Unit 1 Chemistry Study Guide

In this unit, students use models of atomic structure and bonding to explain
the macroscopic properties of materials. Students develop their understanding
of the energy changes associated with chemical reactions and the use of
chemical equations to calculate the masses of substances involved in
chemical reactions.

Contents
Ion’s list
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………..3
Acid’s
list…………………………………………………………………………
………………………………4

Different
Compound………………………………………………………………
………………………..4

Ionicequations…………………………………………………………
……………………………………..4

Types of reaction
……………………………………………………………………………
……………….5

Classification of Matter
……………………………………………………………………………
……..7

Separation techniques
……………………………………………………………………………
……….9

Atomic Structure
……………………………………………………………………………
……………….9

Mass Spectrometry
……………………………………………………………………………
………….11
Trends and Patterns in the Periodic Table
…………………………………………………….15

Primary Bonding
……………………………………………………………………………
………………19

Stoichiometry……………………………………………………………
………………………………….23

Kinetic theory and

Energy……………………………………………………………………
…………28

Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions

………………………………………………………..33

Syllabus Points
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………35

Extra Notes
……………………………………………………………………………
………………………38

STRONG OR WEAK
Strong Acids
(highlighted in blue are the main strong acids for this year, although you
should be familiar with the others)
 • Sulfuric
• Hydrochloric

• Nitric

• Hydroiodic (HI)

• Hydrobromic (HBr)

• Perchloric (HClO )4

Weak Acids
• Carbonic

• Acetic

• Phosphoric

Strong Bases
• Group 1 & 2 metal hydroxides

Weak Bases
• Ammonia

Ionic Compounds
The electrostatic attraction between the cations and anions forms an ionic
bond, forming an ionic compound, which has a fixed and definite formula.
Note ionic bonds may also form with polyatomic ions.
Covalent Compounds
Covalent compounds are formed by the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons
by adjacent atoms. This occurs as each electron is attracted to the nuclei of both
atoms forming a strong covalent bond.
The formation of covalent bonds will be discussed in detail in the Bonding
topic.
- Example: P2O5
o Name of the element furthest to the left, or bottom, in periodic table.
Phosphorous
o Write the name of the second non-metal, changing the ending ‘-ide’.
Oxide
 o Write prefix(s) to indicate the number of atoms of each element.di
-phosphorous pent -oxide
o Write both names together diphosphorous pentoxide
Ionic Equations
The net ionic equation is a chemical equation for a reaction which states only
those ions participating in the reaction.
In a net ionic equation ions that appear both as a reactant and a product are
cancelled out because they do not participate in that reaction. The ions that
are cancelled out are called spectator ions.
​

PROCESS

Ionic Rules
1. Strong electrolytes are written in ionic form - e.g. HCl as H+ (aq) +
Cl-(aq)
2. Weak electrolytes written in molecular form - e.g.Ethanoic acid as
CH3COOH or Ammonia NH3
 3. Non-electrolytes are written in a molecular form - e.g.Water as H2O,
Alcohol as CH3H2O11, or Sugar as C12H22O11
4. Insoluble substances written as the formula of the substance - e.g.
Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 , Cobalt (II) phosphate Co3(PO4)2
5. Gases are in molecular form - e.g. Carbon dioxide as CO2
6. Ionic equations should not include spectators
7. Reactions must balance (both matter and charge)- remember to
ensure you are following the lowest common denominator rules
Types of Reactions
Decomposition of a Carbonate by heating (thermal decomposition)
Carbonate -> oxide + carbon dioxide

Decomposition of a carbonate by acid (acid + carbonate)

Acid + carbonate -> salt + water + carbonate

Oxidisation of a Metal
Metal + oxygen -> metal oxide

Reaction of a reactive metal with a dilute acid (acid + metal)

Acid + metal -> salt + hydrogen

Precipitation
Solution 1 + solution 2 -> insoluble salt + solution 2

Metal Displacement reactions

Metal 1 + metal 2 compound -> metal 2 + metal 1 compound

Neutralisation (acid + base)

Acid + base -> salt + water

Decomposition of a hydrogen carbonate by heating (thermal

decomposition)
Hydrogen carbonate -> carbonate + water + carbon dioxide
If heating continues
 Carbonate -> oxide + carbon dioxide

Decomposition of a hydrogen carbonate by acid (acid + hydrogen

carbonate)
Acid + hydrogen carbonate -> salt + water + carbon dioxide

Combustion of a (hydrocarbon) fuel

Hydrocarbon + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water

Bases with ammonium salts

Ammonium salt + Base-> salt + Ammonia + water
 Classification of Matter
Classification of Matter

Matter- Anything that occupies space or has mass (S,L,G)

A pure substance is homogenous and has a fixed composition. It can be
either an element or a compound.
- Pure substances have properties that do not vary, for example, melting
point, boiling point, strength, densityand reactivity
- This is due to the fixed proportion of atoms in the formula
An element is a pure substance composed of one type of atom only.
- They cannot be broken into simpler substance by chemical means.

A compound is a pure substance that consists of two or more different

elements chemically combined in a definite ratio.
- Chemically bonded to one another
 - A compound can be separated into its constituents by chemical means
but not physical.; however, the properties of a compound differ from its
original elements.
A mixture is a system made up of two or more different elements or
compounds, which are mixed together in any proportion.
- Not combined chemically.
- Can be separated by physical means like filtration, evaporation,
sublimation and distillation
- Eg. Solid in liquid etc
- Note: the identities of the individual substances are retained within the
mixture, i.e. they keep their own properties.
Mixtures may be classified as either homogeneous or heterogenous, with the
difference between these being whether the materials are mixed together and
the uniformity of their composition.
A homogeneous mixture is mixture of two or more chemical substances in
which the proportions and combination of atoms in the is uniformly distributed
throughout the mixture. Note: the different components cannot be visually
distinguished.
- Same uniform appearance and composition throughout
- Solutions are homogenous mixtures.
- Examples of a homogeneous mixture include sugar dissolved in water,
vinegar and rainwater.
- Particles of solute and solvent are much smaller than the wavelength of
the visible light
A heterogeneous mixture is mixture where the components and properties
of the mixture are not uniform. Note: the different components may be visually
distinguished.
- Visibly different in mixture with visibly different substances
- Examples of a heterogeneous mixture include cereal in milk, vegetable
soup and gravel
Suspension involves at least 1 fluid and separate if they are left standing long
enough (Hetero mixtures)
e.g. oil and water
Colloids, mixtures that fall between a solution and heterogeneous mixture
 • Does not spontaneously separate or settle out as time passes
and cannot be completely separated but filtering through a
typical filter paper
• Tyndall effect

o The beam of light will be partially scattered by the

suspended nanometre sized particles

Separation Techniques
Filtration is used to separate solid particles from a liquid or a gas.
- It is dependent on the solubility of the components in the mixture.
- The residue is the insoluble solid that is collected in the filter paper, and
the filtrate, which is a soluble solid dissolved in solvent collects in the
flask.
- For example, a mixture of charcoal and sodium chloride (NaCl) may be
separated by adding water, and then filtering the resultant mixture.
Evaporation is used to separate a dissolved solid (solute) from a liquid
(solvent) in solution. The solvent is removed by heating the solution.
- Separates components based on their solubilities and boiling point
- For example when sodium chloride (NaCl) solution is evaporated to
dryness, solid NaCl is recovered.
- Evaporation is not suitable for use on solutes which can decomposed by
heating, for example copper (II) sulfate. In addition, evaporation to
dryness is not a good method of purification as any soluble impurities
present will be left on the crystals.
- Many substances decompose when they are heated strongly, for
example, sugar. Also impurities may be present in the crystals after
evaporation.
Crystallisation is a preferred method if wanted to obtain a pure solid sample
- Differing solubilities can be separated using a crystallisation method
- Differs from evaporation as it is the process of cooling a hot solution to
obtain crystals
- By heating the solution part of the solvent is removed; however, it is
stopped when a hot saturated solution is formed. The resulting solution
is allowed to cool to room temperature and the dissolved solid forms as
pure crystals.
Chromatography is used to separate liquids or gases based on their differing
affinity for different materials in the chromatography apparatus, i.e. the
material used will retain some components of the mixture more than others.
- Used to separate substances that interact with a certain material
- Different weights
- For example, chromatography is used to separate the different
components of ink, where the filter paper absorbs to solvent, and the
chemicals are separated because the different components in the ink
travel at different speeds in the solvent.
Distillation can be used to separate the components in a mixture based on
the difference in their boiling points. It is same principle as evaporation;
however, the evaporated liquid may be collected.
- Mixtures can be separated by their boiling point through distillation.
- Different boiling points separates pure liquids from a mixture of liquids
Fractional Distillation
- Differ from normal distillation, as the apparatus contains a fractionating
column, and it can separate mixtures within a 25-degree difference
- Substance headed and vapourised
- Vapour rises through a column which is hot at the bottom and cold at the
top
- Vapour condenses when they reach a part of the columnthat is below
the temperature of their boiling point
- The liquid flows out of the column.
Experimental Errors
- Systematic errors affect accuracy
o Reproducible inaccuracies that are below of above the expected
value.

- Random errors affect reliability of data

o Caused my unknown and unpredictable changes in data
o Always causes an error on both sides of expected data
 - Human error is NOT classed as an experimental error
Structure of an Atom
Neutrons
- Found in nucleus, No charge
Protons
- Found in the nucleus, Positive charge
Electrons
- Found on the outside of the nucleus, Negative charge

Atomic number of the atom is the number of protons contained in the

nucleus
The mass number of an atom is the total number of protons and neutrons
contained in the nucleus
The number of electrons is equal to the number of protons, in neutral atom
The mass number is always the bigger number
Isotopes
- Isotopes are atoms of an element with different numbers of neutrons.
This will cause the mass number to change.
- As the number of electrons remain the same, the isotopesare also
chemically the same
- Due to the difference in protons and neutrons, isotopes are unstable
and can undergo nuclear decay, via alpha and beta radiation
- Example: Carbon will happily exit as Carbon-12. If it transform to
Carbon-14, it becomes unstable and beta decays into Nitrogen-14
Electron Configuration
- Electrons in an atom orbit the nucleus. These electrons occupy specific
energy level ‘shells’
- 2,8,8,2
- The 4 shell can old 10 electrons, however you only need to know the
th

electron configurations for the first 20 elements

Ions
- An ion is a charged element, for example the fluoride ion is written as F-
 - Ions want to achieve a stable electron configuration. They will do this by
losing of gaining electrons

Mass Spectrometry
Mass Spectrometry
- Technique to measure the mass of atoms or molecules
- Identifying the presences and abundance of isotopes in a sample of an
element
- Measure the mass of molecules for evidence of its structure
What does it do?
- Separates individual isotopes from a sample
- Determines the mass of isotopes- relative to the Carbon-12 standard
- Calculates relative abundance of isotopes.
Ionization
• For mass spectrometry to work, atoms an molecules need to be turned
not ios as this is what is affected by the magnetic field
• Is ionised by knocking one or more electrons off to give a positive ion.
This can also occur for expected negative ions, of even noble gases
• There are different mass spectrometers, but mots work with positive
ions
Acceleration
The ions are accelerated so that they all have the same kinetic energy.
Deflection
• The ions are then deflected by a magnetic field according to their
masses.
• The lighter they are the more they are deflected
• The amount of deflection also depends on the number of positive
charges on the ion- in other words, on how many electrons were
knocked off in the first stage. The more the ion is changed, the more it
gets deflected
Detection
• The beam of ions passing through the machine is detected electrically.

AAS And Emissions Overview

Electrons may be excited from the ground state to a higher level by
absorbing energy. An electron does not stay in an excited state for
long – it falls back to its ground state either directly, or gradually,
passing through other energy levels, emitting energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.
Absorption spectra corresponds to the energies of light that an atom
is capable in absorbing due to differences in the energy between its
electron shells.
Emission spectra occur when the electron falls between energy
levels, and light is emitted corresponding to the differences between
the possible energy levels.
A flame test is an analytical technique using the fact that when
heated, the atoms of different metals emit different frequencies of light
which is seen as different colours.
In the laboratory the colour produced by different salts when they were
flame tested was examined, and gas emission (discharge) tubes were
used to show the emission spectrum for a small selection of elements.
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)
Direct relation between concentration of a sample and intensity of the
light
How
1. Vaporises the sample in a flame
2. Produces atoms at a ground state (very quickly)
3. Cloud of ground state atoms passes through the optical
path
4. Light produces the same energy required to raise the
ground state atoms to their excited state
5. Cloud of excited atoms absorb the portion of light
Note: AAS gives a quantitative and qualitative result to analyse
Absorption Spectra
• Electrons orbit at the around the nucleus in different energy levels (E1)
• If the right amount of electromagnetic radiation is absorbed, a valence

electron can jump from one energy level to the next

• This is a temporary jump and eventually the hydrogen will fall back down

to its ground state

Color
• An element will only absorb a certain wavelength of color.
• These colors correspond to the energies needed to move the electron to

a higher energy level

• The dark lines in an absorption spectrum indicate the wavelength of light

that is being absorbed

• The medium only absorbs a specific wavelength and the wavelength

helps in the excitation of the electron

Emission Spectra
• When the electron falls back down to the ground state, it will emit a
photon (light). This is the process of emission. It can fall directly to
ground state or via lower energy shells
• When the electron emits light, a wavelength is produced. If the energy

falls within the band of visible light, it can be seen as colored light.
• The energy released during emissions correspond to a particular

wavelength of light
• Each line emission is unique to a particular element

• The greater the amount of energy emitted, the shorter the wavelength.

Trends and Patterns in the Periodic Table

Vertical columns of the periodic table called groups
Arranged in rows, increasing from left to right called periods
Periodic Trends
From left to right across the periodic table the elements show a gradual
change from metallic to non-metallic
From top to bottom down any group, the physical and chemical properties
tend to remail similar, tending to be more metallic.
Halogens (group 17)- reactive non-metals, producing ionic compounds-1
ions
- Reactivity decreases going down
Noble Gases (group 18)- non-metal gases all with very low chemical
reactivity
- Full outer shell
- Unreactive
 - Density increases going down
- Melting point and boiling points increases going down
Alkali metals (group 1)- soft low melting point metals which react vigorously
with water and acids to produce H2 (g). All alkali metal compounds are all
ionic with the elements always forming +1 ions.
- Melting point decreases going down
- Hardness decrease going down
- Very reactive with water
Alkali earth metals (group 2)- All metals that react with acids producing H2
(g). All react with H2O (except Be) producing metal hydroxide and the H2 (g).
Compounds are ionic (except Be) with metals forming +2 ions.
- Reacts well with oxygen

Properties of elements depend on the number of protons and electron

arrangement in their atoms.
Elements are organized in the periodic table according to their atomic number
and electron arrangement and trends in the properties can be recognized.
Trends such as atomic radius, ionization energy and electronegativity can be
discussed based on the periodic table arrangement.

Electrons are held in the atom by the electrostatic attraction between positivity
charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons
Electrons do not experience the full positive charge o the nucleus
Electrons which are closer to the nucleus cancel out some of the valence
electrons which effectively shields electrons from the positive charge
Effective nuclear charge= Number of protons- Number of non-valence
electrons
Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom
and ion.
First ionization energy is the energy required to remove the outermost (or
first electron) from 1 mole of atoms of the element in its gaseous state. (To
steal electrons)
Core Charge
- Atomic radius (AR), ionization energy (IE) and electronegativity (EN) of
each element depends on two opposing influences
o The no of electrons in an atom and the shells occupied by these
electrons. The more shells occupied by the electrons, the further
the outermost electrons will be from the nucleus.
o The positive change of the nucleus. The lager the positive charge
of the nucleus (the more protons in the nucleus) the stronger the
attractive force between the nucleus and the electron of the atom
- The core charge of the atom is the effective nuclear charge ‘felt’ by the
valence or outer-shell elections in the atom:
o Core charge= number of protons- number of inner shell
electrons.
Atomic Radius
- The size (or atomic radius) of an atom or ion is dependent on the
number of shells in which these electrons are located and the charge
on the nucleus of the atom.
- In the periodic table, the elements are arranged in groups (vertical
columns) on the basis of the number of outer-shell electrons.
- Atomic radius increases going down a group of elements.
- Within a group, because the positive nuclear charges are partially
shielded by electrons in the inner shells, the nuclear charge
experienced by the outer shell electrons is approximately the same for
the atoms of each group. That is, the outer shell electrons in the atoms
of all the groups 2 elements experience an effective nuclear charge of
+2.
- Except for group 1, going across any period of the periodic table, the
atomic radii will decrease.
- To no. of protons in the nuclei of the atoms increases across a period,
and the outermost electrons are in the same shell for each successive
element.
- The effective nuclear charge ‘felt’ by the outermost electrons in the
atoms increase across a period.
o As a result, electrons in the atom of each successive element will
experience a stronger attractive force and a smaller atomic radius
when moving from left to right across the period.

Electronegativity
- Electronegativity (EN) is defined as the ‘electron-attracting’ power of an
atom in a molecule
 - Metals have low EN- they have a relativity weak hold on valence
electrons
- Non-metals have high EN- they have a stronger attraction for electrons
EN decreases down a group
- Greater distance between nucleus and an incoming electron (more
electron shells)
- Harder for the nucleus to attract electrons due to increased electron
shielding
EN increases across a period
- Atoms become smaller and their core charge increasesàan increase in
electron-attractivity of atoms
- The extra electron in he outer shell for successive elements do not
contribute to more ‘shielding’
OVERALL
- Elements on top right-hand side have highest ER, fluorine being highest
- Elements on bottom left-hand corner have lowest ER, francium (0.7)

Nuclear Charge
- As you go across the periodic table, there is more of a stronger pull of
electrons towards the nucleus and less shielding occurs

Primary Bonding
Non- metal Atoms want to keep their electrons and steal everybody else’s.
They have high ionization every and high electronegativity
Metal atoms are happy to lose electrons as they have low ionization energy
and low electronegativity
Bonding between atoms occurs when an electrostatic force of attraction
occurs between 2 atoms. This force creates metallic, covalent or ionic bonds
Metallic Bonding- DELOCALASIED ELECTRONS
- Multiple metal atoms
- A metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction of the positively changed
metal ion to the delocalized electron
- If we put a lot of iron atoms together, they become positively charged
and a sea of electrons form
- A METALLIC BOND IS THE ELECTROSTATIC ATTRACTION OF THE
POSITIVLY CHARGED METAL ION TO THE DELOCALISED
ELECTRONS
Properties Of Metallic Bonds
- Thermal and electrical conductivity
o Mobile electrons act as charge carriers in the conduction of
electricity or energy conductors in the conduction of heat
- Melting and boiling points
o High melting points due to the strength of the metallic bonds
o The strength of this bond is due to
▪ Number of electrons in the delocalized sea
• More electrons= higher melting and boiling point
▪ Packing arrangement of atoms
• Closer together=stronger bond=higher melting and boiling
point
- Malleability and Ductability
o Malleable: can be hammered or pressed into shape without
breaking
o Ductile: can be stretched thinly into wire
o Delocalized electros enable atoms to roll over each other, allowed
it to be squashed

Covalent Bonds- SHARE ELECTRONS

- Covalent bonds are formed between two non-metal atoms. The
non-metals are connected by a shared pair of valence electrons
- There are two different covalent substances: molecular and network
Properties of covalent molecular substances include
- Low melting points and boiling points
o The bonds between water atoms are extremely strong, however
the bonds between each water molecule are very week
o Only a low temperature is needed to separate the molecules
- Do not conduct electricity
o Have no free electrons and therefore cannot conduct electricity
o Molecules are uncharged as well
- Form soft solids
o Weak intermolecular forces
Properties of covalent network substances include
- High melting and boiling points
- Extremely hard and brittle
- Do not conduct electricity
Covalent Molecular Substances
- Covalent molecular substances form small molecules which are easy to
break
- The bonds between atoms are strong, however, the intermolecular
forces between molecules are very weak

Electron dot diagrams

- Electron dot diagrams are also known as Lewis dot diagrams. Electron
dot diagrams are concerned with the valence electrons. They allow us
to see where electronmove between atoms and the bongs which form
from covalent molecules
- The electron dot diagram sows the chemical symbol of an element and
the valence electrons
- One dot= one valence electron
Drawing Lewis Diagrams
1. Determine the number of valence electrons
2. Chose a central atom, this is general the most electronegative
atoms (the one which can make the most bonds
3. Connect each atom with a single bond, and add valence electrons
in
4. Check to see if valence electrons equal electrons counted on
structure (each line represents 2 electrons
5. Add double and triple bonds if necessary
Double and triple Bonds
6. Number of valence electrons
7. Determine central atom- add single bonds in
8. Add any other electrons
9. Do the valence electrons add up? Does each atom have a stable
valence
10. Determine whether or not a single or double bond is needed
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
- There are some atoms which don’t need 8 in their valence shell
- Some are electron deficient, meaning that they will have less than 8
electrons. This occurs in Beryllium and Boron
- Beryllium is sable with 4 electrons
- Boron is stable with 6 electrons
Nanotechnology
- Engineering of matter so small that is it measured in nanometers
- Particles so small they need microscopes
- Gold selectively forms bonds in Sulfur atoms, stick on antibodies to it
- Surface area to volume area
- More surface area the more surface to react
Ionic bonding
- Between a non-metal and metals in a compound
- Ionic structures are arranged in a repeating patter called a crystal lattice
- Opposites attract
- Like ions repel each other
- Strong attraction to oppositely charged neighbors
- Properties include
 o High melting point and boiling point
▪ There is a very strong electrostatic attraction between the
anion and cation
▪ An ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between positive
and negatively charged ions, because it is high it takes a lot of
energy to overcome these bonds and break
o Brittle
▪ Extremely brittle
▪ When a force is applied to the ionic solid, the stress pushed the
like charges on top of each other. As like charges repel each
other, this causes the solid to break.
o Non-Conductivity in solid state
▪ In ionic solids they cannot move freely and therefore cannot
conduct electricity
o Conductive in molten/aqueous state.
▪ Ions are charged particles which can conduct electricity
▪ Ions need to be able to move freely
▪ In the molten state, ions can move freely around and can
therefore conduct electricity
- Between positive and negative ions
- Positive ions are called cations, Negative ions are called anions
- An ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between positive and
negative ions.
1. Sodium has lost electron, gains a positive charge
2. Chlorine gains electron, gains a negative charge
3. Attraction formed between positive and negative change, forms ionic
bond.
Drawing Ionic Bonds
- Must show where electrons are going, and what changes remain
Allotropes
Forms of the same element but exhibit different physical properties
• Carbon can exist in two forms

o Crystalline

o Amorphous

Amorphous Carbon Allotropes

 •Have no definite arrangement of atoms (doesn’t create crystalline shape)
• Coal

• Charcoal

​
Crystalline Carbon Allotropes
• Particles are arranged in a definite order

Diamond
• Each carbon atom covalently bonds to 4 other carbons

• Creates 3D shape

• Hardest crystalline form

• No free electrons; creates non-conductivity

• Used for rings, speakers, mining

Graphite
• Each carbon is linked to 3 other carbon atoms

• Creates hexagonal shape and an arrangement of layers

• 1 electron is free; electrical conductivity

• Comes from atom only bonding to 3

• Not as hard as diamond due to layers

• Used for lubricants and batteries

• Graphene: single layer of graphite

Fullerene - Bucky Balls

• Formed by combination of large number of carbon atoms

• Composed of 12, 5 membered carbon rings & 20, 6 membered carbon rings

• Connected through single & double bonds

• Can be used for medical applications, producing solar cells and creating bullet

proof vests
• Fullerene and molecules

Nanotubes
• Member of fullerene family

• Composed of carbon fullerene atoms

• Found in cylindrical shape

• Exhibit extraordinary strength

 • Good conductors of heat and electricity
• Used in nanotechnology applications

Nanotechnology
• The handling of matter at the atomic and molecular scale

• ‘nano’ = 1-billionth of a meter

Name Metallic Bonding Ionic Bonding Covalent Bonding

Between? Metal + Metal Metal + Non-metal Non-metal + Non-Metal

Electron Movement? Atoms release their Atoms give off or accept Atoms share electrons
electrons to become electrons with other atoms
cations (Arranged in a repeating
crystal lattice)

Electronegativity? Happens between atoms Happens between atoms

of great difference in of little difference in
electronegativity electronegativity

Electrostatic Attraction Electrostatic attraction Strong Electrostatic

between positive metal attraction
ions and sea of
delocalized electrons
Malleable or Brittle? Malleable and ductile Brittle Molecular= Soft solids due
Atoms can roll over each Atoms cannot move over to weak intermolecular
other each other forces
Change of shape rather Network= Hard and Brittle,
than brake strong bonds due to 3D
shape

Conductive? Conductive (electrical and Non-Conductivity in solid Molecular=

thermal) state Non-Conductive, no
Because of the No free electrons or ions delocalized electrons
delocalized electron Conductive in Network= Non-conductive,
molten/aqueous state. no delocalized electrons
Ions can move more freely (except graphite)

Melting and boiling point High melting and boiling High melting and boiling Molecular= Low, bonds
points pointdue to strong between atoms are strong
Strong electrostatic electrostatic attraction but bonds between
attraction molecules are weak
Network= High, high
levels of every needed to
break bonds

Diagram

Stoichiometry
Relative Molar Mass
1 molecule= 1 Mole
Mg(NO3)2= 1 Mole of magnesium nitrate ​2Mg(NO3)2= 2 Mole
Mgx1= 24.31​​Nx2= 14.01x2= 28.02​​Ox6 = 16.6
Every Mole=148.33g/mol
Finding Percentage
Percentage composition is the measure of the components in a
compound
Percentage of ___= Mass of Component/Total Molar Mass x 100

The Mole
The relationship between number of moles (n) and the number of particles (N)
is given below
Mole and Mass
The number of moles of a substance can be calculated using the molar mass
and the mass of a given substance.
N=m/M
N= number of moles (mol)
m= mass of a substance
M= Molar mass of substance.

Mass to Mass Stoichiometry

Based on conversion of mass.
Use a ratio to identify quantities of unknow substances
Mass of reactants= Mass of products
1. Identify the data (from the question)
2. Write a balanced equation (molecular)
3. Identify what you know, and what you don’t (known and the unknown)
4. find the known quantities
5. Use equation to find ratio
6. Find the mass of the unknow

Calculate the mass of aluminum carbonate produced when 10.5g of

sodium carbonate reacts with excess aluminum nitrate solution.
Sequence Reactions
A series of reactions occurring to produce a specific product

Practice Stoich
 Kinetic Energy
Kinetic Theory describes the motion and arrangement of particles in a solid,
liquid or gas.
Solid particles are touching each other and can only move by vibration.
Particles can be arranged randomly or in a crystalline shape.
Liquid particles are mostly touching but there are gaps inbetween. These
gaps allow liquids to take the shape of their container. Fixed volume
Gas Particles are free to move anywhere they can. This allows them to take
the shape of their container.
States of matter all possess 2 different types of energy: kinetic and
potential
Kinetic energy is the energy of movement. When we talk about particles, it is
the energy particles have due to their motion
Temperature is the measure of average kinetic energy
If we were to increase the temperature of a substances, the kinetic
energy would also increase.
Potential Energy is the stored energy, or the amount of space between
particles. Between each particle, there are attractive forces. Gas particles are
far away from each other, in order forgas particles to be far apart from each
other, a great amount of energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces
holding the particles in place. This stored energy is the potential energy of a
particle.
Change of State
All matter in the universe exists as 3 states, solid, liquid and gases
As pure substances each of these states of matter can change form at
specific temperatures. These are known as the melting and boing points of a
substance.
Heating Curves for Substances
Heating curves are graphs which plot temperature (avg kinetic energy) of a
substance versus the heat added to the substances
The graph will show the response of the different phases to head (heat
capacity) and the heat needed for the phase transition (melting, boiling.
Plateaus show changes of state of a substance.
AàB.
o Kinetic energy (Ek) is increasing
o Potential energy (EP) is constant
BàC. Change of state to a liquid
o Kinetic energy (Ek) is constant
o Potential energy (EP) is increasing
CàD. Temperature Increases
o Kinetic energy (Ek) is increasing
o Potential energy (EP) is constant
DàE. Change of state to a gas
o Kinetic energy (Ek) is constant
o Potential energy (EP) is increasing
EàF. Increase in Temperature
o Kinetic energy (Ek) is increasing
o Potential energy (EP) is constant

The Kinetic Theory

The kinetic theory of gases tells us….
1. Gases are made of molecules, Nobel gases are made of atoms
2. The distance between each gas particle is greater than the size of the
gas particle
3. The gas particles move in a quick, straight line, random motion
 4. There is no loss of energy from collisions. They are elastic so kinetic
energy is conserved
5. Kinetic energy will increase as temperature and pressure increases
Ideal and Real Gases
Ideal gases allow us to predict the behavior of gases in terms of changes such
as pressure and temperature. They will follow the laws of kinetic theory
Ideal Gases Real Gases

Linear, random Brownian fluctuations

Elastic collisions Not perfectly elastic

No intermolecular forces Weak intermolecular forces

Occupied by empty space Small volume

Energy distribution in gases

Each gaseous particles moves at different speeds (velocity). Ina closed
system, with no external forces, the energy of that system will remain
unchanged
Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a
sample. The average kinetic energy is the same for all gases at a given
temperature
Energy Distribution
Temperature is the measure of average kinetic energy. In a given sample,
molecules will have the same average kinetic energy, but not all particles in
the sample will have the same kinetic energy. Particles need a specific
amount of energy in order to reach activation energy.
This can be shown in a Maxwell Boltzmann plot:

Kelvin Temperature scale

The lowest temperature on the Kelvin scale is 0 K. This is equivalent to
-273.15c
Boyle’s Law
- The relationship between pressure and volumes
- The relationship between pressure and volume is inversely proportional
- Temperature is constant
This means that…
o If the volume of the container is increased, the pressure will
decrease
o If the volume of the container is decreased, the pressure will
increase.

Charles’s Law
- Charles’s Law looks at the relationship between volume and
temperature
- Volume is directly proportional to temperature, provided that the
pressure and amount of substance is kept constant
This means that
o As volume increases, temperature increases
o As volume decreases, temperature decreases.

Avogadro’s Hypothesis
- Equal volume of all gases measured at the same temp and pressure
contain the same number of particles
- 1 mol à 22.71L
- 1 mol à22.71L
Pressure: force per area squareà , KiloPascals
Temperature: average kinetic energy of particlesà Kelvin (K)
Standard Temperature and Pressure
- KPa=100à Standard Pressure
- K=273.15à Standard Temperature

Calculating the Number of Moles of Gas at STP

Eg. Calculate the number of moles of 2.54L of hydrogen gas at STP

N(H2)= ​= ​=​0.112mols
Eg. Calculate the volume of 2.5 moles of ammonia gas at STP
V=n x 22.71 ​=2
​ .5x22.71​= ​57L
Eg. Calculate the volume is occupied by 1.5 moles of ammonia gas at STP
V=n x 22.71​=1
​ .5x22.71​=3
​ 4L

Calculating the number of moles of Gas without STP

Pressure x Liters = number of moles x gas constant (8.314) x
Temperature = PV=nRT​
P= KPa ​V=L​​N=moles​R=gas constant ​T=Kelvin

Eg. Calculate the moles of 5L of helium at a pressure of 120kPa and 25

degrees Celsius
n=????​​P=120​​T=298.15​V=5 liters​​R=8.314
​=0
​ .242 moles ​(3 significant figures)

Gay-Lussac’s Law
Discovered that when all substances are gases, the relationship between
volume and molar ratios are identical, providing temperature and pressure are
also constant.
Look at the ratio of the molar coefficient between each gas in the equation
Use unknown/known molar ration to work out the answers to molar
Chemical Energy
Law of Conservation of energy
In a closed system
• Energy Can not be destroyed nor created
• Only transformed or change form
Need to consider
1. The system: where the reaction is taking place
2. The surrounds: “the universe”
Chemical Potential energy
• Stored in the bonds of atoms or molecules which make up a substance
• New products have a different amount of potential energy
• Energy can be absorbed or released when reactions occur

Enthalpy
• Chemical reactions are always associated with the release or absorption
of energy
• All substances contain potential energy
• Enthalpy isàChange of energy over a reaction
• Change of Enthalpy =
• Enthalpy of products – Enthalpy of reactants
•
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
 SYLLABUS POINTS
• identify, research and refine questions for investigation; propose hypotheses;
and predict possible outcomes
• design investigations, including the procedure(s) to be followed, the
materials required, and the type and amount of primary and/or secondary data
to be collected; conduct risk assessments; and consider research ethics
• conduct investigations safely, competently and methodically for the collection
of valid and reliable data, including: the use of devices to accurately measure
temperature change and mass, flame tests, separation techniques and heat of
reaction
• represent data in meaningful and useful ways, including using appropriate
graphic representations and correct units and symbols; organise and process
data to identify trends, patterns and relationships; identify sources of random
and systematic error and estimate their effect on measurement results; and
select, synthesise and use evidence to make and justify conclusions
• interpret a range of scientific and media texts, and evaluate processes,
claims and conclusions by considering the quality of available evidence; and
use reasoning to construct scientific arguments
• communicate to specific audiences and for specific purposes using
appropriate language, nomenclature and formats, including scientific reports
Science as a Human Endeavour Properties and structure of atoms Findings
from a range of scientific experiments contributed to the understanding of the
atom, enabling scientists, including Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr and
Chadwick to develop models of atomic structure and make reliable predictions
about the mass, charge and location of the sub-atomic particles.
• elements are represented by symbols
• atoms can be modelled as a nucleus, surrounded by electrons in distinct
energy levels, held together by electrostatic forces of attraction between the
nucleus and electrons; the location of electrons within atoms can be
represented using electron configurations
• the ability of atoms to form chemical bonds can be explained by the
arrangement of electrons in the atom and in particular by the stability of the
valence electron shell
• the structure of the periodic table is based on the atomic number and the
properties of the elements • the elements of the periodic table show trends
across periods and down main groups, including in atomic radii, valencies, 1st
ionisation energy and electronegativity as exemplified by groups 1, 2, 13–18
and period 3
• flame tests and atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) are analytical
techniques that can be used to identify elements; these methods rely on
electron transfer between atomic energy levels and are shown by line spectra
• isotopes are atoms of an element with the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons and are represented in the form A X (IUPAC) or
X-A
• isotopes of an element have the same electron configuration and possess
similar chemical properties but have different physical properties
• the relative atomic mass (atomic weight), Ar is the ratio of the average mass
of the atom to 1/12 the mass of an atom of 12C; relative atomic masses of the
elements are calculated from their isotopic composition
• mass spectrometry involves the ionisation of substances and the separation
and detection of the resulting ions; the spectra which are generated can be
analysed to determine the isotopic composition of elements and interpreted to
determine relative atomic mass Science as a Human Endeavour Properties
and structure of materials Matter at the nanoscale can be manipulated to
create new materials, composites and devices; the different characteristics of
nanomaterials can be used to provide commercially available products. As
products are designed on the basis of properties which are different from the
bulk material, their use can be associated with potential risks to health, safety
and the environment and this has led to regulations being developed to
address new and existing nanoform materials.
• materials are pure substances with distinct measurable properties, including
melting and boiling points, reactivity, hardness and density; or mixtures with
properties dependent on the identity and relative amounts of the substances
that make up the mixture
• pure substances may be elements or compounds which consist of atoms of
two or more elements chemically combined; the formulae of compounds
indicate the relative numbers of atoms of each element in the compound
• nanomaterials are substances that contain particles in the size range 1–100
nm and have specific properties relating to the size of these particles which
may differ from those of the bulk material
• differences in the physical properties of substances in a mixture, including
particle size, solubility, density, and boiling point, can be used to separate
them
• the type of bonding within ionic, metallic and covalent substances explains
their physical properties, including melting and boiling points, conductivity of
both electricity and heat and hardness • chemical bonds are caused by
electrostatic attractions that arise because of the sharing or transfer of
electrons between participating atoms; the valency is a measure of the
bonding capacity of an atom
• ions are atoms or groups of atoms that are electrically charged due to a loss
or gain of electrons; ions are represented by formulae which include the
number of constituent atoms and the charge of the ion
• ionic bonding can be modelled as a regular arrangement of positively and
negatively charged ions in a crystalline lattice with electrostatic forces of
attraction between oppositely charged ions
• the ionic bonding model can be used to explain the properties of ionic
compounds, including high melting point, brittleness and non-conductivity in
the solid state; the ability of ionic compounds to conduct electricity when
molten or in aqueous solution can be explained by the breaking of the bonds
in the lattice to give mobile ions
• the formulae of ionic compounds can be determined from the charges on the
relevant ions (refer to Appendix 2)
• metallic bonding can be modelled as a regular arrangement of atoms with
electrostatic forces of attraction between the nuclei of these atoms and their
delocalised electrons that are able to move within the three dimensional lattice
• the metallic bonding model can be used to explain the properties of metals,
including malleability, thermal conductivity, generally high melting point and
electrical conductivity; covalent bonding can be modelled as the sharing of
pairs of electrons resulting in electrostatic forces of attraction between the
shared electrons and the nuclei of adjacent atoms
• the properties of covalent network substances, including high melting point,
hardness and electrical conductivity, are explained by modelling covalent
networks as three-dimensional structures that comprise covalently bonded
atoms
• elemental carbon exists as a range of allotropes, including graphite, diamond
and fullerenes, with significantly different structures and physical properties
• the properties of covalent molecular substances, including low melting point,
can be explained by their structure and the weak intermolecular forces
between molecules; their non-conductivity in the solid and liquid/molten states
can be explained by the absence of mobile charged particles in their
molecular structure
• molecular formulae represent the number and type of atoms present in the
molecules (refer to Appendix 2)
• percentage composition of a compound can be calculated from the relative
atomic masses of the elements in the compound and the formula of the
compound
• hydrocarbons, including alkanes, alkenes and benzene, have different
chemical properties that are determined by the nature of the bonding within
the molecules
• molecular structural formulae (condensed or showing bonds) can be used to
show the arrangement of atoms and bonding in covalent molecular
substances
• IUPAC nomenclature is used to name straight and simple branched alkanes
and alkenes from C1- C8
• alkanes, alkenes and benzene undergo characteristic reactions such as
combustion, addition reactions for alkenes and substitution reactions for
alkanes and benzene 13
11 syllabus Science as a Human Endeavour Chemical reactions: reactants,
products and energy change There are differences in the energy output and
carbon emissions of fossil fuels (including coal, oil, petroleum and natural gas)
and biofuels (including biogas, biodiesel and bioethanol). These differences,
together with social, economic, cultural and political values, determine how
widely these fuels are used.
• chemical reactions can be represented by chemical equations; balanced
chemical equations indicate the relative numbers of particles (atoms,
molecules or ions) that are involved in the reaction
• chemical reactions and phase changes involve enthalpy changes, commonly
observable as changes in the temperature of the surroundings and/or the
emission of light
• endothermic and exothermic reactions can be explained in terms of the Law
of Conservation of Energy and the breaking of existing bonds and forming of
new bonds; heat energy released or absorbed by the system to or from the
surroundings, can be represented in thermochemical equations
• fossil fuels (including coal, oil, petroleum and natural gas) and biofuels
(including biogas, biodiesel and bioethanol) can be compared in terms of their
energy output, suitability for purpose, and the nature of products of
combustion
• the mole is a precisely defined quantity of matter equal to Avogadro’s
number of particles
• the mole concept relates mass, moles and molar mass and, with the Law of
Conservation of Mass; can be used to calculate the masses of reactants and
products in a chemical reaction.

Unit 2 Chemistry Study Guide

In this unit, students continue to develop their understanding of bonding
models and the relationship between structure, properties and reactions,
including consideration of the factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions.
Students investigate the unique properties of water and the properties of acids
and bases, and use chemical equations to calculate the concentrations and
volumes of solutions involved in chemical reactions.
 Contents
Organic Chemistry
Hydrocarbons
……………………………………………………………………………
………….3
Rates of Chemical Reactions
……………………………………………………………………………
6
Shapes of Molecules
……………………………………………………………………………
………….9
Polarity
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………….11
Intermolecular Forces
……………………………………………………………………………
………12
Chromatography
……………………………………………………………………………
……………..16
Solutions
……………………………………………………………………………
………………………….21
Acid and Bases
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………23

Organic Chemistry
Hydrocarbons
Carbon
• Carbon is the element of life and organic chemistry looks at how carbon
reacts with certain atoms
• Carbon is the building block for human life and it also used for things
such as fuels, graphite and is found in diamonds.
• Carbon is found in group 14 of the periodic table and has 4 valence
electrons. Caron can bond with 4 other substituents

Molecular Formula • Shows the number of each

type of atom present
• Tells nothing about bonding

Empirical Formula • Simplest possible whole

number ratio of the diff
types of atoms

Condensed Formula • Each carbon atoms islisted

separately, with atoms
attached to it following
• Exception: cyclic parts e.g.
benene

Displayed Formula • Shows all atoms & all bonds

• Bonds represented as lines

Structural Formula • Notall bonds shown

• All
atoms still indicated using
subscript numbers
• Carbon hydrogen bonds
often simplified

Skeletal Formula • Most hydrogen atoms

omitted
• Line end or
verticiesrepresent carbons
• Function groups & atoms
other than C & H are
shown

Hydrocarbons- Alkanes
• The simplest organic molecule is called a pure hydrocarbon, which
contains only carbon and hydrogen
 • These hydrocarbons are called saturated hydrocarbons or Alkanes and
they have the general formula, C H n 2n+2

• The alkane family supplies us with the fuels of everyday

Naming Simple Alkanes
Functional Group- Contain the carbon and hydrogen in single bonds
Saturated- only contains Carbon-Carbon bonds
Stem (Parent) Prefix
1. Identify the longest carbon chain
1=Meth, 2=Eth, 3=Prop, 4=But, 5=Pent, 6=Hex, 7=Hept, 8=Oct, 9=Non,
10=Dec
2. Add ‘Ane” as the suffix
Naming Conventions
1. Find the longest chain
2. Start at either end to find the first point of difference
3. Number carbons from end of difference
4. Name the branches alphabetically
5. Name functional groups alphabetically (Fluro, Bromo, Chloro, Ido)
Hydrocarbons- Alkenes
• Are unsaturated molecules that are more reactive that alkanes
• Contain at least one double bond
• Suffix “ene”
• Due to the double bond in the alkene, the double bond is in a fixed
position and canttwist
Cycloalkenes
• In a cycloalkene, the double bond is always given as the first carbon,
the second carbon must always be across the double bond C H n 2n-2

Naming Alkenes
1. Find the longest chain that includes a double bond
 2. Start at either end to find the lowest position of the double bond
3. Number carbons from lowest position to highest position
4. Name the branches (substitute groups) alphabetically
5. Name functional groups in prefix alphabetically

Isomers
Structural isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula but
have different arrangements of atoms. The more atoms in the molecule, the more
possible isomers there are

Benzene
Benzene (formula C H ) a unique hydrocarbon, which is arranged with 6
6 6

carbon atoms joined in a ring, with each carbon atom bonded to only one
hydrogen atom. Benzene is quite stable – the bonds are of equal strength – it
does not contain alternating double and single carbon-carbon. The electrons
that make the bonds are delocalised and can move through the ring, which
contributes to the stability of the ring.
• Single bonds
• Aromatic
o Cyclical
o Unsaturated
• Carbons and hydrogen
• 6 carbons
• Benzene= parent
• Each benzene has a localised electron
• Overlap forms 2 regions
Naming Benzenes
1. Name from 1 subgroup
st

2. Functional group prefix more important

Rate of Chemical Reactions

Collision Theory and Reactions
1. Reactants need to collide for a reaction to occur
2. Particles must collide in the correct orientation
3. Collision needs to occur with enough energy to be able to break bonds
and triggers a reaction
If particles have incorrect orientation and not enough energy no reaction
occurs and the particles bounce off each other
Activation
 • Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy required for a
collision to result in a reaction
• Use to break bonds and trigger the reaction
• Low activation energy
o Reacts at a much slower rate
o Unlikely that reactant molecules have enough energy to undergo
reactions
Collision theory and activation energy
• No all collisions occur with the correct orientation or enough energy for a
reaction to occur
• Collisions with enough energy for the reaction to occurs have a
sufficient activation energy
Reversible Reactions
• Some reaction such as an explosion are irreversible. They go to
completion and cannot be reversed
• Many reactions can actually be reversible, that is that the product can
react together to produce the original product
• Reversible reactions are drawn with a double arrow, showing that the
reaction can go in both ways
Rates of Chemical Reactions
• The rate of reaction, is the speed a chemical reaction occurs
• A low reaction rate means the particles are combining at a slow speed
• A high reaction rate means the particles are combining at a high speed.
Measuring reaction rates
• The rate of reaction can be measured in two ways
o Measuring the rate of disappearance of the reactants
o Measuring the rate of appearance of the products
 • Rate of reaction can be quantitatively expressed by measuring the
change in the amount of a reactant or product over time
Changing the Rate of Reaction
Temperature
• Increasing the temperature ofreactants, increase the average energy of
particles
• Particles are moving faster which means collisions are more frequent
• Energy of particles is increased which means higher % of particles have
energy greater than the activation energy
• Increase temperature, increase frequency of collisions, increase %
successful collisions
Surface Area
• By dividing substrate into smaller, finer pieces, whichincrease the
number of particles available for the reaction.
• Increase surface area, increase frequency of collisions, % successful
collisions remain the same
Pressure
• For gases, we can increase the pressure
• If pressure increases, the gas molecules are closer together, which
increases frequency of collisions
• Increases pressure, increases frequency of collisions, % successful
collisions remains same

Concentration
• For solutions, the concentration can be changed
 • Concentration is the measure of how much solute is dissolved in a
solvent- how many molecules per unit volume
• Low concentration: low amount of solute in solvent
• High concentration: high amount of solute in solvent
• By increasing the concentration, we increase the number of particles
which increase the number of successful collisions
• Increasing concentration, increased frequency of collisions, %
successful collisions is the same
Catalysts
• Chemical or biological agents (enzymes) that speeds up the rate of
reaction
• Catalysts are NOT used up in the reaction
• Provide an alternative pathway for the reaction to occurwith a lower
activation energy
• Less energy is required for the reaction to occurs which means a
greater proportion of particles have energy greater than the activation
energy
• Frequency of collisions remain the same, % of successful collisions
increase
 Shapes of Molecules

Valence shell Electron Pair Repulsions(VSEPR)

The most stable shape of a molecule has the greatest distancebetween
electron pairs
VSEPR states that electron pairs in the valence shell repel each other, as a
result, these pairs are arranged as far apart as possible
Molecules will be one of the following shapes
• Linear
• Triangular Planar
• Tetrahedral
• Pyramidal
• Bent
Shape Representation Description

Linear The shape of all diatomic molecules

In molecules that have only two areas
of negative charge around the central
atom, these areas of negative charge
will be arranged 180 degrees apart

Trigonal Planar Three areas of negative chare around

a central atom will be arranged 120
degrees apart. If these three areas of
neg charge are pairs of bonding
electrons, then the molecule is said to
have a trigonal planar shape. All four
atoms are planar.

Tetrahedral Four areas of negative charge around

a central atom will be arranged 109.5
degrees apart. This arrangement of
areas of negative charge is called a
tetrahedral arrangement

Pyramidal In molecules of this shape there are

four areas of negative charge around
the central atom, which will be
 arranged approximately 109 degrees
apart. However, only three of these
areas of negative charge are bonding
pairs of electrons. One of the areas of
negative chare is a lone pair. They will
not be in a planer shape because the
one pair pushes the bonding pairs
closer together.

Bent In this molecule, there are only three

areas of negative charge around a
central atom. Tow of these areas are
bonding pairs of electrons and one is
a lone pair . The nong will be a little
ess than 120 degrees due to the
greater repulsive force of the lone pair

Shapes of molecules
- Determined by the angle of the bonds
- Valence electrons repel each other (like charges)
- Bonds arrange to spread valence electrons apart from each other
- Bonding pairs (forming bonds)
- Lone pairs (non-bond forming) àrepulsion
Steps for Predicting Shapes
1) Draw an electron dot diagram
2) Count the number of electrons on the central atom: are they lone pairs
or bonding pairs
3) Describe the molecular geometry structure of the atoms
4) Molecules with a double/triple bond is abonding pair
 Polarity
Polarity of Molecules
• Determined by the distribution of charges within a molecule

• Electronegativity: ability to attract an electron in a molecule

o Increase across PT

o Decrease down PT

Non-polar covalent bond

• Equal distribution of charges

• Difference of electronegativity = 0

• 2 of same atoms

o E.g. 02 Cl2

Polar covalent bonds

• Uneven distribution of charges

• Difference of electronegativity = >2

• 1 large atom & 1 small

Ionic bonds
• Always polar

• Complete swap of electrons

• Difference of electronegativity = >2

Polar or non-polar

Intermolecular Forces (IMF)

TYPES OF IMF: Van Der Walls Forces
There are weak attractive forces between all molecules in substances. These
weak intermolecular attractive forces are called Van Der Waals Forces.
1) Dipole-Dipole Forces
2) Hydrogen Bonding
3) Dispersion Forces
Properties of Intermolecular Forces
Strength and type of intermolecular force depends on:
- Shape and size of molecule
- Elements it contains
Intermolecular forces affect:
- Melting point and boiling point
- Solubility.
Dipole-Dipole Bonding
- Occurs between polar molecules
- These attractive forces occur because the part of the molecule that is
slightly positively charged can be attracted to the slightly negative part
of another molecule.
 - Increase polarity= increases the strength of the Dipole-Dipole= Increase
boiling point
- Very weak

Hydrogen Bonding
- Occurs when covalently bonded to Fluorine, Oxygenor Nitrogen
- Hydrogen bonds to the lone pair of electrons on Fluorine, Oxygen or
Nitrogen or a neighbouring molecule.
- The dipole dipole forces between the moleculesbecome stronger than
normal

Dispersion Forces
- Electrons are in constant motion around atoms and molecules
- At any moment, electrons may be asymmetrically distributed resulting in
a temporary dipole
- This temporary dipole can cause a temporary dipole In an adjacent
atom or molecule
- The negative end of a molecule will repel the electrons in an adjacent
molecule create a small, temporary positive charge which is then
electrostatically attracted.
- Forms a temporary bond due to the movement of electrons
- Only force between non-polar
o The best measure of the strength of attractive forces between
moleules is examining boiling points
Factors affecting Dispersion forces
 - Greater number of electrons increase the likelihood of a temporary
dipole
- Molecules with a greater mass will have a greater number of electrons
- Larger surface area give the electrons more room to move around
- The simpler the shape of the molecule, the closer they can get to each
other

As the molecular mass increases then number of electrons become more

polarisable. This them means it is easier to induce a temp dipole as
nucleus has less of a hold on electrons

Solubility
Is a measure of the ability for a solute to dissolve in a solvent at a given
temperature
Like dissolves like
A polar substance will dissolve another polar substance
For example, water is a polar molecule, while oil is non-polar, therefore oil and
water will not dissolve each other.
Between two polar molecules, the molecule with the smaller hydrocarbon
portion (or the larger polar potion) is more soluble in water

Boiling Point
IS the temperature at which a liquid vaporises to a gas. Attractive forces are
needed to overcome, in order for a gas to be produced
As the IMF is increased, the boiling point is also increased.
For those with the same IMF, the longest chain will have the highest boiling
point.
Hydrogen bonding > dipole-dipole > dispersion forces
 Melting point
Is the temperature at which a solid turns into a liquid.
As the IMF is increased, the melting point is also increased.
For those with the same IMF, the longest chain will have the highest melting
point.
Hydrogen bonding > dipole-dipole > dispersion forces

Molecule Boiling Point IMF present

O2 -183 Dispersion Forces

NCl3 71 Dispersion, Dipole

N2 -196 Dispersion

PCl3 76.1 Dispersion, Dipole

Cl2 -34 Dispersion

Vapour pressure
When a partially filled container of liquid is sealed with a stopper, some liquid
molecules at the surface evaporate into the vapour phase. However, the
vapour molecules cannot escape from the container and so after a certain
amount of time, the space above the liquid reaches a point where it cannot
hold any more vapour molecules
Because they cannot escape the container, the vapour molecules above the
surface of the liquid exert pressure on the walls of the container. This is called
vapour pressure. Vapour pressure is property of a liquid based on the
strength of its intermolecular forces.
▪ The higher the vapour pressure, the more gas in equilibrium and the
easier for a substance to vaporise.
▪ The lower the vapour pressure= the higher intermolecular forces
▪ The higher the vapour pressure= the lower intermolecular forces.
▪ Increase pressure, increases boiling point
▪ Decreasing pressure, decreases boiling point
Liquid molecules have energy to break free when boiling. Higher pressure
means that it is harder for the molecules to escape the liquid phase.
Would water boil at a higher or lower temperature at higher altitudes?
As the elevation increases, atmospheric pressure will decrease as air is less
dense at higher altitudes,
Because the atmospheric pressure is lower, the vapour pressure of the liquid
needs to be lower in order to reactboiling point.
Therefore, less heat is required to make the vapour pressure equal to the
atmospheric pressure. He boiling point is lower athigher altitudes.
Water Properties
Due to its molecular shape and hydrogen bonding, water has some special
properties
Boiling point: if we look at group 5 elements, forming molecule, we should
expect that water would boil at -100 degrees. Hydrogen bonding is the
strongest IMF, and because water exhibits hydrogen bonding, its boiling point
is actually 100 degrees.
Density: As the amount of a substance in a given volume as in grams per
millimetre
Normally when in frozen form, the density of the solid will be greater.
However, this is not the case for water. Ice floats in water, as it expands
causing the volume of ice to increase. This happens because when ice forms,
the orientation of the hydrogen bonds causes molecules to push further apart
(less compact), causing lower density.
Surface tension Property of water that allows it to resist an external force. It
creates a smaller surface area due to the tight bonding.
Water molecules hold on tightly to each other, not wanting to separate due to
hydrogen bonding
As there are no water molecules to bond with on the other side of the surface,
the water molecules on the surface create a stronger bond.

Chromatography
• Used to separate and analyse substances present in a mixture
• There is three types of Chromatography
o Paper chromatography
o Thin-layer chromatography
o Column chromatography
How does it work
• The chemical basis for chromatography is that different substances will
absorb onto a surface and desorb into a solvent at different rates
• By altering the solvent (mobile phase) , and the surface (stationary
phase), chemists can separate a mixture of solutes
• All chromatography techniques have a stationary phase and mobile
phase
Factors of Substance movement
• The different types of polar groups
• The amount of charged and polar chemical groups present
• Its molecular weight
• Its geometry
• The position and numbers of carbon-carbon double bonds
Gas Chromatography
• Used for separating compounds with a high vapour pressure and low
boiling point
• A solution of a mixture is introduced into a hot injector to volatise all
components
o These components are then swept through the column by a
mobile phase through a capillary column, which is a long (up to
60m) thin glass tube which is heated in an oven
• The stationary phase is a thin film of silicone polymer that costs the
inside of the capillary column
• The mobile phase is an inert gas like helium or nitrogen (carrier gas)
• The components which adsorb least strongly to the stationary phase are
swept out first by the gas
Carrier Gas
• In selecting a carrier gas it is important to select a gas that will not react
with the components of the sample.
• The carrier gas should also be able to withstand high temperatures due
to the oven.
• The flow rate of the carrier gas is important in that if it is too high there is
not enough time for the sample to interact with the column and no
separation will be seen, if it is too slow the experiment may take a very
long time.

Column Gas
• The main type of columns used in gas chromatography is a capillary
column. Packed columns are created of fused silica or stainless steel.
 To increase separation of a gas sample columns must be created of a
large length and are coiled to fit inside of the oven.
• Capillary columns are separated into two categories;
o Wall coated open tubular
▪ WCOT are capillary tubes with a thin layer of stationary phase
o Support coated open tubular
▪ in SCOT, the tube is lined with a thin film of support material.
As the sample moves through the column the individual parts
of the sample become contained with the material inside of the
column and are then released. This action allows for a sample
to become separated.
Oven
• It is important that the oven is capable of maintaining a constant
temperature. Since movement of the sample through the column relies
on the boiling point of the sample being analysed, the oven should be
set to a temperature that is slightly higher than its boiling point.
• For samples with a large boiling range, a temperature program can be
used, in which the column temperature is raised.
• By using a high temperature, the sample moves through the column
faster, while at lower temperatures the sample moves slower, but better
resolution is achieved.
Detectors
• Many types of detectors are used in gas chromatographic separations,
with the most common are flame ionization, thermal conductivity, and
mass spectrometry detectors.
• In a flame ionization detectors, the separated sample from the column is
directed into a flame. By creating a voltage near the burner tip and the
 detector, the ions that are produced from the flame travel towards the
detector.
• Flame detectors are not capable of detecting H O, CO , SO , and CO
2 2 2

Application
• If a sample is compared to a standard calibration, it is possible to know
how much of a separated part of the sample makes up the sample.
• This is useful in monitoring quality of a product such as medicine,
beverage, or perfume.
High Performance Liquid Chromatography
• Commonly used for the separation and identification of complex
mixtures of similar compounds and compounds that are found in
extremely low concentrations, such as:
o Contaminants that are soluble in water
o Drugs in blood
o Hydrocarbons in oil samples

• Also known as High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography

• Routinely used for environmental, pharmaceutical and industrial

analyses such as:
o Presence and concentration of dioxins, insecticides, pesticides
and oil spills in water
o Determine the presence of pesticides in food
o Detect the presence of drugs in blood
Process
 • The basic Principles are the same as for column chromatography.
• There are two main differences between column chromatography
1. The particles in the solid used in HPLC are about 10-20 times
smaller – allowing more frequent adsorption and desorption of the
components – giving a much better separation of similar
components
2. Small particle size used in HPLC creates a considerable
resistance to the flow of the mobile phase and so the solvent is
pumped through the column at high pressure.
• Components are usually detected through a beam of UV light – many
organic compounds absorb UV light, so when an organic compound
passes in front of the beam of light a reduced signal is picked up by the
detector
• The amount of light received by the detector is recorded on a chart that
moves slowly at constant speed or sent to a computer – resulting trace
is called a chromatogram
Column Chromatography
• A solid stationary phase is packed into a glass column
• Sample mixture is applied carefully to the top of the packed solid and a
solvent, which acts as the mobile phase, is dripped slowly onto the
column from a reservoir above.
• A tap at the bottom of the column allows the solvent (eluent) to leave the
column at the same rate enters at the other end.
Detection and Calibration Curves
• Have detection based on the retention time of the components
• These retention times come out as chromatograms
o Retention time is dependent on the interaction of the stationary
phase, molecules being analyses and the solvents/solutes used
 o Can use a nonpolar mobile phase or in reverse HPLC, a polar
mobile phase can be used
o As the sample passes through the column, it interacts at different
rates due to their polarities (of both the mobile and stationary
phase)
• The concentration of individual components in a mixture can be
determined using a known concentration and the peak are of a graph.
o This is then plotted on a calibration curve
• Calibration curves are used to determine the concentration of an
unknown substance, in an unknown sample, by comparing the
unknown with a known set of standards.

Solutions
Types of Solutions
When we dissolve NaCl in water, we can see the salt breaking apart in the
water. This is called an unsaturated solution: more solute (NaCl) can be
added and will still dissolve in the solvent.
If we continue to add more salt into the water, it will create a saturated
solution.
Solubility and Dissolving
1. Solute particles are held together before being added to the solvent
(solvent-solvent interaction)
2. Solvent molecules are held together (solvent-solvent interactions)
3. If the substance is able to dissolve, forces ill form between solute
particles and solvent molecules.
A solution forms when the bonds between the solute and solvent particles are
strong enough to overcome the attractive forces between solute and solvent
particles

Dissolving- Polar solute and Polar Solvent

• Polar ammonia molecules will dissolve in polar water molecules. Both
molecules engage in hydrogen bonding, so their IMF are roughly
equal, and molecules are able to break away from each other and
form new solute and solvent bonds.
Dissolving- Non-Polar Solute & Non-Polar Solvent
• All non-polar molecules have weak dispersion forces. This weak
attractive force formed by the solute- solvent, compensate for break
the weak bonds in the 2 non-polar substances.
Dissolving- Non Polar Solute and Polar Solvent
• The intermolecular forces in the non polar substance are not as
strong as the hydrogen bonds in water. The polar molecules
effectively ‘squeeze’ out the iodine. The IMF are not equal, therefore
the ‘unlike’ substances are not soluble to each other.
Ionic Substances
• Most ionic substances are soluble in water
• Once ions are released from crystals, they are completely surrounded
by water molecules.
• This is called HYDRATION
• The atoms must point towards the correct ion(orientation) and this is
determined by the partial charges by the ions and water.
• If another solvent is used instead of water, it is called SOLVATION
Factors affecting solubility of Solid solute in water
Decreasing particle size increases solubility.
Factor General Rule Why Diagram

Temperature Increasing Temperature As temperature increases,

increase solubility kinetic energy increases,
the solvent molecules are
able tobreak apart the
solute molecules that are
held together by
intermolecular forces.
An increase in vibrations
of the solute molecules,
cause them to dissolve
more readily because they
are less able to be held
together

Pressure

Molecules

Factors affecting solubility of gas in water

Increasing pressure, increasing solubility
Increasing temperature, decrease solubility
Factor General Rule Why Diagram

Temperature Increasing Temperature By heating a gas, it

decreasessolubility enables the particles to
move more freely between
the solution and gas
phase. Has particles will
disperse more and move
into the gas state

Pressure Gas molecules have

kinetic energy, they want
to escape the solution
Creating an upward
pressure on the
surrounding gas
The partial pressure of
the gas has tobe equal or
higher than the pressure
 of the CO2 molecules
pushing their way out of
the solution

Molecules

Solubility curves
- Relationship between solubility of a substance and temperature
- On the line: Saturated
- Above the line: Supersaturated
- Below the line: Unsaturated

Colligative Properties of the Solution

Vapour Pressure Lower
• Vapour pressure is the tendency of a gas to form by the molecules
leaving the surface of a liquid
• The addition of a non-volatile decreases how many molecules of the
solvent are available on the surface of the liquid, which decreases
vapour pressure
• THE GREATER THE CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTE PARTICLES IN
A SOLUTION, THE LOWER THE VAPOUR PRESSURE OF THE
SOLUTION
Boiling Point Increases
• All liquids boil at a temperature when its vapour pressure is equal to the
atmospheric pressure
• By adding a non-volatile solute, it lowers the vapour pressure of the
solution, so it is necessary to heat the solution to a higher temperature
so it can boil
Freezing Point Depression
• Adding a solute will lower the freezing point of the solution
 • Water normally freezes at 0, by adding a solute like salt, it lowers the
freezing point below zero.
• When aqueous solutions freeze, pure ice crystalises from the solution.
This cause the concentration of the solution to increase which further
depresses the freezing point.
Distinguishing
Writing ionic equations
1. Write the molecular equation and balance
2. Determine the state of each substance (solid, liquid, gas or aqueous)
soluble are shown as (aq) and insoluble remail as (s)
3. Some compounds will form solid precipitates and you need to check
this with your data sheet
4. Write the equation out, breaking apart ONLY the aqcompounds, each
ion must show its charge
5. Rewrite the equation by removing spectator ions. Spectator ions look
exactly the same on both sides of the equation
Observations of Reactions
• Transition metals form coloured compounds
• Their colour depends on
o The charge of the metal ion
o The number and type of group of atoms attached to the meta ion
• In aqueous solutions, they will form complexes with these colours.
• We see these colours due to them absorbing a photo of light when the
electrons move between their outer orbitals.

Identifying Unknown Chemicals

1. Determine colour (group each chemical into a colour group)
2. Determine solubility (by adding water)
 3. Use precipitate reactions (soluble substance only)
4. Use acid/base reactions (for the insoluble substances)
5. Use redox reactions (year 12)
Concentration

Acid and Bases

Patterns of Acids and Bases
Acid+ Base
• Acid+ BaseàWater + Salt
• No visible reaction unless indicator used (colour change)
• If exothermic, heat will be produced
Acid + Metal
• Acid + Metalà Hydrogen Gas + Salt
• Bubble produced
• Colourless, odourless gas produced
Acid + Carbonate
• Acid + Carbonateà Water + Salt + Carbon Dioxide
• Bubbles produced
• Colourless, odorless gas produced
Acid + Sulfide
• Acid + Sulfideà Salt + Hydrogen Sulfide Gas
• Bubbles produced
• Colourless, pungent Gas
Base + Ammonium Salt
• Base + Ammonium Saltà Salt + Ammonia Gas + Water
• Bubbles produced
 • Colourless, pungent gas produced
Acids
• Acids are ionic compounds that dissociate in water to form H ions.
+

• The strength of the acid is dependent on the concentration of ions in

solution and the ability to donate hydrogen ions to a base.
• The more H ions, the stronger the acid.
+

Base
• Bases are ionic compounds that dissociate in water.
• The strength of the base is dependent on the concentration of ions in
solution and the ability to accept hydrogen ions from an acid.
pH Scale
• The basic definition of pH is the measure of the amount of alkalinity or
acidity in solution.
• It is the measure of the amount of protons (hydrogen ions) that are
present in an aqueous solution

Strong VS Weak Acids

All acids release hydrogen ions (protons) into a solution.
If a substance dissociates and releases all of its hydrogen ions, it is a strong
acid. The single arrow represents complete ionisation.
Weak acids only partially release hydrogen ions. The double arrow represents
a partial ionisation of the acid.

Strong Acids
H SO , HBr, HI, HNO , HClO , HCl
2 4 3 4

Strong and Weak Bases

A strong base releases hydroxide ions in solution. They also accept protons
easily.

Weak bases are those which don’t convert fully into hydroxide ions in solution
NH 3(aq) + H O ⇌ NH
2 (l)
+
4 (aq) + OH-
(aq)

Electrolytes (acid broken down in a solution)

• Electrolytes can produce ions in solution.
 o NaCl à Na (s)
+
(aq) + Cl -
(aq)

• This is known as dissociation – in ionic solids, the ions already present

in the solid are separated
o Ca(NO ) à Ca 3 2(s)
2+
(aq) + 2NO -
2 (aq)

o CuSO à Cu 4(s)
2+
(aq) + SO 2-
4 (aq)

• Some solids that aren’t ionic can also form ions when dissolved in
solution
o HCl à H (aq)
+
(aq) + Cl -
(aq)

• This is known as ionisation – covalent substances where the solid

reacts to form ions
Strong and Weak Electrolytes
• Strong electrolytes: exist completely as ions when dissolved in solution.
High conductivity in solution
o all soluble ionic compounds
o HCl, H SO , HNO 2 4 3

o AgCl, Mg(OH) 2

• Weak electrolytes: Only a small proportion of molecules will ionise in

solution
o CH COOH ⇄ CH COO + H
3 (l) 3
-
(aq)
+
(aq)

o NH + H O ⇄ NH
3(g) 2 (l)
+
4 (aq) +OH -
(aq)

• Non-electrolytes: most covalent molecular substances such as sugar

and ethanol don’t produce ions when dissolved in solution
o C H O ⇄C H O
12 22 11(s) 12 22 11(aq)

Property Acids Bases

Litmus paper colour change Red Blue

Electrical conductivity Yes Yes

pH Less than 7 More than 7

Taste Sour Bitter

Feel Corrosive Slippery

Indicators
• Indicators are usually a weak acid or a base, that changes colour
depending on the pH of a substance.
• Indicators don’t sharply change colour, the will change colour over a
particular pH.

• A universal indicator is actually a mixture of several indicators. The

advantage of the universal indicator is that it displays a variety of colors
over the whole pH scale. This makes it possible to determine an
approximate pH of a solution over a range from 1-14.

Arrhenius Theories of Acids and Bases

Acid Base
An acid dissociates in water to ionise into ions. Also A base dissociates in water to produce hydroxide ions
produces H+ ions (protons) (OH-)

Eg: HCl(aq) à H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) NaOH(aq) à OH-(aq) + Na+(aq)

HNO3(aq) à H+(aq) + NO3-(aq) KOH(aq) à OH-(aq) + K+(aq)

Limitations: Only accounts for acids in aqueous Limitations: Only accounts for bases in aqueous
solutions solutions

Does not count for amphiprotic substances (acting as Does not count for amphiprotic substances (acting as
both acid or base) both acid or base)

Must have hydrogen in their structure Must have hydroxide in their structure

Bronsted Lowry Theories of Acid and Bases

Acid Base

An acid is a species that donates a proton (H+) A base is a species that accepts a proton (H+)

Eg: HB ⇌ H+ + B- B- + H+ ⇌ HB

HB is acting as an acid by donating a proton, H+ B- is acting as a base, by accepting a proton, H+

B- is the conjugate base of acid HB HB is the conjugate acid of base B-

Writing Acid-Base Reactions

As we use Bronsted-Lowry definition for acids and bases, when writing
equations for acids, you must show the waterin the equation.
Write an equation to illustrate the process occurring when 0.1 mol of hydrogen
bromide is mixed with 1L of water
HBr + H O à H O + Br
2 3
+ -

For strong bases, as they are dissociating, the water does not need to be
shown.
Write an equation to illustrate the process occurring when 0.1 mol of
barium hydroxide is mixed with 1L of water.
Ba(OH) à Ba + 2OH
2
2+ -

Types of Acids
Polyprotic Acid A polyprotic acid is used to describe MORE THAN 1
any acid that is capable of donating
more than 1 proton

Monoprotic Acid Monoprotic acids can only donate 1 HA à H+ + A-

proton HNO3 à H+ + NO3-

Diprotic Acid Diprotic acids can only donate 2 H2A à 2H+ + A-

protons H2SO4 à 2H+ + SO42-

Triprotic Acid Triprotic acids can only donate 3 H3A à 3H+ + A-

protons: H3PO4 à 3H+ PO43-

Hydrolysis of Salts
• A salt is an ionic compound containing a cation (not H ) and an anion +

(not OH or O ).
- 2-

• Dilute solutions will completely ionise salts into ions

Mg(NO ) à Mg
3 2(s)
2+
(aq) + 2NO -
3 (aq)

• Salt solutions can be acidic (strong acid vs weak base), basic (strong
base vs weak acid) or neutral (strong acid vs strong base).
• Soluble salts will dissociate in water.
• Produce H O = acidic
3
+

• Produce OH = basic -

o Strong acid + strong base = neutral salt

o Strong acid + weak base = acidic salt
o Weak acid + strong base = basic salt
o Weak acid + weak base = can be either depending on strength of
acid or base.
o Depending on the reaction, polyprotics can form either acidic or
basic solutions.
Extra Notes
2