, its resistance decreases up to several kilo ohms or even hundreds of ohms,
depending on the intensity of light, falling on it.
The spectral response characteristics of two commercial cells were compared in
our laboratory. And we found that there is almost no response to the radiation
of a wavelength which was shorter than 300nm. It was very interesting to note
that the Cadmium Sulphide cell has a peak response nearer or within the green
colour of the spectrum within a range of 520nm. Thus, it can be used nearer to
the infra-red region up to 750nm. It was found that the maximum response of
Cadmium Sulphoselenide is in the yellow-orange range at 615nm and also it can
be used in the infra-red region up to about 970nm.
Page 8 of 14
Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a photo detector is the relationship between the light falling
on the device and the resulting output signal. In the case of a photocell, one is
dealing with the relationship between the incident light and the corresponding
resistance of the cell.
Flux
Page 9 of 14
Spectral Response
Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity of a photoconductive cell is
dependent on the wavelength (colour) of the incident light. Each
photoconductor material type has its own unique spectral response curve or
plot of the relative response of the photocell versus wavelength of light.
Page 10 of 14
2) luminous flux variation:

Considering the source to be a point radiating in all directions; consider a
steradian (or even a simple sphere), take a small element d A on the steradian
at a distance ‘r’ from the source. It comprises a small part of the energy radiated
(dEr).
Now, go further to a distance ‘R’ (R>r) from the source, consider the same area
element d A, it comprises a much smaller part of energy radiated (dER).
[dEr > dER].
It varies inversely as the square of the distance.
Page 11 of 14
PROCEDURE
• Choose a specific position for the source and mount it using a holder,
make sure it is stable.
• Select the bulb with the lowest power rating and connect it to the holder
as shown in the figure.
• Connect the LDR, battery(6V) and the Multimeter in series.
• Set the Multimeter to ohm section and select suitable range and measure
the resistance with a bulb on.
• Similarly switch to current section and move to micro ampere in the
Multimeter. This gives the value of the current.
• Repeat these steps with different power sources at different distances and
note down observations.
Page 12 of 14
OBSERVATIONS
The experiment has been conducted by using various sources with different
power ratings.
Voltage of the battery = 6 V
1) 15 watts (yellow) (wavelength = 570nm)
2) 15 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength = 610nm)
3) 40 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength = 610nm)
Page 13 of 14
4) 20 watts (CFL) (white light)
CONCLUSION & RESULT
• The LDR resistance decreases with increase in intensity of light and hence
there is an increase in the flow of current.
• There is an increase in the current as the distance from the source
decreases.
• The intensity decreases as the distance from the source increases.
• The error lies within the experimental limit.
SOURCES OF ERROR
• The LDR may not be perpendicular to the source.
• Connections may be faulty.
• The experiment should be conducted in a dark room.
• Measurements should be taken accurately.
Page 14 of 14

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ARMY PUBLIC SCHOOL, FATEHGARH CANTT

AISSCE 2023 – 2024 PHYSICS PROJECT

Physics Investigatory Project

Mr Nitin Chaturvedi Sir Name:

PGT Physics & Exam I/C Class:

Army Public School, Fatehgarh Roll No.:

(Teacher In-Charge) (Examiner)

dependent resistor. It is a type of semiconductor and its conductivity changes

with proportional change in the intensity of light.

There are two common types of materials used to manufacture the

photoconductive cells. They are Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) and Cadmium

light to fall on it.

· Camera Exposure Control

· Auto Slide Focus - dual cell

· Photocopy Machines - density of toner

· Colorimetric Test Equipment

· Electronic Scales - dual cell

· Automatic Gain Control – modulated light source

· Automated Rear View Mirror

· Automatic Headlight Dimmer

· Night Light Control

· Oil Burner Flame Out

· Street Light Control

changes drastically for a particular light intensity.

To study the variations, in current flowing in a circuit containing a LDR,

(Keeping all the lamps at a fixed distance).

(b) In the distance of a incandescent lamp, (of fixed power), used to

‘illuminate’ the LDR.

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

Source of different power rating (bulbs)

1) LDR and its characteristics

When light is incident on it, a photon is absorbed and thereby it excites an

coming up in conduction band area, the electrical resistance of the device

decreases. Thus, the LDR or photo-conductive transducer has the resistance

which is the inverse function of radiation intensity.

λ0 = threshold wavelength, in meters

e = charge on one electron, in Coulombs

Ew = work function of the metal used, in eV

obtained in above equation CANNOT PRODUCE any change in the resistance of

high resistivity at room temperature.

Characteristics of photoconductive cells

depending on the intensity of light, falling on it.

The spectral response characteristics of two commercial cells were compared in

Cadmium Sulphoselenide is in the yellow-orange range at 615nm and also it can

be used in the infra-red region up to about 970nm.

resistance of the cell.

Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity of a photoconductive cell is

dependent on the wavelength (colour) of the incident light. Each

plot of the relative response of the photocell versus wavelength of light.

2) luminous flux variation:

make sure it is stable.

as shown in the figure.

• Connect the LDR, battery(6V) and the Multimeter in series.

the resistance with a bulb on.

• Similarly switch to current section and move to micro ampere in the

Multimeter. This gives the value of the current.

note down observations.

2) 15 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength = 610nm)

3) 40 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength = 610nm)

4) 20 watts (CFL) (white light)