STRATEGIES DEVELOPED BY LIVESTOCK FARMERS TO COPE WITH FEED

SCARCITY IN ENTEBBE MUNICIPALITY, WAKISO DISTRICT.

BY

SERUNJOGI DOUGLAS

REG NO: 19/U/0609

STUDENTS NO: 1900700609

[email protected]

ACADEMIC SUPERVISOR

DR. SENGOOBA ASUMAN

A RESEARCH REPORT SUBMITTED TO COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE,

ANIMAL RESOURCES AND BIOSECURITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR AWARD OF DEGREE OF BACHELOR IN ANIMAL
PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

2022

i
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this is my original work and has not been submitted for any academic award
in any University or Institution

SERUNJOGI DOUGLAS
Signature……………………………………………Date………………………………...…….

Approved by;
My supervisor
DR. SENGOOBA ASUMAN

Signature………………………………… Date…………………………………….

i
 DEDICATION

I dedicate this report to all my family members and friends who supported me during my
research.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank the almighty God who has granted me with a gift of life up to the end of my training.

I wish to acknowledge my academic supervisor, Dr. Sengooba for his effort, guidance and
support during supervision and may the almighty God reward him continuously.

I sincerely extend my gratitude to Mr. Luwaga Joseph and all his team for the support rendered
during data collection and the entire research process.

I extend my gratitude as well to all my friends and family members who are holding my candle
of success for their financial support, care, love and protection they gave me during my training.
They have laid for me a good foundation that I will always remember

God bless you all.

iii
LIST OF ACRONYMS

FAO – Food and Agricultural Organization.

NGO- Non-Governmental Organisation.

MAAIF – Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries.

UBOS – Uganda Bureau of Statistics.

UNBS – Uganda National Bureau of Standards.

UNDP - United Nations Development Program.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION..........................................................................................................................................i
DEDICATION............................................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..........................................................................................................................iii
LIST OF ACRONYMS..............................................................................................................................iv
LIST OF FIGURES...................................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................................................viii
ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................................ix
CHAPTER ONE..........................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Background..........................................................................................................................................1
1.2. Problem statement;...............................................................................................................................2
1.3. General objective..................................................................................................................................2
1.4. Specific objectives;...............................................................................................................................2
1.5. Hypothesis............................................................................................................................................2
1.6. Justification..........................................................................................................................................3
1.7. Significance of the study......................................................................................................................3
1.8. Scope of study......................................................................................................................................3
CHAPTER TWO.........................................................................................................................................4
LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................................................4
2.1. Global and regional trends in the livestock industry.............................................................................4
World population of farmed animals, 2016 estimates (faostat)....................................................................4
2.2. Livestock population trend: Uganda.....................................................................................................4
2.3. Livestock contribution to Uganda’s GDP.............................................................................................5
2.4. Livestock Types, Numbers and Ownership Demographics..................................................................5
2.4.1. Cattle: Types, Numbers, and Ownership Demographics Local and improved cattle:........................5
2.4.2. Goats: Types, Numbers and Ownership Demographics.....................................................................5

v
2.4.3. Sheep: types, numbers and ownership demographics........................................................................5
2.4.4. Pigs: types, numbers and ownership demographics...........................................................................6
2.4.5. Poultry: types, numbers and ownership demographics......................................................................6
2.5. Contribution of Livestock Keeping to Household Economy and Food Security...................................6
2.6. Feeding Practices and Feed Sources.....................................................................................................7
2.6.1. Types of Feed Fed to Livestock.........................................................................................................7
2.6.1.2. Goats and Sheep.............................................................................................................................7
2.6.1.3. Pigs.................................................................................................................................................8
2.6.1.4. Poultry............................................................................................................................................8
2.7. Feed scarcity in Urban and Peri-urban areas.........................................................................................8
2.8. Utilization of Market Crop Wastes as Animal Feed in Urban and Peri-Urban Livestock.....................9
Katongole (2011) stated that........................................................................................................................9
2.9. Farmers' constraints, objectives and achievements in smallholder dairy systems in Uganda................9
2.10. Assessment of Livestock Feed Resources, Feeding Practices and Coping Strategies to Feed Scarcity
in Agro Pastoral Production System in Itang District, Gambella, Ethiopia................................................10
2.11. Selling as a form of herd reduction...................................................................................................11
CHAPTER THREE...................................................................................................................................12
METHODS AND MATERIALS...............................................................................................................12
3.1. Description of the study area..............................................................................................................12
3.2. Study design.......................................................................................................................................13
3.3. Study population.................................................................................................................................13
3.4. Sample size.........................................................................................................................................13
3.5. Sampling technique............................................................................................................................14
3.6. Data management...............................................................................................................................14
3.7. Data analysis.......................................................................................................................................14
3.8. Ethical considerations.........................................................................................................................14
CHAPTER FOUR.....................................................................................................................................15
RESULTS.................................................................................................................................................15
4.1. Respondent characteristics..................................................................................................................15
4.2. Farm characteristics............................................................................................................................17
4.3. Constraints to livestock production....................................................................................................18
4.4. Feeds given to animals.......................................................................................................................21
4.5. Coping strategies to feed scarcity.......................................................................................................21

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CHAPTER FIVE.......................................................................................................................................24
DISCUSSION...........................................................................................................................................24
CHAPTER SIX.........................................................................................................................................27
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................................................................27
6.1. Conclusions........................................................................................................................................27
6.2. Recommendations..............................................................................................................................27
References.................................................................................................................................................28
Appendix...................................................................................................................................................33

vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1; map of Entebbe Municipality..................................................................................................12
Figure 4.1.1; proportion of females to males engaged in livestock keeping in Entebbe Municipality.......15
Figure 4.1.2; marital status of the farmers.................................................................................................16
Fig 4.1.3; level of education......................................................................................................................16

viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.2 Livestock numbers (thousand animals), 2013 – 2017..............................................................4
Table 4.2.1; animal type, average number of animals kept in Entebbe Municipality and percentage
ranking of the animal type as compared to other types..............................................................................17
Table 2; animal type and existent breeds in Entebbe Municipality............................................................17
Table 1: Constraints to cattle production in Entebbe Municipality............................................................18
Table 2; constraints to chicken farming in Entebbe Municipality..............................................................19
Table 3; constraints to piggery in Entebbe Municipality...........................................................................19
Table 4; constraints to goat farming in Entebbe Municipality...................................................................20
Table 4.4; major unconventional feed resources used to feed animals in Entebbe Municipality...............21
Table 5: coping strategies in cattle production..........................................................................................22
Table 6: coping strategies in chicken farming...........................................................................................22
Table 7: coping strategies in piggery.........................................................................................................23
Table 8: coping strategies in goat/sheep farming.......................................................................................23

ix
 ABSTRACT
Livestock keeping is increasingly becoming more popular in Entebbe Municipality. However,
lack of feed is a real challenge. The objective of this study was to identify and examine the
strategies developed by livestock farmers of Entebbe Municipality to cope with feed scarcity.

A total of 60 livestock farmers from Entebbe were interviewed using a structured questionnaire.
Chicken (64.6%) was the most common species, followed by goats (32.5%), cattle (1.5%) and
then pigs (1.4). Farm size was generally small both in terms of herd size and total landholding.

Cattle and goats farmers in Entebbe Municipality mentioned feed scarcity as their first major
constraint, while chicken and pig farmers had high cost of feeds. These farmers have developed
several strategies for coping with feed scarcity. Among the major coping strategies adopted
were: using crop/food wastes (43.5%), harvesting of forages growing naturally in open access
lands (25.9%), purchasing of feed ingredients in bulk (14.9%) changing of feed resources based
on availability and cost (12.6%) and reducing herd size (3.1%).

However, most of the coping strategies adopted were largely aimed at dealing with the perennial
challenge of feed scarcity on a day-by-day basis rather than dealing with it using sustainable and
long-term strategies and also this research was done during the dry season.

Hence, more research needs to be done to identify the long-term strategies like hay making or
silage making and if not found farmers should be taught these technologies through extension
education. Research should be carried out to identify the coping strategies in the wet season.

x
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background

Agriculture forms the base of Uganda’s economy, contributing 43% of the National Gross
Domestic Product (NGDP) and providing raw materials for the industrial sector. Livestock is an
integral part of the agricultural sector providing a renewable resource base for economic
development. Livestock, which provide the bulk of animal protein in the country, contributes
7.4% of the NGDP and 17% of the Agricultural Domestic Production. It is a major source of
income for the majority of the Ugandan rural population. Studies have shown that there is a great
potential for this contribution to increase. However, there are constraints limiting the exploitation
of this potential, among them, poor animal nutrition. (Animal-Feeds-Policy-September-2004.pdf)

Livestock keeping is increasingly becoming popular in of Entebbe Municipality. According to

Ishagi et al. (2002), it is an entrepreneurial response to the income growth of the city coupled
with the rapid human population growth and urbanization, which have seen an increase in the
consumer demand for livestock products (Nyapendi et al., 2004; Thornton, 2010). Additionally,
the growing urban poverty, lack of formal employment and the proximity to market have also
lured many into pursuing livestock production within and around Entebbe. According to Van
Veenhuizen (2006), proximity to markets is one of the special opportunities that a city provides
for farmers. If there is ready market for farm products, more households will go into production
to meet the market demand, hence, the visible increasing trend in livestock keeping in urban and
peri-urban areas of Entebbe.

However, feed scarcity is a major limiting factor (Ishagi et al., 2002; Katongole, 2009;
Katongole et al., 2011). The cultivation of fodder is almost impossible given the limitation of
space (Ishagi et al., 2002), while agro-industrial by-products and concentrate feeds are expensive
and therefore not an option for resource poor households. Even the crop/food wastes generated in
the various markets, hotels, restaurants, schools and homesteads as well as forages growing
naturally on open access lands (roadsides, undeveloped plots, wetlands/swamps etc.) have
become a commercial item, with enterprising people collecting and selling them to farmers

1
(Ishagi et al., 2002; Katongole et al., 2011). Under such circumstances, farmers are forced to
develop or adopt coping strategies.

The objective of this study was to identify and examine the strategies adopted by livestock
farmers in Entebbe to cope with feed scarcity.

1.2. Problem statement;

Livestock keeping is increasingly becoming more popular in Entebbe Municipality. However,
lack of feed is a real challenge. Inadequate feed supply in urban areas is due to many interacting
factors, which include among others land shortage, high cost of feeds, climate risks and poor
quality of feeds.

Under such circumstances, farmers are forced to develop or adopt coping strategies. However,
there is no documented information on the strategies to cope with feed scarcity in Entebbe
Municipality.

1.3. General objective

To identify and examine the strategies developed by livestock farmers of Entebbe Municipality
to cope with feed scarcity.

1.4. Specific objectives;

To establish the constraints faced by livestock farmers in rearing their animals.

To document the feeds used by livestock farmers to feed their animals.

To identify the strategies adopted by livestock farmers to cope with feed scarcity.

1.5. Hypothesis
Ho; There is no significant relationship between the coping strategies adopted by livestock
farmers in Entebbe Municipality and respondent characteristics or farm characteristics.

Ha; There is no significant relationship between the coping strategies adopted by livestock
farmers in Entebbe Municipality and respondent characteristics or farm characteristics.

2
1.6. Justification
The livestock sub-sector plays a key role in the socio-economic development of our country. It
provides food, employment, export revenue as well as income to the farmers and other
stakeholders. It is, thus, a major contributor to the government’s strategy for poverty eradication
and improving peoples; welfare as envisaged in the PEAP. (Animal-Feeds-Policy-September-
2004.pdf).

Feed scarcity is a major limiting factor (Ishagi et al., 2002; Katongole, 2009; Katongole et al.,
2011). The cultivation of fodder is almost impossible given the limitation of space (Ishagi et al.,
2002), while agro-industrial by-products and concentrate feeds are expensive and therefore not
an option for resource poor households.

1.7. Significance of the study.

The results of this study will provide an alternative to feeding livestock using the least costs
possible to ensure efficiency in production and also provide a solution to the rising feed costs due
to feed scarcity as a result of the changing climate.

1.8. Scope of study.

The study was carried out in Entebbe Municipality which consists of divisions A and B with the
following villages; Kiwafu, Lugonjo, Bugonga, Kigungu, Nakiwogo and Banga.

For a period of one month.

3
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Global and regional trends in the livestock industry.

The livestock industry employs 20% of the world’s population. About 60 % of rural households
in developing countries are engaged in livestock as crucial economic activity. Livestock accounts
for approx. 40 % of global agricultural output. Livestock products supply around 12.9 percent of
calories consumed worldwide and 20.3 percent in developed countries. Globally livestock supply
an estimated 27.9 percent of proteins consumed (47.8 percent in developed countries). (FAO,
2018).

World population of farmed animals, 2016 estimates (faostat)

• 1 billion pigs

• 2 billion small ruminants (goats, sheep)

• 1.4 billion cattle

• 199 million buffaloes

• 28 million camels

• 23 billions poultry

2.2. Livestock population trend: Uganda

Table 2.2 Livestock numbers (thousand animals), 2013 – 2017

Species 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Cattle 13,020 13,623 14,031 14,368 14,18
Sheep 3,937 3,842 3,842 4,198 4,44
Goats 14,433 14,011 15,312 15,725 16,03
Pigs 3,691 3,584 3,916 4,037 4,10
Poultry 43,396 44,698 46,039 46,291 47,57
Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF), and Uganda Bureau
of Statistics

4
2.3. Livestock contribution to Uganda’s GDP

Agriculture forms the base of Uganda’s economy, contributing 43% of the National Gross
Domestic Product (NGDP) and providing raw materials for the industrial sector. Livestock is an
integral part of the agricultural sector providing a renewable resource base for economic
development. Livestock, which provide the bulk of animal protein in the country, contributes
7.4% of the NGDP and 17% of the Agricultural Domestic Production. It is a major source of
income for the majority of the Ugandan rural population. Studies have shown that there is a great
potential for this contribution to increase. However, there are constraints limiting the exploitation
of this potential, among them, poor animal nutrition. (Animal-Feeds-Policy-September-2004.pdf)

2.4. Livestock Types, Numbers and Ownership Demographics.

In 1986-1987 the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industries, and Fisheries conducted an
agricultural sector survey on the numbers of cattle, pigs, sheep and goats in Kampala district. No
data were collected on poultry. The survey found that pigs were the most numerous livestock
followed by cattle and goats. A total of 5986 households i.e. 3.4 % of the households were found
to be dependent on livestock production, 48.9% of these were located in Nakawa division.

2.4.1. Cattle: Types, Numbers, and Ownership Demographics Local and improved cattle:
Local/ indigenous cattle breeds included the Ankole and Sanga, the exotic included Holstein,
Friesian and Jersey, and crosses were constituted of various degrees of local and exotic. Only
21.2% of the households kept local livestock as compared to 60.3% who kept improved cattle.

2.4.2. Goats: Types, Numbers and Ownership Demographics

About a third (26.0%) of the households surveyed kept local goats which were of the Mubende
breed, but only 3.4% (6 households) kept improved goats which were mostly crossed of the
Mubende breed, and Boer goats, or pure Boer or Toggenberg milk breeds.

2.4.3. Sheep: types, numbers and ownership demographics

Few households owned sheep, with only 3 households (2%) reporting ownership of improved
sheep, and 8 households (4.3%) owning local fat/ short tail East African sheep.

5
2.4.4. Pigs: types, numbers and ownership demographics.
14.13% of the households owned improved pigs that included large white, landrace and black
saddle back breeds, while 12.50% owned local pigs of non-descript breeds.

According to findings from the PRAs the investment and management costs for pigs were lower,
therefore women could afford pigs. Furthermore, the fact that they were smaller meant that they
were easier for women to handle. In addition, pigs could be raised close to the homestead. It was
also mentioned in the PRAs that Moslems and Seventh Day Adventists do not raise pigs as this
goes against their religious beliefs. There is also a general stigma against keeping pigs, as people
tend to think of them as dirty animals.

2.4.5. Poultry: types, numbers and ownership demographics

50 households (27.17%) owned improved poultry/ chicken that were either layers such as Rhode
Island Red, and broilers such as the Hubbard breed. Of the households that owned improved
poultry, 41.67% had layers, 14.58% had both layers and broilers, 41.66% had broilers, and only
2.08 % (n=1) kept layer cocks. 49 households (26.63%) kept local poultry of non-descript breeds
that included chicken, ducks and turkeys. (Ishagi.et al., 2003)

2.5. Contribution of Livestock Keeping to Household Economy and Food Security.

The contribution of incomes from livestock keeping can be assessed at micro and
macroeconomic levels. At the micro-economic level, it can be assessed in terms of contribution
to household welfare or economy. Where the household economy can be defined as the sum of
ways in which the household gets its income, its savings and asset holdings, and its consumption
of food and non-food items (Seaman et al. 2000). This study indicated that a significant 25% of
households surveyed depended on livestock production to provide their primary source of
income, and 38% relied on livestock production for their secondary source of income. The
population and housing census of 1991 indicated that 3.4% of households in Kampala City were
dependent on livestock production. 40% of the women household heads cited livestock keeping
as their primary activity, with 41% getting their main income from livestock keeping. (Isagi et
al., 2003)

6
2.6. Feeding Practices and Feed Sources
Among Kampala’s poor livestock keepers the main items used to feed livestock were grasses,
household waste, and some commercial feed. The use of these feeds varied in importance among
the different livestock. (Ishagi.et al., 2003)

2.6.1. Types of Feed Fed to Livestock

It was observed during the study that there are different varieties used by farmers. These include
the improved types and the wild or indigenous forms that grow by the roadside or at homesteads.
Improved grasses comprise grasses like Guatemala grass and Serratia sp. The legumes include
principally leguminous fodder trees like Luciana and grackle. The crop residues mainly
comprised of sweet potato vines. Household waste was mainly of raw food – banana and sweet
potato peelings, spoilt bananas or vegetables and spoilt foodstuffs considered unfit for human
consumption. (Ishagi.et al., 2003)

2.6.1.1. Cattle

The main feedstuffs fed to cattle in descending order of importance were elephant grass,
commercial feed (concentrates), improved grasses/legumes, crop residues, household wastes,
brewery wastes and salt lick as a supplement. All feeds were given in combination with one or
more of the others. In most cases the diet comprised a mixture of elephant grass/grazing or some
other pasture, banana peels and some concentrate especially if the animals were zero grazing.
The grasses, crop residues and foodstuff waste were obtained from home, the markets, schools /
institutions and / or restaurants.

2.6.1.2. Goats and Sheep

Goats and sheep were primarily fed of crop residues (banana and sweet potato peelings) and
some household waste as a supplementary feed. The rest of their food is made up of the grass
they eat while they are tethered or out grazing. Free range goats also scavenge rubbish heaps
for household waste. The main sources of feed for shoats are at home, the markets and waste
from the neighbours. Peels and other household waste from the neighbours for goats are often
free because small quantities are involved.

7
2.6.1.3. Pigs
Local Pigs are fed crop residues and household waste that included leftover food (unlike the
ruminants that are mainly given the pre-cooked waste, e.g. spoilt bits of potato, vegetables,
etc). They were also fed some elephant grass. Local pigs were also given spoilt or over ripe
fruit and vegetables. It was noted during the study that many farmers did not give their pigs
cooked swill. The piglets were often let free to run around and scrounge for whatever else they
could pick around to eat.

Improved pigs were fed elephant grass and household waste. At times farmers purchased
premixed concentrates (commercially manufactured feed). However most farmers preferred to
make their own blend of homemade concentrate by mixing maize bran, brewer’s waste, and
sunflower seed cake and anthill soil.

2.6.1.4. Poultry
A free-range system was used for local poultry allowing them to scavenge around the homestead
or neighbourhood for food. In addition they were given household waste (starchy staple and
vegetable leftovers; spoilt flour, cereals and legumes). The main sources of feed for local birds
are the homestead and sometimes neighbours through scavenging.

Exotic birds on the other hand were fed mainly commercial feeds that were either purchased
mixed or as separate ingredients then mixed at home by the farmer . The ingredients used were
similar to those in pig farming. However fish meal and mineral/vitamin supplements were
considered to be essential ingredients in poultry feed, unlike as in pig feed where they were non-
essential. Green leaves especially Amaranthus sp., yam leaves and Russian comfrey were fed to
layers to enhance yolk color and to keep the birds busy in order to avoid vices like pecking.
These items were grown at the homesteads. (Ishagi.et al., 2003)

2.7. Feed scarcity in Urban and Peri-urban areas.

According to Katongole (2012), livestock keeping is increasingly becoming popular in urban and
peri-urban areas. According to Ishagi et al. (2002), it is an entrepreneurial response to the income
growth of the city coupled with the rapid human population growth and urbanization, which have
seen an increase in the consumer demand for livestock products (Nyapendi et al., 2004;

8
Thornton, 2010). Additionally, the growing urban poverty, lack of formal employment and the
proximity to market have also lured many into pursuing livestock production within and around
Entebbe. According to Van Veenhuizen (2006), proximity to markets is one of the special
opportunities that a city provides for farmers. If there is ready market for farm products, more
households will go into production to meet the market demand, hence, the visible increasing
trend in livestock keeping in urban and peri-urban areas of Entebbe.

However, feed scarcity is a major limiting factor (Ishagi et al., 2002; Katongole, 2009;
Katongole et al., 2011). The cultivation of fodder is almost impossible given the limitation of
space (Ishagi et al., 2002), while agro-industrial by-products and concentrate feeds are expensive
and therefore not an option for resource poor households. Even the crop/food wastes generated in
the various markets, hotels, restaurants, schools and homesteads as well as forages growing
naturally on open access lands (roadsides, undeveloped plots, wetlands/swamps etc.) have
become a commercial item, with enterprising people collecting and selling them to farmers
(Ishagi et al., 2002; Katongole et al., 2011). Under such circumstances, farmers are forced to
develop or adopt coping strategies.

2.8. Utilization of Market Crop Wastes as Animal Feed in Urban and Peri-Urban Livestock
Production in Uganda

Katongole (2011) stated that nearly half of the animal farmers in urban and peri-urban areas of
Kampala have at some time used these wastes to feed animals. Banana peels were the most
commonly used, followed by cabbage leaves and sweet potato vines. Banana peels and sweet
potato vines were chiefly obtained at a fee, while wastes such as bean pods were entirely free.
The average distance from the market to the home was 10.3 km. Transportation costs,
contamination, lack of knowledge and the wastes not being free were the major challenges faced.

2.9. Farmers' constraints, objectives and achievements in smallholder dairy systems in

Uganda
A study carried out by (Nakiganda et al., 2006) revealed that;

Dairying is one of the ways farmers earn a living. It was introduced by NGOs and the Uganda
government to smallholder farmers. The NGOs involved in this work included: Send a cow,

9
Masaka Diocese Development Organization (MADDO), 'World Vision' and Heifer Project
International West Buganda. The introduction of a cow to the smallholder's farm was expected to
provide additional benefits such as a daily income from milk sales, milk for home consumption
and improved soil fertility through manure application. However, farmers encounter a lot of
problems in dairying. Brown (1979) revealed that farmers on transition to commercial farming
have many objectives that contribute to maximization of family satisfaction. Satisfaction is
increased by the benefits of farm output and decreased by the cost of sacrificing food, leisure,
and money or taking risks. Upton (1987) reports that the objective of profit maximization is
modified by other aspects such as getting adequate cash income in commercial farming and
adequate diet in subsistence farming. He further reveals that without these, neither the business
nor the family could survive to aspire to any other objectives. Akatugba-Ogisi's studies (1994) in
the Bendel states in Nigeria identified farmers' objectives as to: provide food for family from
own farms, provide for education of own children, strive to repay debts and avoid more, make
the most profit from farming, employ family members on own farms and arrange work so as to
have more hours off farm work. Upton (1996) revealed that a farmer can have difficulty to
achieve his goals and hence strives to minimize the extent of under achievement of the goals.
However all farmer's goals are not equally important to him so prioritising them indicates the
optimum choice of a particular farmer.

2.10. Assessment of Livestock Feed Resources, Feeding Practices and Coping Strategies to
Feed Scarcity in Agro Pastoral Production System in Itang District, Gambella, Ethiopia
A study done in Ethiopia by Deng Yen PY (2020) revealed that the seasonal feed shortage and
feed variability in quantity and quality are the major challenges affecting livestock productivity.
The cause of feed resource shortage was shortage of rain (40%) followed by overgrazing (27%),
flood (15%), over population (10%) and settlement of falata nomad tribe (8%).

The coping mechanism to feed scarcity was herd mobility, burning of range land and use of
fodder trees. Feed conservation in the form of hay as a copping mechanism for feed scarcity was
not practiced. The study recommends that Government and research institutions should create
Awareness on conservation of feed resource as hay at the time feed of abundance and encourage
agro pastoralist to practice proper utilization of available crop residue, Introduction of improved
forage technologies could help agro pastoralist to cope up with feed scarcity, Agro pastoralists

10
should be encouraged to adopt the best coping strategies that can deal with the challenge of feed
scarcity, and regional government with the concerned body shall adopt a policy that could limit
or stop the influx of falata nomads from north Sudan in to Gambella region.

2.11. Selling as a form of herd reduction

Selling was the major form of herd reduction reported by farmers in urban and peri-urban areas
of Entebbe. The other forms of herd reduction mentioned were relocating animals to the
countryside and slaughtering for family consumption. When livestock survival is threatened by
different stress factors (climate risks, feed scarcity, ill health etc.) destocking is the obvious first
action (Salem & Smith, 2008). However, destocking may represent an economic stress,
particularly when farmers are forced to sell off young and productive animals (Bailey et al.,
1999). Consequently, farmers should always destock profitably (Rothauge, 2000). Farmers
should not wait until the animals lose condition to sell them off. The best practice would be to
sell off the stock in good time (as soon as the farmer notices any indicators of any stress factor)
when the animals are still in a better marketable condition and can fetch a fair price.

Secondly, when farmers hold on to their livestock for too long they end up selling at a time when
every farmer is selling. The market gets saturated, which makes it much more difficult for
farmers to get a fair price (Campbell et al., 2000). The farmers interviewed in this study, still
clearly recalled what happened at the beginning of 2011 when Uganda was hit by a shortage of
maize bran (a major feed ingredient in chicken rations). Besides being scarce, maize bran prices
were reported to have increased by 200 % (Nantaba, 2011). The scarcity of maize bran was
attributed to the exportation of unprocessed maize to neighbouring countries, particularly Kenya
and South Sudan. Many farmers were forced to sell off their chickens (including immature ones)
to stave off losses. Oversupply forced the chicken market to hit record low prices, which made
farmers suffer huge losses.

11
 CHAPTER THREE
METHODS AND MATERIALS

3.1. Description of the study area.

Entebbe sits on the northern shores of Lake Victoria, Africa's largest lake. The town is situated
in Wakiso District, approximately 34 kilometres (21 mi) south of Kampala, Uganda's capital and
largest city.[7] The metropolis is located on a peninsula into Lake Victoria, covering a total area
of 56.2 square kilometres (21.7 sq mi), out of which 20 km2 (7.7 sq mi) is water. The coordinates
of Entebbe are:0°03'00.0"N, 32°27'36.0"E (Latitude:0.0500; Longitude:32.4600).
[8]
Neighborhoods within Entebbe City include Bugonga, Katabi, Nakiwogo, Nsamizi, Kitooro,
Lunnyo and Lugonjo.[9]

Figure 3.1; map of Entebbe Municipality.

Entebbe Municipality consists of division A and division B with villages like Kiwafu, Lugonjo,
Bugonga, Kigungu, Nakiwogo and Banga. With the help of the Assistant Veterrinary Officers of

12
both Division A and B, parishes were purposively selected based on the existence of livestock
production activities.

3.2. Study design

A questionnaire (objectives and structured) survey on farmers’ indigenous knowledge on the
nutritional quality of livestock feed resources in urban and peri-urban areas of Entebbe was used.

The data examined through a questionnaire included questions related to: respondent and farm
characteristics; constraints to livestock keeping; coping strategies to feed scarcity as well as
feeds used and feeding practices.

The respondent characteristics included gender, age, marital status, years of residing at the
current home, education level and whether one has ever undergone any livestock keeping
training.

Size of total landholding, herd characteristics (species composition, size and breeds) and
homestead ownership (whether one owns or rents) were the farm characteristics recorded. From
each selected household, the key person involved in the daily feeding of the livestock was
interviewed.

3.3. Study population

The study population consisted of households rearing livestock in these areas. Entebbe
Municipality consists of division A and division B with villages like Kiwafu, Lugonjo, Bugonga,
Kigungu, Nakiwogo and Banga. With the help of the Assistant Veterrinary Officers of both
Division A and B, parishes will be purposively selected based on the existence of livestock
production activities. From lists of all households rearing livestock (cattle, goats/sheep, pigs and
chickens) farmers were obtained to be interviewed.

3.4. Sample size.

Sample size was determined using sample size determination formula by Yamane (1967).

N
n=
1+ N ¿ ¿

13
Where n is the sample size, N is the accessible population of livestock farmers, e is the level of
precision.

Using a population of 60 farmers and a level of precision of 0.05,

60
n= 2
1+60 (0.05)

= 52 farmers.

Therefore, the sample size was 52 farmers.

3.5. Sampling technique.

Purposive sampling technique was used to select livestock farmers basing on criteria of
knowledge of nutritional quality of livestock feed resources.

3.6. Data management.

Collected data from questionnaires was written and summarized in counter books, cleaned and
input to excel.

3.7. Data analysis.

The data was analyzed using Microsoft excel 2007 and the SPSS 22.0 statistical package (2013).
The analysis included descriptive statistics (percentages and means), cross-tabulations and
Pearson Chi-square tests of association. Indices were also calculated to obtain ranking for
production constraints and coping strategies to feed scarcity.

3.8. Ethical considerations.

Approval of topic and proposal from COVAB. An introductory letter from the Dean, SVAR was
taken to the A.V.Os of Entebbe Municipality and approval by them obtained.

14
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS

4.1. Respondent characteristics

Of the 60 respondents interviewed, 51.7% were females. (fig. 4.1.1)

Figure 4.1.1; proportion of females to males engaged in livestock keeping in Entebbe

Municipality.

percentage

female
male

The average respondent age was 43.8 years, with about 63.3% of the respondents being 40 years
or older. Of the entire sample, 70% were married, 18.3% were single, and 11.7 % were widowed.
( fig 4.1.2)

15
Figure 4.1.2; marital status of the farmers.

percentage
80
70
60
50
percentage
40
30
20
10
0
married single widowed

43.3% of respondents had attained senior secondary education, 35% tertiary and 21.7% primary.
(fig 4.1.3)

Fig 4.1.3; level of education.

percentage

45.0
40.0
35.0
30.0 percentage
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
secondary primary tertiary

It was also observed that 53.3 % of the respondents had ever attended some kind of training in
livestock keeping. The majority (70%) of respondents had been residing at their current
homesteads for more than 10 years.

16
4.2. Farm characteristics

Table 4.2.1; animal type, average number of animals kept in Entebbe Municipality and
percentage ranking of the animal type as compared to other types.
Animal type Average number Percentage as compared to
others

chicken 244.4 64.6%

Goats/sheep 120.8 32.5%

cattle 5.5 1.5%

pigs 5.7 1.4%

Farm size was generally small both in terms of herd size and total landholding.

58.3 % of the respondents operated on 0.25 acres or less.

Table 2; animal type and existent breeds in Entebbe Municipality.

Animal type Breed

cattle Crosses of unidentified breeds with Fresians.

Indigenous( Ankole, Nganda)

Pigs Landrace, Large white, unidentified indigenous

breeds.

Goats Indigenous breeds( Mubende)

Boer goat

Crosses of exotic and unidentified local breeds

Chicken Local

Broilers, cruloilers and layers

The cattle were primarily kept under four rearing systems:

i. stall feeding/zero-grazing,
ii. tethering,

17
 iii. communal herding
iv. free-roaming.

4.3. Constraints to livestock production

Respondents were asked to identify major constraints to cattle, pig, goat/sheep, chicken and
rabbit production in Entebbe Municipality. Several constraints were mentioned (Tables 1, 2, 3, 4
and 5) of which feed scarcity, diseases, high cost of feeds and high cost of veterinary drugs were
the top ranked constraints. Pearson Chi-square tests of association indicated that there was a
significant relationship (χ2 = 44.76; P = 0.013) between constraints ranked as the first major
constraint and type of livestock species reared. Cattle, goats/sheep and rabbit farmers in Entebbe
mentioned feed scarcity as their first major constraint, while chicken and pig farmers had high
cost of feeds.

Table 1: Constraints to cattle production in Entebbe Municipality..

no. of
constraint responses %age Rank
counterfeit drugs 2 4 7
diseases and parasites 10 18 3
high labour costs 1 2 10
feed scarcity 15 27 1
water shortage 1 2 10
high feed costs 5 9 4
space limitation 4 7 5
lack of training 2 4 7
high drug costs 12 22 2
manual disposal
difficult 1 2 10
poor breeds 2 4 7

Table 2; constraints to chicken farming in Entebbe Municipality..

constraint no. of %age Rank

18
 responses

water shortage 1 1 12

high feed costs 24 22 1

feed scarcity 18 16 3

fake chick suppliers 1 1 12

fake chick breeds 6 6 6

diseases 23 21 2

high drug costs 10 9 5

limited market 15 14 4

high labour costs 4 4 8

ltd space 5 5 7

theft 3 3 9

no local chicken
breeders 1 1 12

manure disposal 1 1 12

Table 3; constraints to piggery in Entebbe Municipality.

no. of
constraint responses %age Rank
water shortage 3 3 8
high feed costs 22 23 1
feed scarcity 19 20 3
space limitation 3 3 8
few vets 1 1 10

19
 diseases 21 22 2
high drug costs 15 16 4
AI services of high
cost 1 1 10
limited market 5 5 6
theft 5 5 6
lack of training 1 1 10

Table 4; constraints to goat farming in Entebbe Municipality.

no. of
constraint responses %age Rank
lack of training 3 8 6
high feed costs 3 8 6
feed scarcity 11 28 1
conterfeit drugs 1 3 9
space limitation 4 10 4
dieases 7 18 2
high drug costs 6 15 3
few vets 2 5 8
poor breeds 2 5 8

Created Variablesa
Source Functi
Variable on New Variable Label
percentageb Rank Rpercent Rank of percentage
a. Mean rank of tied values is used for ties.
b. Ranks are in descending order.

20
4.4. Feeds given to animals
Farmers did not restrict themselves to conventional animal feeds, but made the most of any
locally available unconventional feed resource. Most of these unconventional feed resources may
apparently be poor in supplying the nutrients required for production, but they are the only feed
resources available. Banana peels, sweet potato vines and food leftovers were the most
commonly used.

Table 4.4; major unconventional feed resources used to feed animals in Entebbe Municipality.
Feed Percentage of response

cattle pigs chicken Goats/sheep

Sweet potato 13.5 26.7 0.0 35.7

peels

Food leftovers 0.0 90.2 4.5 25.0

Sweet potato 50 55.6 2.5 64.3

vines

Banana peels 100 64.2 8.4 85.8

Local brew 1.7 32.5 8.2 1.3

(malwa) waste

Jack fruit waste 9.6 10.5 0.0 6.8

4.5. Coping strategies to feed scarcity

Respondents were asked to identify major coping strategies to the constraint of feed scarcity in
Entebbe. Pearson Chi-square tests of association indicated that there was a significant
relationship (χ2 = 50.76; P < 0.001) between the identified major coping strategy and type of
livestock species reared.

The first major coping strategy for chicken farmers was purchase of feed ingredients and
concentrate in bulk while the rest had use of kitchen waste or crop refuse.

Pearson Chi-square tests of association showed that there was no significant relationship (P >
0.05) between the coping strategies adopted by livestock farmers in Entebbe Municipality and
respondent characteristics (gender, age, marital status, education level, whether one has ever
undergone any form of livestock keeping training and years of residing at the current home) or

21
farm characteristics (farming experience, whether one owns or rents the homestead, herd size
and size of total landholding). Some of the coping strategies were short-term, while others were
long-term, and the use of unconventional feed resources was a key component.

Table 5: coping strategies in cattle production

no. of
strategy responses %age Rank
Communal herding 4 7 7
Harvest natural forages 11 19 2
Grow forage/fodder on the available space on the
farm. 10 17 3
Use crop/food wastes 13 22 1
Rent land and grow fodder 0 0 8
Purchase forage 9 16 4
Conserve forage 7 12 5
Resort to free-roaming 4 7 7

Table 6: coping strategies in chicken farming

no. of
strategy responses %age Rank
Purchase concentrate feeds in bulk 15 21 1
Resort to free-roaming 11 15 4
Change feed resources based on availability and
cost 12 17 3
Use crop/food wastes 13 18 2
Harvest natural forages 7 10 5
Grow forages on the available space on the farm 3 4 7
Avoid feed wastage/ rationing 6 9 6
loans 1 1 9
reduce animal numbers 2 3 8

22
Table 7: coping strategies in piggery
no. of
strategy responses %age Rank
Change feed resources based on availability and
cost 12 15 3
Use crop/food wastes 30 39 1
Purchase concentrate feeds in bulk 13 17 2
Reduce herd size 4 5 6
Harvest natural forages 10 13 4
Grow fodder/forage on the available space on the
farm 9 12 5

Table 8: coping strategies in goat/sheep farming

no. of
strategy responses %age Rank
Communal herding 4 11 4
Harvest natural forages 9 24 2
Grow forage/fodder on the available space on the
farm. 5 13 3
Use crop/food wastes 12 32 1
Rent land and grow fodder 0 0 8
Purchase forage 3 8 6
Resort to free-roaming 3 8 6
Conserve forage 2 5 7

23
 CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION
The majority of the respondents were females. This result is in accordance with earlier studies
(Muwanga, 2001; Nabulo et al., 2004; Katongole et al., 2011) on urban agriculture in Kampala.
Muwanga (2001) estimated that 75 % of the persons involved in urban agriculture in Kampala
are women. This is no difference with Entebbe peri-urban and urban areas.

Cattle, and goats/sheep farmers in Entebbe mentioned feed scarcity as their first major
constraint, while chicken and pig farmers had high cost of feeds. This is not surprising because
chicken production and piggery largely depend on concentrate feeds, which are of high cost. In
comparison, cattle, goats/sheep and rabbit farmers have a wider choice in terms of
unconventional feed resources, which are relatively cheap.

Feed cost is often a major limiting factor in chicken production compared to the other livestock
species. According to Walker & Gordon (2003), feed alone accounts for over 70 % of the
variable costs of poultry production. This situation is accompanied by an increased competition
between humans and chickens for the primary feed ingredients (especially maize, soybeans and
fish), which makes them to be more scarce and expensive. Consequently, this has led to many of
the chicken farmers in urban and peri-urban areas of Entebbe to adopt feed cost-saving
mechanisms, particularly own-feed formulation and mixing.

Own-mixed feeds cost less than the commercial compound feeds, because feed manufacturers
raise the price of their feeds in order to be able to pay their workers, maintain the feed mill and
also make a profit, which is not the case when farmers mix their own feeds (Apantaku et al.,
2006). However, these own-mixed feeds have been reported to be nutritionally inadequate
(Kasule, 2012), hence, resulting into decreased production efficiencies.

Farmers perceived disease as the second major constraint to the production of all these livestock
species (cattle, pigs, goats/sheep and chickens). Thus, the present study has demonstrated that
there is need to intensify animal disease control strategies in urban and peri-urban areas of
Entebbe.

24
Farmers did not restrict themselves to conventional animal feeds, but made the most of any
locally available unconventional feed resource. Most of these unconventional feed resources may
apparently be poor in supplying the nutrients required for production, but they are the only feed
resources available. When smallholder farmers in developing countries are faced with limited
resource availability for feeding livestock they use whatever is locally available to them, at either
no or low cost (Jayasuriya, 2002). They do not select the basal diet according to the nutrient
requirements (Chermiti et al., 1996). These included cassava peelings, sweet potato vines,
brewery waste, banana peelings and jack fruit wastes.

Purchase of feed in bulk was ranked second most important strategy to feed scarcity among
poultry and piggery farmers. This is due to an incident that happened at the beginning of 2011
when Uganda was hit by a shortage of maize bran (a major feed ingredient in chicken and pig
rations). Besides being scarce, maize bran prices were reported to have increased by 200 %
(Nantaba, 2011). The scarcity of maize bran was attributed to the exportation of unprocessed
maize to neighbouring countries, particularly Kenya and South Sudan. Many farmers were
forced to sell off their chickens (including immature ones) to stave off losses. Oversupply forced
the chicken market to hit record low prices, which made farmers suffer huge losses. So, each
time chicken farmers predict a period of feed shortage; they purchase feed ingredients in bulk
and stock them for use during periods of scarcity. However, the strategy of purchasing feeds in
bulk has financial implications, hence, can only be adopted by farmers who are financially
strong. Nevertheless, buying in bulk saves money. Another major limitation to this coping
strategy is the lack of adequate storage facilities.

Although not among the top ranked coping strategies, purchasing of forage plays a role in
ensuring feed supply to cattle in urban and peri-urban areas of Entebbe. The bulk of the
purchased forage was from some enterprising people who harvest natural forages from open
access lands (roadsides, undeveloped plots, wetlands/swamps etc.) and sell to farmers. However,
there are concerns over the safety of forages harvested from open access lands. They are
associated with the risk of tick-borne diseases and parasites (Okuthe & Buyu, 2006; Rubaire-
Akiiki et al., 2006).

The practice of feeding animals on crop/food wastes was found to be a very important strategy
for coping with feed scarcity among farmers in urban and peri-urban areas of Entebbe and

25
ranked highest. However, most of these crop/food wastes are not obtained for free; some
enterprising people (waste pickers) collect and sell them to livestock farmers (Katongole et al.,
2011). These wastes are composed of by-products generated during crop/food production.
Katongole et al. / J. Agr. Rural Develop. Trop. Subtrop. 113 - 2 (2012) 165–174 171 (agricultural
residues after harvesting crops), processing/preparation (peelings, leaves and stalks),
marketing/distribution (market crop wastes) and consumption (food leftovers). However,
nutritional concerns (low palatability due to tannins and high fibre content) limit the inclusion of
banana peels at high levels in poultry diets (Sonaiya, 1995). Food leftovers are obtained from
homesteads, markets, restaurants/hotels, schools, food processing plants, waste dumpsites etc.

Sometimes farmers let their animals roam free as a strategy for coping with feed scarcity. This
was an important strategy among chicken farmers, particularly those rearing cockerel broilers
and local chickens. During day time the birds are allowed to roam freely close to the homestead
and they are confined during the night. The birds scavenge food leftovers, insects, worms, crop
residues, green forages and grains. One advantage with this system is that there is a general
preference for chicken products kept under free-range conditions, particularly eggs due to their
dark yellow yolks (Abdelqader et al., 2007). However, under free-roaming conditions, chickens
are exposed to various threats ranging from predation, theft, diseases and cold or heat stress
(Muchadeyi et al., 2004; Abdelqader et al., 2007).

26
 CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1. Conclusions.
This study shows that feed scarcity is a major constraint to livestock farming in Entebbe
Municipality.

In addition to commercial and own mixed feeds farmers have developed the use of
unconventional feeds which include banana peelings, sweet potato vines, brewery wastes,
cassava peels, food leftovers and many others.

Livestock farmers have adopted several strategies for coping with feed scarcity with changing of
feed resources based on availability and cost, purchasing of feed ingredients in bulk, using of
crop/food wastes, reducing herd size and harvesting of forages growing naturally in open access
lands as the major coping strategies.

6.2. Recommendations.
However, most of the coping strategies adopted were largely aimed at dealing with the perennial
challenge of feed scarcity on a day-by-day basis rather than dealing with it using sustainable and
long-term strategies .Hence, more research needs to be done to identify the long-term strategies
like hay making or silage making. Farmers should also be taught these technologies through
extension education.

This research was done during the dry season and therefore, there is need to research about
coping strategies to feed scarcity in the wet season in Entebbe Municipality.

More research should be carried out in Entebbe Municipality to identify animal numbers, feeding
system, what they feed and more strategies to feed scarcity. And this should be properly
documented.

There is need for research about coping strategies to feed scarcity in the entire Wakiso District
with Municipalities like Kira without any documentated information.

27
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 Appendix

Questionnaire

Research Topic: Strategies developed by livestock farmers to cope with feed scarcity in
urban and peri-urban parts of Entebbe Municipality.

Dear Participants.

I am inviting you to participate in this research by completing the following survey

questionnaires. This research paper aims to know strategies developed by livestock farmers to
cope with feed scarcity in urban and peri-urban parts of Entebbe Municipality.

The following survey questionnaire will take approximately 5-7 minutes to complete. Advance,
thank you for taking your time to assist with this research. Under no circumstances are you
obliged to answer any of the questions; however, pay your all-out effort to assist me in
completing my research and enhancing my understanding of this research focus. The data
collected will remain confidential and used solely for this research paper.
Sincerely,

Name: SERUNJOGI DOUGLAS

Final Year Student,

Bachelor of Animal Production Technology and ManagementCollege of Veterinary Medicine,

Animal Resources and Biosecurity.

Makerere University

Supervisor: Dr. Sengooba Asuman

33
SECTION A: RESPONDENT CHARACTERISTICS

Gender…………………………………………………………

Age…………………………………………………………….

Marital status………………………………………………….

Area of residence……………………………………………….

Years of residing at the current home………………………….

Division……………………………………………………….

Education level…………………………………………………
Have you ever undergone any livestock keeping training?

…………………………………………………………….

SECTION B: FARM CHARACTERISTICS

Size of total landholding
a) above 0.25 acres
b) between 0.125 and 0.25 acres
c) between 0.0625 and 0.125 acres
d) 0.0625 acres or less

Herd characteristics

Species Size (how many) Breeds

Cattle

34
 Goats/ sheep

Chicken

Pigs

Farming systems used:

a) Stall feeding/zero-grazing
b) Tethering
c) Communal herding
d) Free-range

Homestead ownership (whether one owns or rents)

………………………………………………………………………….

SECTION C: CONSTRAINTS TO LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

Cattle
production

Poultry

35
 Goat/sheep
production

Piggery

SECTION D: COPING STRATEGIES TO FEED SCARCITY.

Cattle
production

Chicken
farming

Goat/sheep
production

Piggery

– – End of Survey Questionnaire – –

Thank you for answering.

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