WOLDIA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF VETERINARY
MEDICINE

MODULE FOR EXIT EXAM

PREPARATION
THEMATIC AREA: Veterinary Public Health & Epidemiology
COURSES INCLUDED
COURSE NAME COMPILED BY
Veterinary Public Health I Dr. Solomon Tsegaye
Veterinary Public Health II Dr. Ebrahim Oumer
Veterinary Epidemiology Dr. Shiret Belete
Biostatistics and Research Methodology Dr. Ashenafi Damtew
Veterinary Preventive Medicine Simegn Legesse
Animal Health Extension & Pastoralism Dr. Ashenafi Damtew

March, 2023
Mersa, Ethiopia

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 VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH I (VPH I)
Compiled by: Solomon Tsegaye (DVM, MVSc, Associate Professor)

Course objectives
By the end of this module, you will be able to:
 Define the objectives and principles of food hygiene
 List the sources of contamination of foods
 Mention the microbes responsible for the spoilage of foods
 Put judgments of antemortem and postmortem inspection
 Enumerate the principles, benefits and pre-requisites of HACCP
 Assess the application of HACCP in food establishments

1. INTRODUCTION

Veterinary public health is shortly described as the human aspect of veterinary medicine.
Veterinary science contributes to human health by promoting the health of animals, by
promoting animal health, the quality and quantity of animal products is enhanced.

Definitions of terms
Veterinary Public Health: is the contributions to the complete physical,
mental and social well being of humans through an understanding and
application of veterinary medicine science.
Zoonoses are defined as those diseases and infections which are transmitted
between animals and humans and vice versa.
Food hygiene is defined as all measures necessary to ensure the safety,
soundness and wholesomeness of food at all stages from its growth,
production or manufacture up to its final consumption.
A spoiled food is simply a food that is unacceptable to a consumer for
reasons of smell, taste, appearance, texture or the presence of foreign
bodies.
Rigor Mortis: a condition in which muscle is converted to meat

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2. MICROORGANISMS IN FOOD

Intentionally added:- causes fermentation. Eg: Application of starter cultures in cheese production
and Yeast for bread. Pathogens:- cause food borne infections and intoxications in humans and animals.
Eg: Salmonella, E. coli, Boltulism, Fungus on injera (‘Shagata’)

SOURCES/TYPES OF FOOD CONTAMINATION

1. Primary Contamination
 Infected animals
 Fecal pollution from infected animals

2. Secondary Contamination comes from infected humans, other animals, fomites or feed
additives, water, sewage, soil, plants

Microorganisms in the food can have two effects: -

1. Food Spoilage
2. Food borne infections and intoxications

Food spoilage can occur due to:

1. Physico-chemical factors: this could be due to autolysis or weather condition. Eg. If we
expose meat containing excess fat to sun, there will be rancidity because of different chemical
reactions.
2. Microbial factors: this could be due to microbial enzymes like protinase, lipase,
phosphatase, carboxylase and so on.
3. Biological factors: includes sexual odor and unpleasant odor from feed.

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The major reasons for food being rejected as spoiled are:
Organoleptic changes (appearance, color, flavor including taste and smell, change in
consistency for example from semisolid to liquid)
Chemical changes in food. The best example is the chemical oxidation of fats produced
rancidity (oxidative rancidity).
Physical damage
Ripening. Overripe fruits can be considered as spoiled.
Presence of foreign bodies.
Food spoilage is confirmed by 1. Detection of food metabolites and
bacterial end products (toxins). Eg detection of NH3, H2S, methyl and so on. 2. Detection
of other products like volatile fatty acids and free amino acids.

is defined as flesh of animals used as food. It includes the skeletal muscles and edible
offal such as liver, heart, kidney and the tongues.

Meat Quality
It is used to describe the overall meat characteristics including physical, chemical,
morphological, biochemical, biological, hygiene, nutritional & culinary properties.
Factors influencing meat quality are animal husbandry (nutrition, hygiene); breed; disease
control; pre-slaughter care & slaughtering methods
The quality of meat and meat products is defined by palatability includes Texture,
Consistency, Juiciness and Proportion of lean to fat; Freshness; Absence of pathogens

The criteria used in evaluating the eating quality of meat includes the following:
1. Perceptible meat qualities: include: Color, Smell and Taste, Texture & consistency
(Tenderness & Juiciness)
Water holding capacity, Shear force, Drip loss, pH,
Collagen content, Protein solubility, Fat binding capacity, Color (Myoglobin & haemoglobin
are the most important pigments of meat).
 The natural color of fresh meat, except poultry, is dark red and this is due to the muscle
pigment myoglobin.
 When fresh meat is exposed to air, it becomes bright red (oxymyglobin).
 When fresh meat loses its freshness, its color turns first to brown gray, and later on to
green. This is due to oxidation of mygologbin to metmyoglobin.
 Metmyglobin increases when meat is exposed to salt and light.

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Texture and consistency (tenderness and juiciness)
Meat sold to consumers should be tender and juicy.
Juiciness has 2 organoleptic components.
 The first is its impression of wetness during chewing.
 The second is the stimulating of fat on salivation. Juiciness is due to the presence of inter
muscular fat in meat.
Meat tenderness varies according to species. Lamb, pork and poultry are tender, but beef is
tough. Tenderness denotes the coarsens or the smoothness of meat muscle to the teeth.
Factors influencing meat tenderness
1. Contractile state of muscles
 Contracted muscles have greater overlap of the thick & thin filaments whereas relaxed
(stretched) muscles have a minimal amount of overlap.
 Tender loin is an example of muscles that is stretched during PM and is therefore very
tender.
2. Degradation state of muscles: The degenerative state of muscles involves the PM
glycolytic enzymes.

 As animals age increases, the amount of connective tissues, (collagen) and the degree of
cross-linkage increases. The amount of and solubility of connective tissue generally
influences the tenderness of muscles.

 The amount and distribution of fat in muscle also influences tenderness.

 Fat is thought to function as a lubricant on the teeth or in the mouth and reduces the
mount of frictional force.
 Marbling deposits help to stretch connective tissues making them thinner.
Water binding capacity
 The ability of meat to bind its own water or under external influence, such pressure and
heat to bind added waster is known as its water binding or water holding capacity.
 In other words, it is property of meat to retain water (its own 75%) and during
subsequent operation involving addition of water into meat products.
 Water binding capacity is influenced by pH. When pH falls, water binding capacity
decreases. i.e. Water is lost due to low PH, which changes the osmotic pressure.
 Meat loses water by Evaporation, Drip and during cooking.
 Importance of gain/loss of water include it affects carcass weight, economics, tenderness,
juiciness, firmness and appearance.

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Qualitative changes in meat
 Rigor Mortis: a condition in which muscle is converted to meat. Rigor mortis can be
defined as the stiffening of the skeletal muscles after slaughter. It is characterized by
hardening and contraction of the voluntary muscles, stiffening of the joints, and loss of
transparency of the top surface of the meat. As the post mortem glycolysis proceeds, muscle
becomes in extensible. This stiffening is known as rigor mortis.
 Time taken to reach the ultimate pH of 5.6 in pigs is 4-8 hours, in sheep 12-24 hours and]
in beef 24-48 hours. If rigor mortis enters quickly, poor quality meat is produced. Muscle
becomes pale in color, soft to the touch & drips. This leads to pale soft exudative (PSE) meat.
 Rigor mortis also leads to toughening of meat, dark firm dry (DFD) meat & the shelf life
of the meat is shortened.
Factors influencing Rigor mortis
i. Intrinsic factors
 Species: - pork takes longer time to stiffen than beef.
 Type of muscle: - Thick muscles undergo rigor faster than thin muscles.
 Health status
 Muscular activity (Exercise): - Increased exercise just before slaughter accelerates rigor
mortis due to high lactic acid formation from glycogen.
 Stress
 Nutritional status
ii. Extrinsic factors : -two factors are considered here
 Environmental temperature: - high temperature accelerates or enhances while low
temperature retards rigor mortis.
 Administration of drugs
 Well nourished and active muscles undergo rigor first. Rigor commences at the head to
the neck muscles and extends backward and then to the limbs.
 Rigor appears 9-12 hours after slaughter, Maximum rigidity is achieved after 24
hours.
Pale Soft and Exudative (PSE) meat
 Fast rate of post mortem glcolysis results in rapid fall of pH that leads to protein
denaturation especially denaturation of sarcoplamic protein. The condition reduces the water
binding capacity of the meat and consequently in pale coloration of the meat. PSE is
influenced by genetic, gender, season, pre slaughter handling.
Dark Firm Dry (DFD) meat
 The meat becomes dark in color, firm to the touch and looks dry on the surface.
 Pre slaughter stress like excessive exercise before slaughter slows the rate of post
mortem glycolysis due to depletion of glycogen.

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 Dark color is due to partial conversion of myglobin to metmyglobin.

Methods of Transport
1. On hoof (Trekking)
Advantages: Cheap, no expense on fuel and no purchase of vehicles.
Disadvantages: -
: - It takes longer time to reach to destination
: - Grazing & watering should be provided on the way
: - Loss of body weight
: - High rate of mortality
: - Animals are also exposed to bad weather condition and disease as they pass through
different regions
: - The animals can also spread disease on their way
2. By road motor vehicle and rail transport
Advantages: Rapid so that there is protection of animals from unfavorable weather like rain.
Disadvantages: High investment cost (vehicle purchase, fuel, maintenance…)
3. On ship
4. By air
Transport of livestock is undoubtedly the most stressful and injurious stage in the chain of
operations between farm and slaughterhouse and contributes significantly to poor animal
welfare and loss of production.
Vehicle used for the transport of slaughter livestock should: -
 Have adequate ventilation
 Have a non-slip floor with proper drainage
 Provide protection from the sun & rain, particularly for pigs
 The surfaces of the sides should be smooth
 There should be no protrusions or sharp edges
 Ventilation
 Transport vehicles should never be totally enclosed, as lack of ventilation will cause
undue stress and even suffocation, particularly if the weather is hot.
 Poor ventilation may cause accumulation of exhaust fumes in road vehicles with
subsequent poisoning.
 Pigs are particularly susceptible to excessive heat, poor air circulation, high humidity and
respiratory stress.
 Well-ventilated vehicles are necessary. The free flow of air at floor level is important to
facilitate removal of ammonia from the urine.

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Floors
 Non-slip floors in all vehicles are necessary to reduce the risk of animals falling.
 A grid of cross slating made from wood or metal is suitable. The grid can be removable,
so the vehicle can be used for other purposes.
 Broken floors will cause leg and other injuries.
 Vehicle floors should be level with off-loading platforms, otherwise animals will injure
themselves climbing off or be manhandled in order to remove them.
Floor space
 Livestock require sufficient floor space so that they can stand comfortably without being
overcrowded.
 Overloading results in injuries or even death of livestock.
 Allowances should be made for breed and body size.
 If the floor area is too large for the number of animals, partitions should be used to avoid
animals being thrown about.
Sides
 The sides of vehicles should be high enough to prevent animals, particularly pigs, from
jumping out and injuring themselves.
 Insides could also be padded at hip level with, for example, old tyres to reduce bruising
of animals.
 Also there should be no gaps through which a leg might protrude and be broken.
Roof
 A roof is not necessary on a transport vehicle for bovines and small ruminants provided
the animals are not exposed for hours in the hot sun.
 Vehicles for pigs should have roofs unless the pigs are to be transported in the early
morning or late evening.
Poultry should be protected from sun and rain. Transporting in cages or crates will
protect them from physical injury. They should be large enough to allow all the birds to sit
down and move their heads freely. Ventilation should be adequate.
Adverse Effects of transportation
1. Bruising: perhaps the most insidious and significant production waste in the meat industry
2. Stress: leading to DFD and PSE meat
3. Injuries: broken legs, horns
4. Body weight loss: results from depletion of glycogen, mobilization of fat and protein and
lack of feed and water.
5. Trampling: this occurs when animals go down due to s slippery floors or overcrowding.
6. Suffocation: this usually follows on trampling
7. Heart failure: occurs mostly in pigs when overfed prior to loading and transportation

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8. Heat stroke: Pigs are susceptible to high environment temperatures and humidity
9. Sun burn: exposure to sun affects pigs seriously
10. Bloat: restraining ruminants or tying their feet without turning them will cause bloat
11. Poisoning: animals can die from plant poisoning during trekking on hoof
12. Predation: unguarded animals moving on the hoof may be attacked
13. Dehydration: animals subject to long distance travel without proper watering will suffer
weight loss and may die
14. Fighting: this occurs mostly when a vehicle loaded among horned animals.
Bruising and injury
Causes of Bruise
 Rough and careless handling of the animals (physical blow by a stick or stone, …)
 Poor design and construction of lairages and crushes (narrow gates of doors…)
 Poor vehicle design (absence of ramps for loading and unloading)
Recognizing the age of Bruise
Basis for recognizing age of bruise is change in color and consistency: -

Pre Slaughter Care of Animals

1. Resting
 It is important that animals arriving at the slaughterhouse are given an adequate period of
rest before slaughter.
 Without this resting period the keeping quality of the carcasses may be lowered due to: -
 The incomplete development of acidity (pH) of the meat
 Bacteria penetrating the intestinal barrier in the fatigued animal.
 Animal which has not had an adequate period of rest does not bleed well. This is a factor
which also lowers the keeping quality as the blood retained in the meat is an excellent
medium for the growth of bacteria.
2. Watering
It is important that animals are given ample drinking water during the resting period prior to
slaughter. This serves: to lower the bacterial load in the intestine, to facilitate skinning, to
facilitate stunning
3. Feeding
 If slaughter takes place within 12h of arrival at the slaughterhouse there is no need to
feed the animals.

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3. Inspecting food animal products

Inspection refers to examination of meat and other products for abnormalities and diseases. A
proper inspection service consists of a veterinary examination of the live animal (ante-mortem
inspection), and examination of the carcass and offal (post-mortem inspection) and animal
products, where necessary, laboratory tests of body tissues and fluids.
Judgment (decision) categories at ante-mortem inspection:
 Approved for slaughter without any restriction: This judgment is passed, if

 No evidence of disease is noted.

 Condemned for slaughter: This decision is made

 If specific contagious diseases or zoonotic diseases have been detected

 If the certificate accompanying the animal reveals the information that the animal has
been treated with antibiotics.

 Emaciated animals, & those animals carrying toxic residues. Immature and weak

 Slaughter authorized under special precautions: This judgment is passed

 If the animal is suspected to have been infected with noticeable disease. Such animal is
slaughtered in a separate section of the slaughterhouse or at the end of the slaughtering of
healthy animals.
 Authorization for slaughter delayed: This judgment is passed
 If the period of rest has not been maintained and
 Animal affected by a condition, which temporarily limits the fitness of meat for human
consumption.
 Emergency slaughter ordered: This judgment is passed
If the animal is affected by a condition, which does not affect the quality of meat and the
public health. Such condition includes fracture of limbs, pelvis or ribs, extensive bruising,
dystocia, transport tetany, pregnancy toxaemia in ewes, tympanitis, generalized mastitis,
asphyxia and obstruction of the esophagus
This judgment is passed for 2 reasons:
>To relieve the animal from suffering and
> To save economic loss from death of the animal
NOTICE: Emergency slaughter should not be confused with causality slaughter refers to the
slaughter of animal suffering from chronic illness e.g. milk fever, obturator paralysis.
 judgment on emergency slaughtered carcass:
The carcass needs to be totally condemned, if

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 The animal has died before slaughtering
 The carcass is not accompanied with visceral organs and presented for inspection
 The carcass reveals abnormal odor.
 Repetition of ante-mortem inspection:
Ante-mortem inspection shall be repeated, if
 the slaughter has not been effected within 24hrs
 Additional information or diagnostic test are required
 The animal reveals obscure dubious clinical signs during the initial ante-mortem inspection.
 Postponing the slaughter:

 The slaughter of the animal may be postponed, if curable disease is diagnosed

 The animal is found in stage of late pregnancy

 The animal has been found treated with drugs, which may affect the consumer.

Post-mortem inspections:
Post-mortem inspections refers to examination of the carcass and associated organs after
slaughtering to detect and eliminate abnormalities including contamination to ensure only
meat fit for human consumption is passed for food.
Decisions at post-mortem inspection:
 approved for human consumption: This judgment is passed
 When no disease or abnormal condition or residues are detected
 If the slaughter operation has been performed in hygienic manner
 Totally condemned: if one or more of the following conditions are met
 If the food animal is infected with infectious, contagious disease or zoonotic disease.
 If residues beyond the normal limit is detected
 If there is severe organoleptic deviation from normal meat
 The meat has been conditionally approved for human consumption, but this has not been
treated by heat or cold.
 Partially condemned for human consumption: This judgment is passed,
 If abnormalities or defects are encountered in certain parts of the organ or carcass. .
 Conditionally approved for human consumption: This judgment is passed,
 If the carcass or organ poses hazards to the public or animal health. But the hazard can be
eliminated through proper treatment
 Inferior meat
 If the meat is below accepted standard, but does not pose public hazard when consumed.

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 Approved for human consumption with distribution restricted to limed areas: The
judgment is passed, if
 The animal originated from an area where there is an outbreak of disease and
slaughtering has been recommended to contain the disease in that area.
 The animal comes from quarantine stations.
 Detained: carcass may be detained for further inspection under
 Slight discoloration e.g. as in the case of jaundice
 If chemical, toxicological or microbiological examination is required.

THE HACCP SYSTEM

HACCP is a system that should lead to the production of microbiologically safe foods by
analyzing for the hazards of raw materials—those that may appear throughout processing and
those that may occur from consumer abuse.
Definitions of terms
Control point: Any point in a specific food system where loss of control does not lead to an
Unacceptable health risk.
Critical control point (CCP): Any point or procedure in a food system where control can be
exercised and a hazard can be minimized or prevented.
Critical limit: One or more prescribed tolerances that must be met to ensure that a CCP
effectively controls a microbiological health hazard.
CCP decision tree: A sequence of questions to assist in determining whether a control point is
a CCP.
Corrective action: Procedures followed when a deviation occurs.
Deviation: Failure to meet a required critical limit for a CCP.
HACCP plan: The written document that delineates the formal procedures to be followed in
accordance with these general principles.
Hazard: Any biological, chemical, or physical property that may cause an unacceptable
consumer health risk (unacceptable contamination, toxin levels, growth, and/ or survival of
undesirable organisms).
Monitoring: A planned sequence of observations or measurements of critical limits designed
to produce an accurate record and intended to ensure that the critical limit maintains product
safety.
Validation: That element of verification focused on collecting and evaluating scientific and
technical information to determine whether the HACCP plan, when properly implemented,
will effectively control the hazards.
Verification: Methods, procedures, and tests used to determine whether the HACCP system is
in compliance with the HACCP plan.

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HACCP Principles

Principle 1: Assess Hazards and Risks

Hazards and risks may be assessed for individual food ingredients from the flow diagram or
by ranking the finished food product by assigning to it a hazard rating from A through F.
Principle 2: Determine CCP(s)
It is recognized that there are two types of CCPs: CCPl, to ensure control of a hazard, and
CCP2, to minimize a hazard. Typical of CCPs are the following:
• Heat process steps where time-temperature relations must be maintained to destroy given
pathogens
• Freezing and time to freezing before pathogens can multiply
• The maintenance of pH of a food product at a level that prevents growth of pathogens
• Employee hygiene
Principle 3: Establish Critical Limits
A critical limit is one or more prescribed tolerances that must be met to ensure that a CCP
effectively controls a microbiological hazard. This could mean keeping refrigeration
temperatures within a certain specific and narrow range or making sure that a certain
minimum destructive temperature is achieved and maintained long enough to effect pathogen
destruction.
Principle 4: Establish Procedures to Monitor CCPs
The monitoring of a CCP involves the scheduled testing or observation of a CCP and its
limits; monitoring results must be documented. If, for example, the temperature for a certain
process step should not exceed 40 oC, a chart recorder may be installed. Microbial analyses
are not used to monitor since too much time is required to obtain results. Physical and
chemical parameters such as time, pH, temperature, and water activity can be quickly
determined and results obtained immediately.
Principle 5: Establish Corrective Actions
Establish corrective actions to be taken when deviations occur in CCP monitoring. The
actions taken must eliminate the hazard that was created by deviation from the plan. If a
product is involved that may be unsafe as a result of the deviation, it must be removed.
Although the actions taken may vary widely, in general they must be shown to bring the CCP
under control.
Principle 6: Establish Procedures for Verification
Establish procedures for verification that the HACCP system is working correctly.
Verification consists of methods, procedures, and tests used to determine that the system is in
compliance with the plan. Verification confirms that all hazards were identified in the
HACCP plan when it was developed, and verification measures may include compliance with

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a set of established microbiological criteria when established. Verification activities include
the establishment of verification inspection schedules, including review of the HACCP plan,
CCP records, deviations, random sample collection and analysis, and written records of
verification inspections. Verification inspection reports should include the designation of
persons responsible for administering and updating the HACCP plan, direct monitoring of
CCP data while in operation, certification that monitoring equipment is properly calibrated,
and deviation procedures employed.
Principle 7: Establish Effective Record keeping Systems
Establish effective recordkeeping systems to document the HACCP plan. The HACCP plan
must be on file at the food establishment and must be made available to official inspectors
upon request. Forms for recording and documenting the system may be developed, or
standard forms may be used with necessary modifications. Typically, these may be forms that
are completed on a regular basis and filed away. The forms should provide documentation for
all ingredients, processing steps, packaging, storage, and distribution.

Application of HACCP in meat production

Take the following steps in processing meat: receiving (step 1) grinding (step 2) mixing
(step 3)  forming (step 4)  cooking (step 5)  freezing (step 6)  boxing (step 7) 
distributing (step 8) reheating (step 9) serving (step 10)
This section deals with an application of the seven HACCP principles to the manufacture of
frozen, cooked beef patties.

Principle 1—Hazards and Risks

Raw meat is a sensitive ingredient and the cooked product is subject to recontamination after
processing and during distribution.

Principle 2—CCPs
An important concern about step 1 is the overall condition of the beef carcasses or cuts. The
comments below are based on the assumption that the beef has been produced and handled
under good manufacturing practice. Step 5 is the indisputable CCPl, since it can eliminate the
hazards. CCP2s may be assigned to steps 6 and 8, and possibly to step 7.
Principle 3—Critical Limits
Temperature is the critical parameter from steps 1 to 9, and it consists of proper refrigeration
temperature in steps 1-4; proper cooking temperature in step 5; freezing in steps 6-8; and

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heating in step 9.The overall objective is to keep the fresh beef at or below 40oF at all times,
cook patties to 160oF, freeze to -20oF, and store at the same temperature.
Principle 4—Monitoring HACCP
Use chart recorders for steps 2-4, use thermometers for steps 5 and 6, and temperature
recorders for step 8.
Principle 5—Corrective Actions
These refer to deviations from critical limits identified during monitoring of CCPs. Specific
corrective actions to be taken should be clearly spelled out. For example, if the target
temperature in step 5 is not reached, will the batch be discarded, reprocessed, or assigned to
another use?
Principle 6—Verification
Overall, this is an assessment of how effective the HACCP system is performing. Typically,
some microbial analyses are in order, for example, were all relevant pathogens destroyed
instep 5? Have the products in retail stores been contaminated after being cooked?
Principle 7—Record keeping
This should be done by product lot number in such way that records are available to verify the
events in steps 2-A. Where room temperatures are involved, chart recorder tracings should be
kept. Cooking is the most important CCP for this product (CCPl), followed by chilling and
prevention of re-contamination after cooking. The cooking temperature should reach 145°F or
otherwise be sufficient to effect a 4-log cycle reduction of Listeria monocytogenes. This will
not destroy Clostridium perfringens spores, and their germination and growth must be
controlled by proper chilling and storage.

VPH I EXCERCISE
I. CHOOSE THE CORRECT ANSWER
1. ________ is a precursors of prostaglandin useful in a reproduction?
A. Fatty acid B. Amino acid
C. Glycogen D. Troponin
2. Which one is a perceptible meat quality?
A. Drip loss B. pH
C. Texture D. Collagen content
3. One can be Intentionally added for fermentation.
A. Salmonella B. Yeast
C. E. coli D. All
4. Which one is a primary food contaminant?
A. Fomites B. Rodents
C. Infected humans D. Infected animals
5. One of the following is a chemical change in a spoiled food.
A. Rancidity B. Flavour
C. Ripening D. Consistency
6. Which one of the following is known as marbling fat?

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A. Subcutaneous B. Intermuscular
C. Intramuscular fat D. All
7. All are criteria for animals not to be allowed for slaughter except_______?
A. Noticeable disease B. Emaciated animals
C. Immature animals D. Zoonotic disease
8. ______ is a judgment made to relieve pain and to avoid economic loss?
A. Postponding slaughter B. Delaying slaughter C. Emergency slaughter
D. Detained
9. If residue beyond the normal limit is detected during postmortem inspection, the judgment is
______?
A. Totally condemn B. Partially condemn C. Conditionally approved D. detained
10. If an animal skin is cut and bleeding occur due to sharp edge of a car during transportation, you
register the case as _________
A. Swelling B. Bruise
C. Injury D. A and B
11. ______ occurs when animals go down due to slippery floors during transportation.
A. Suffocation B. Bloat
C. Trampling D. A and C
12. A roof is necessary on a transport vehicle for bovine and small ruminants of 30 minutes drive to
the abattoir.
A. True B. False
13. During inspection, if you find a lung with 2-small inner, 2-small outer and 1-caudal lobe; what
could be the animal with this lung?
A. Ox B. Sheep C. Calf
D. Swine
14. _______ directly leads to PSE and DFD meat.
A. Stress B. Bruise C. Obesity
D. Feeding
15. One of the following is a method of food preservation by lowering water activity
A. Smoking B. Cooling
B. Freezing D. Chilling
16. Exhaustion during canning process can be done by __________.
A. Cooling B. Heating
B. laquering D. Chilling
17. All of the following are physical causes of food spoilage except _______.
A. Hydrogen sulphide B. Poor handling
C. Leakage D. Defective seams
18. Failure to meet the required critical limit in a CCP is called________.
A. HazardB. Validation
C. Verification D. Deviation
19. Which one of the following preservation method kills microorganisms?
A. Sterilization B. Chilling
C. Lyophilization D. Drying
20. One of the following is the property of the can used for food packing.
A. Low conductivity B.Easily broken
C. Opaque D. All

II. CATEGORY I: MATCH COLUMN <B> TO COLUMN <A>

A B
_______ 1. Antimicrobial constituent A. Thermophiles
_______2. Bacillus cerus B. Campylobacter
_______ 3. Microaerophilic C. Psychrotrophs
_______ 4. Salmonella D. Protinase
_______ 5. Physico-chemical spoilage factor E. Milk
_______ 6. Low water activity F. Lactoperoxidase
_______ 7. Listeria monocytogens G. Mesophiles

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_______ 8. 1.00 water activity H. autolysis
_______ 9. 0.98 water activity I. Yeast
_______ 10. Microbial enzymatic spoilage factor J. water

PART II. CATEGORY I: MATCH COLUMN <B> TO COLUMN <A>

A B
_______ 1. Detained A. late pregnancy
_______ 2. slaughter delayed B. outbreak of disease
_______ 3. Totally condemned C. dystocia
_______ 4. Postponing the slaughter D. proper treatment
_______ 5. Approved with restricted distribution E. Affected liver
_______ 6. Conditionally approved F. noticeable disease
_______ 7. Emergency slaughter G. below accepted standard
_______ 8. Partially condemned H. rest not maintained
_______ 9. Inferior meat I. zoonotic disease
_______ 10. Slaughter under special precautions J. Slight discoloration

III. FILL IN THE BLANK SPACE HACCP plan; Hazard; Monitoring; Validation;
Verification
1. ______ is a term that describes the 5. Assume HACCP application in meat
concept of the responsibility of veterinary THE steps: 1. receiving (raw meet) 2. grinding
medicine for the health of the public. 3. mixing 4. forming 5. cooking 6.
2. ___________ is organism that do not freezing 7. boxing 8. distributing 9.
need oxygen for growth but not harmful if reheating 10. serving
present. Principle 1—Hazards and Risks
3. ___________ is an organism that only  What are the hazards and at which steps
grow in complete absence of oxygen. may they occur?
4. ___________ are a group of organisms Principle 2—CCPs
causing the spoilage of foods held at chill  Which steps are the CCP?
temperature. Principle 3—Critical Limits
5. ___________ is a type of protein which is  What could be the critical parameter
water soluble and constitutes myoglobin, having critical limits?
haemoglobin & enzymes. Principle 4—Monitoring HACCP
6. Briefly discuss the major abnormalities  How do we monitor? At which step?
we are looking during antemortem examination Principle 5—Corrective Actions
of animals.  What corrective action could be taken if
7. Briefly discuss the natural mechanisms of deviations from critical limits identified during
protecting egg from pathogenic microorganisms monitoring of CCPs.
Principle 6—Verification
IV. BRIEFLY DISCUSS THE FOLLOWING POINTS  Overall, this is an assessment of how
1. Discuss the intrinsic factors of that affect effective the HACCP system is performing.
the survival and growth of microorganisms in What verification method used? At which step?
food. Principle 7—Record keeping
2. Discuss the factors that affect the process  What should be recorded?
of Rigor Mortis occurring in slaughtered animals Answers (Multiple choice)
3. Martha gets to one of the restaurants and 1. A 2. C 3. B 4. D 5. A 6. B 7. A 8. C 9. A
ordered <Key Wot> of beef meat. When she 10. C11. C 12. B 13. D 14. A
started eating the taste was not normal and she 15. A16. B 17. A 18. D 19. A
suspected that she might ate a horse meat. She 20. C
called you to help her as a friend to identify if CATEGORY I: MATCH ANSWERS
the meat is from beef or horse. How could you 1. F 2. A 3. B 4. G 5. H 6. I 7. C 8. J 9.
help her identify it? E 10. D
4. Define the following terms. CATEGORY II: MATCH ANSWERS
Control point; Critical control point (CCP); 1. J 2. H 3. I 4. A 5. B 6.D 7. C 8. E 9. G
Critical limit ; Corrective action; Deviation; 10. F

17
 VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH II (VPH II)
Compiled by: Ebrahim Oumer (DVM, MVSc, Assistant Professor)

Chapter-1: Milk hygiene

Objectives
1. To provide consumers with wholesome milk and thus, safeguard the public from milk
borne zoonotic diseases and residues.
2. To advise dairymen, creameries and consumers on the proper handling of milk and milk
products.
3. To reduce economic losses resulting from milk spoilage and other problems associated to
milk with poor hygiene

1.1 Introduction
Milk, is a liquid secreted by the mammary glands of female mammals to nourish their young
for a period beginning immediately after birth. The milk of domesticated animals is also an
important food source for humans, either as a fresh fluid or processed into a number of dairy
products such as butter and cheese.

1.2. Composition of Milk

18
Milk hygiene: All conditions and measures necessary to ensure the safety and suitability of
milk at all stages of milk production chain

1.3. Photochemical properties of milk

Objective: Knowledge of physicochemical properties of the milk is very important for the
following reasons
1 .Enables milk technology to determine sound and unsound milk and thus, to safeguard
the public.
2 To determine the quality and price of milk.

1.3.1. Physical properties of milk:

The major and possibly dependable physical properties of milk include the following:
A. Color: - Ranges from bluish-white to golden yellow. Yellow color is influenced by breed,
feed and fat percentage.
B. Taste: - sweet due to presence of lactose.
C. Flavor (perceived with the combined senses of taste and smell) Aroma (Smell): -Pleasant
due to unsaturated fatty acid in the milk, but after few minutes it disappears.
D. Specific gravity of milk: - Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a volume of a
material compared to the weight of the same volume of pure water.
E. Specific gravity of milk is ranges between 1.0295- 1.0350 which usually determined at 20
O
C. This is important to determine adulteration of milk or removal of fat butter from milk.
Milk with a lower fat content has higher specific gravity than milk with higher fat content.
F. Freezing points: - freezing point of milk is almost a constant value and freezes at -0.55 to
-0.53 oC and is a suitable indicator for detection of dilution of milk with water.
G. Boiling point: - freshly drawn milk boils at about 100.17 oC. An increase in osmotic
pressure raises the boiling point of the liquid. Decrease of osmotic pressure lower the boiling
point. Osmotic pressure affects both the freezing point and the boiling point of a solution.As
the strength or concentration of a solution increase, its freezing points diminish and its boiling
point increases.

1.3.2. Chemical properties of milk

There are two basically different methods of expressing acidity:

A. PH: - indicates the strength of the acid condition.
The true neutral point is at pH 7.0; pH values below 7.0 indicate an acid reaction; pH
values above 7.O indicate an alkaline reaction.

19
B. Titratable acidity: - it measures the total acidity, but not the strength. Titratable acidity of
milk is demonstrated by titrating a given amount of milk with an alkaline such as NaOH.
When milk is freshly drawn from cow it shows an amphoteric reaction. Normal fresh milk
has a pH of 6.5-6.8, which indicates that the milk is slightly acidic.

1.4. Criteria of normal (fresh) milk

Good quality milk is essential for production of dairy products that are of good quality,
free from pathogens and have long keeping quality. Therefore, milk intended for human
consumption and further processing shall meet the following criteria: -
 Free from debris and sediment.
 The Organoleptic qualities (appearance, flavor…) should not be affected.
 Its constituents should be natural
 Shall not be highly deviated from normal and shall not be foreign.
 Free of pathogenic microorganisms, antibiotics and other residues.
 The temperature shall not be greater than 10oC. This is to hinder bacterial multiplication.
If the temperature is greater than 10 oC, there will be bacterial multiplication and lactic acid
production which leads to milk coagulation.
 The specific gravity shall range from 1.0295 to 1.0350.
 The pH shall range from 6.5 to 6.8.
 Bacterial load shall not exceed the acceptable load. The bacterial load in fresh raw milk
should be less than 50,000 per ml when it reaches the collection point or processing plant.
Somatic cell count shall not exceed the acceptable load (less than 200,000 cells per ml of milk

1.5. Defects encountered in raw milk

1.5.1. Changes in color

 Exaggerated yellow color: contamination with yeast or Flavo bacteria.

 It may also be due to lipolytic and proteolytic enzymes.
 Blue milk: Pseudomonas eynacase.
 Brown milk: Pseudomonas puterfaciens.
 Red milk: Serratia marcens, inflammation of the udder.

1.5.2.Change in consistency

 Roppiness or stickiness contamination with B. lactis

 Frothiness: fungal contamination.

20
1.5.3. Change in flavor

 Rancid taste: increased lipase activity.

 Cooked taste: excessive heating
 Bitter taste: increased catalase activity
 Fishy taste: fish meal
 Soapy taste: contamination with B. lactosaponasi
 Sour/acid: acid production due to bacterial contamination
 Barny taste poor ventilation

1.6. Quality assessment of milk

Objectives: at the end of the lesson the student will understand about quality assessments of
milk and organoleptic testing. Assessment of milk quality is an essential component of any
milk processing industry. Milk being made up of 87% water is prone to adulteration by
unscrupulous middlemen and unfaithful farm workers. Moreover, its high nutritive value
makes it an ideal medium for the rapid multiplication of bacteria, particularly under
unhygienic production and storage at ambient temperatures.

Techniques used in milk testing and quality control

Accurate sampling: Liquid milk in cans and bulk tanks should be thoroughly mixed to
disperse the milk fat before a milk sample is taken for any chemical control tests.
A. Organoleptic tests
The organoleptic test permits rapid segregation of poor quality milk at the milk receiving
platform. No equipment is required, but the milk grader must have good sense of sight, smell
and taste. The result of the test is obtained instantly and the cost of the test is low. Milk which
cannot be adequately judged organoleptically must be subjected to other more sensitive and
objective tests.
B. Clot on Boiling Test
The test is quick and simple. It is one of the old tests for too acidic milk (pH<5.8) or abnormal
milk (e.g. colostral or mastitis milk).
C. Acidity test
Bacteria that normally develop in raw milk produce more or less of lactic acid. In the acidity
test the acid is neutralized with 0.1 N sodium hydroxide and the amount of alkaline need for
complete neutralization is measured. The number of ml of Sodium hydroxide solution divided
by 10 expresses the percentage of lactic acid
D. The Lactometer test

21
When milk adulterated with water or other materials are added or both misdeeds are
committed, the density of milk changes from its normal value to abnormal.
The lactometer test is designed to detect the change in density of such adulterated milk
E. Freezing Point Determination
•The freezing point of milk (-0.55--0.53oC) is regarded to be the most constant of all
measurable properties of milk. A small adulteration of milk with water will cause a
detectable elevation of the freezing point of milk from its normal value of -0.54ºC. Since the
test is accurate and sensitive to added water in milk, it is used to detect whether milk is of
normal composition and adulterated
F. Inhibitor test
Milk collected from producers may contain drugs and/or pesticides residues.These when
present in significant amounts in milk may inhibit the growth of lactic acid bacteria used in
the manufacture of fermented milk such as cheese and Yoghurt, besides being a health hazard
to the consumers.
G. Titratable acidity: it measures the total acidity, but not the strength. Titratable acidity of
milk is demonstrated by titrating a given amount of milk with an alkaline such as NaOH.
The acidity in milk is measured, for example by titration with a 0.1mol/L sodium hydroxide
solution, and indicates the consumption of Na OH necessary to shift the pH-value from the
average normal PH value (6.6 ± 0.1 which is corresponding to fresh milk) to a pH-value of
8.2 - 8.4 (phenolphthalein). sodium hydroxide will be added till the solution is turned to pink
using phenolphthalein as indicator. The titratable acidity is calculated according to the volume
of 0.1mol/L sodium hydroxide solution that has been used to bring the color change.Titratable
acidity of normal fresh milk ranges from 0.13-0.14% Presence of low lactic acid indicate
good/high hygienic standard of milk.
H. Somatic Cell Count (SCC): It is a main indicator of milk quality. The majority of
somatic cells are leukocytes (white blood cells)- which become present in increasing numbers
in milk usually as an immune response to a mastitis-causing pathogen - and a small number of
epithelial cells, which are milk-producing cells shed from inside of the udder when an
infection occurs. The SCC is quantified as the number of cells per ml of milk. In general
terms:An individual cow SCC of 100,000 or less indicates an 'uninfected' cow, where there
are no significant production losses due to subclinical mastitis.
• A threshold SCC of 200,000 would determine whether a cow is infected with mastitis.
Cows with a result of greater than 200,000 are highly likely to be infected on at least one
quarter.
• Cows infected with significant pathogens have an SCC of 300,000 or greater
I. Milk total bacterial count (TBC) is an indication of on-farm hygiene practices and
microbial quality of raw milk. TBC bacteria include staphylococcal aureus, streptococcal

22
aureus, coliforms, entero bacteriaceae and E.coli. In 2015, the milk quota was abolished, due
to this abolition it gave farmers the opportunity to expand their herds.
J. Standard Plate Count (SPC): The SPC is an estimate of the total number of viable
aerobic bacteria present in raw milk. This test is done by plating milk on a solid agar,
incubating plates for 48 hours at 32 °C (90 °F), followed by counting bacteria that grow on
plates.
K. Preliminary Incubation Count (PI count): The PI count is an estimate of the number
of pyschrotrophic, or cold-loving, bacteria in milk. The PI count is not a regulatory test, and
results of this test are interpreted as a general reflection of milk production practices on the
farm and used as a tool to identify inadequate on-farm sanitation practices
L. Coliform Count (CC): The CC is a test that estimates the number of bacteria that
originate from manure or a contaminated environment.
M. Catalase test: The catalase content of milk primarily depends up on the number of cells
in milk. Hence, the increased activity of this enzyme could indicate mastitis. It is necessary to
take in to account the lactation period and if milk is kept for a longer period, catalase test is
not employed because there could be microorganisms in the milk which also produce catalase
enzyme. Results:- Positive result i.e. in milk containing large no of cells, a strong bubbles of
foam are formed giving spanking sound, while there is no foam formation in negative result

1.7. Microbial contamination of milk

1.7.1. Sources of contamination

The following diagram illustrates major sources of bacterial contamination of milk

23
Non microbial contamination of milk
Non-microbial contaminants
1. Physical contaminants:
Physical contaminants like dirt particles, hair, leaves, rubber and mettle
particles, paper pieces etc can get entry in to the milk at the time of milking. The dirt
particles from air even, unclean udder or body of the cow, unclean utensils and water
supply can contaminate milk. The hair of body of cow or of milk can also fall in the
milk. The habits of the milker can also add some harmful contaminants like chewing
tobacco, or beetle leaves can make entry of the physical contaminants into the milk.
At the barn, all the activities of the milker should be scrutinized. The cleaning of the
milking equipment should be properly done with a reliable and adequate source of
water supply. The dairy barns should be maintained regularly and of good condition.
The surrounding area of the barn should be kept clean from the waste materials. The
milking premises should be free from the cobwebs and accumulation of the dust
particles

2. Chemical contaminants:
Veterinary, cleaning, agricultural and disinfecting chemicals can contaminate the
milk.
i) Veterinary and agricultural chemicals
The milch animal treated with any drug or antibiotic can contaminate milk with the
residues of drugs. During milking, these chemicals may also be secreted along with
milk. During milking adequate precaution should be taken so as to minimize the risk
of getting entry of such chemicals into the milk. Such milks should not contain them
more than the safety limit approved by government. Only registered drugs should be
used to treat the animal.
ii) Pest contaminants:
Pest in the milking premises can contaminate milk with their feaces, urine, bedding
materials, hair etc. at the time of milking or handling of milk. Therefore, the entry of
such birds even the flies should be restricted for entry and residing at the dairy farm
premises.
3. Environmental contaminants:
The environment of milking area can make entry of various chemical contaminants
into the milk. The disinfectant sprays in the air, chemical substances in the water hypo

24
chlorites, activities of neighboring farms, etc. can be proved to very harmful
contaminants.

1.8. Microbiology of milk and milk product

Milk and its products consist of numerous nutrient content, it serves as an excellent
growth medium for all of the microorganisms (i.e., bacteria, viruses, fungi, and
protozoans). The microbial content of raw milk is important for the production of
hygienic milk foods. Generally, the microorganisms could be of two types:
Unfavorable microbes (pathogenic microorganisms or microbes that cause food
spoilage and such Microorganisms should be controlled or destroyed to make
food/milk/ and milk products safe for human consumption) and Favorable
microorganisms (microbes which bring favorable changes in flavor and appearance of
milk and such microbes are beneficiary and thus, are usually carefully handled and
propagated) Starter cultures (microorganisms which develop acidity and desired
aromatic milk) are an example of beneficiary Microorganisms.
The 3 main functions of starter culture are to:
 Produce acid, Produce desired characteristics of flavor or aroma and Prevent or
inhibit the growth of unwanted microorganisms. Such Microorganisms are genus
streptococcus and include; Str. lactis, Str. cremoris and Str. lactis sub spps
diacetylactis.
Generally, these are bacteria, which naturally invade or which are intentionally added
to milk to produce different types of products such as yoghurt, cheese and butter, used
at home and dairy industry to improve keeping quality and flavor of milk. Such
microorganisms usually referred to as true milk bacteria because they produce lactic
acid from lactose then reduce pH of milk and this induce milk coagulation to produce
yoghurt.

1.8.2. Mastitis: Effects on the quality of milk and milk products

Mastitis is defined as an inflammatory reaction of the mammary gland It is induced

when pathogenic microorganisms enter the udder through the teat canal, overcome the
cow’s defense mechanisms, begin to multiply in the udder, and produce toxins that are
harmful to the mammary gland. Mammary tissue is then damaged, which causes
increased vascular permeability.

25
Effect of Mastitis on milk Quality
After mastitis occurs in dairy cows, the number of bacteria in the body increases,
which will destroy the nutritional facts of dairy cows, and make the nutritional
distribution of milk change significantly, thus seriously affecting the quality of dairy
products. The milk produced by cows with mastitis will also change in taste. The
saltiness of milk will increase and produce bad gas. Sometimes it will lead to the sour
taste of milk, and the shelf life of milk will be significantly shortened. Because of
mastitis, the nutritional components of milk change, and the protein in the milk
becomes easily decomposed by enzymes, which affects the processing cost and
quality of dairy products.
Also, the white cells and macrophages in dairy cows kill pathogenic bacteria and
leave the related enzymes behind. These enzymes are heat-resistant. When milk is
heated to disinfect, these enzymes are resistant to heating and disinfection of milk,
which damages the fat and protein in milk, thus reducing the quality of milk. In
addition, when mastitis occurs in dairy cows, a large number of drugs will be used for
treatment, among which antibiotics are commonly used, and antibiotics will remain in
milk, so that the growth and reproduction of beneficial bacteria in milk, such as lactic
acid bacteria, will be inhibited, the production of lactic acid will be blocked, affecting
the production of dairy products.

1.9. Dairy sanitation (sanitation in farm and in dairy processing industries

1.9.1. Introduction

Sanitization (also referred to as sterilization) implies the destruction of all pathogenic

and almost all non-pathogenic micro-organisms from equipment surface. Sanitizers
arc substances capable of destroying all pathogenic and almost all non-pathogenic
micro-organisms.

1.9.2. Importance of Cleaning Dairy Equipment

All dairy equipment should be properly cleaned and sanitized as milk provides an
excellent medium for the growth of micro-orga-nisms. At the same time, detergents
and sanitizers used for cleaning and sanitization should be so selected as not to affect
the material of the equipment. Cleaning and sanitization are complementary processes;

26
either of them alone will not achieve the desired result, which is to leave the surfaces
as free as possible from milk residues and viable organisms.

1.9.3. Cleaning and Sanitizing Procedure:

Principles: In the selection of any particular detergent, consideration should be given

to- type of soil, quality of water supply, material of surface and the equipment to be
cleaned, and method of cleaning, viz., soaking, brushing, spraying and/or recirculation.
Detergents are invariably used as an aqueous solution.
In the selection of dairy sanitizers, the following considerations are kept in mind:
(i) High Temperature Sanitizing:
Main advantages are penetrating ability and quick drying of the equipment. Heat is
the most reliable sanitizer, especially when both tempera-ture and time are controlled.
Thus effective sanitization can be done by steam (15 psi for 5 minutes or 0 psi for 15
minutes) or scalding water (90-95°C for 10 minutes),
(ii) Low Temperature Sanitizing:
Main advantages are:
(i) Permits sanitizing immediately before equipment is used (when hot equipment
will be injurious to the quality of milk or milk products);
(ii) (ii) Avoids excessive strain on equipment (such as ice-cream freezers); and (iii)
Permits flushing out of equipment immediately before use, thereby removing any
possible dust that may have entered.
Generally, chlorine solution at 15-20°C containing 150 to 200 ppm available chlorine
is used for a contact time of 1 to 2 minutes.
The usual procedure for cleaning and sanitization of major items of dairy equipment
should consist of:
(i). Draining, to remove any residual loose milk and any other matter.
(ii). Pre-rinsing, with cold or tepid water, to remove as much milk residue and other
matter as possible.
(iii). Warm to hot detergent washing with detergent solution of 0.15 to 0.60 per cent
alkalinity, to remove the remaining milk- solids.
(iv) Hot water rinsing, to remove traces of detergents.
(v) Sanitizing, to destroy all pathogens and almost all non- pathogens. (Usually also
done just before using the equipment.)

27
(vi) Draining and drying, to help prevent bacterial growth and corrosion. (Drying
readily accomplished by heat and ventilation; never use a cloth or towel of any kind.
Drying not necessary if equipment is to be immediately refilled with a dairy product.

1.9.4. Ideal properties of detergents

Wetting and penetrating power, Emulsifying power, sequestering and chelating

power ,economical, Stability during storage, Should be mild on hand, should posses
germicidal action, saponifying power, deflocculating power, quick and complete
solubility
Procedure
should be non-corrosive to metal surfaces
free rinsing
Procedure
 Prepare a sanitiser solution in the tank by adding the calculated quantity of a
chemical sanitiser in the water (For example, 700 ml Iodophore sanitiser in 1000 litres
water).
 The strength of the sanitiser solution for active chlorine or iodine available should
be tested periodically in the laboratory.
 Assemble the equipment in the reverse order of dismantling.
 Circulate tap water at room temperature to check for any leakages in the sanitiser
tank and the equipment circuit.
 Circulate the sanitiser solution in the equipment circuit with the help of the pump
and the spray balls.
 Drain the sanitiser solution from the bottom valve before taking milk in it.
 Small parts like valves, plates bends and other joints may be sanitized by dipping
or submersion in
 The sanitizer solution of the required strength.
In the case of hot sanitization, every part of the equipment should be brought in
contact with steam for at least 10-15 minutes, or hot water at 800OC for 15 minutes
for proper sanitization.

28
1.10. Milk preservation

1.10.1. Pasteurization of milk

It is defined as heating milk below 100oC in order to reduce the number of any
pathogenic microorganisms to a level at which they do not constitute a significant
health hazard. It is used to kill harmful microorganisms by heating the milk for a short
time and then cooling it for storage and transportation. Pasteurization of milk has
successfully eliminated the spread of diseases such as tuberculosis and brucellosis
through contaminated milk Pasteurized milk is still perishable and must be stored cold
by both suppliers and consumers. (Cold chain should be there after pasteurization
Generally, several Time-Temperature combinations have been approved as equivalent
63°C (145°F) for 30 min ,72°C (161°F) for 15 s, 89°C (191°F) for 1 s, 90°C (194°F)
for 0.5 s, 94°C (201°F) for 0.1 s, 96°C (204°F) for 0.05 s,100°C (212°F) for 0.01 s.
Alkaline phosphatase is destroyed in milk by pasteurization and thus a test for the
absence of alkaline phosphatase is widely used to ascertain whether milk has been
properly pasteurized or not

1.10.2. Sterilization of the milk

Sterilization is a microbiocidal control measure that can be obtained by various heat

treatments, the most common and validated methods being UHT (Ultra High
Temperature) processing in combination with aseptic packaging or container
Sterilization. UHT treatment is normally in the range of 135 to 150°C in combination
with appropriate holding times necessary to achieve commercial sterility. UHT allows
the milk to be stored unrefrigerated or an even longer lasting sterilization process until
opened but also loses more nutrients and assume a different taste (e.g. Condensed
milk which can be stored in cans for many years, unrefrigerated).

1.10.3. The Lacto peroxidase System

The Lactoperoxidase System of Raw milk preservation is currently the only approved
method of raw milk preservation, apart from refrigeration (as an alternative solution)
by Codex Alimentarius commission. The Lactoperoxidase System (LP-system)
operates by the reactivation of the enzyme lactoperoxidase, which is naturally present

29
in raw milk. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and Thiocyanate (SCN-) are also present in
milk but in negligible quantity.
•The lactoperoxidase - thiocynate - hydrogen peroxide system (LPS) inhibits bacterial
respiration, reduces the enzymatic activity (Eg. Hexokinase) of glycolysis of the
bacteria and induces the leakage of potassium through the cell wall. Many
Gram-positive bacteria such as lactococci and lactobacilli are inhibited (Bacteriostatic)
while many gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas species,
and Salmonella species are killed.
Many Gram-positive bacteria such as lactococci and lactobacilli are inhibited
(Bacteriostatic) while many gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli,
Pseudomonas species, Salmonella spare killed.
Uperization: A method of sterilizing milk by injecting steam under pressure to
raise the temperature to 150 °C. The added water is evaporated off.

Chapter 2: Zoonoses
2.1. Introduction
WHO in 1959 defined zoonoses as those diseases and infections which are naturally
transmitted between vertebrate animals and man. The health of human being is tied to
the health of animals. Today, man is exposed directly or indirectly to the dreaded
(feared) risks of more than 300 zoonotic diseases of multiple etiologies, the reservoirs
of which occur in domesticated, pet, farm, captive and wild animals. Any disease or
infection that is naturally transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans and
vice-versa is classified as a zoonosis

2.2. Classification of Zoonoses

Zoonoses are important public health problems in many developing countries of the
world. As a result of improved laboratory facilities, well trained staffs, Adequate
manpower and Increased awareness among scientists, large number of zoonotic
diseases of diverse etiologies have been recognized. This therefore, demands for a
classification of zoonoses. Zoonoses are classified as follows

2.1.1. According to the type of causative/etiological agents

Viral zoonosis: It is caused by a virus, e.g. RVF, rabies, avian influenza, orf, etc

30
1. Bacterial zoonosis: This zoonosis is caused by a bacterium, e.g. anthrax, brucellosis,
tuberculosis, colibacillosis, leptospirosis,, salmonellosis, tetanus, yersiniosis,
listeriosis, staphylococcus, etc
2. Rickettsial zoonosis: The etiologic agent of this zoonosis is a rickettsia, e.g.
coxiellosis (Q fever), rickettsial pox, scrub typhus (Rickettsia tsutsugamushi)
and Rocky Mountain spotted fever.
3. Chlamydial zoonosis: Chlamydia is the cause of this zoonosis, e.g.
chlamydiosisViral zoonosis: It is caused by a virus, e.g. RVF, rabies, avian influenza,
orf, etc
4. Bacterial zoonosis: This zoonosis is caused by a bacterium, e.g. anthrax, brucellosis,
tuberculosis, colibacillosis, leptospirosis,, salmonellosis, tetanus, yersiniosis,
listeriosis, staphylococcus, etc
5. Mcyotic zoonosis: Fungus is involved in the etiology of this zoonosis, e.g.
Aspergillosis, Cryptococcosis, Dermatophytosis (ring worm) and blastomycosis.
6. Protozoan zoonosis: The causative organism of this zoonosis is a protozoa which is
a unicellular, motile, eukaryotic organism, e.g. amoebiasis, giardiasis, leishmaniosis
and toxoplasmosis.
7. Helminthic zoonosis: This is further divided into three categories:
7.1. Cestodiasis: e.g. Taeniasis, diphyllobothriosis and echinococcosis.
7.2. Nematodiasis: e.g. Ascariosis, Filariosis, Larva migrans, Trichinosis and
Trichostrongyliosis.
7.3. Trematodiasis: e.g. Fascioliosis and Schistosomios

2.1.2. According to the reservoir host

1. Anthropozoonosis: Infection is transmitted from lower vertebrate animals to man,

e.g. anthrax, brucellosis, contagious ecthyma, dermatophytosis and rabies.
2. Zooanthroponosis: Disease is transmitted from man to lower vertebrate animals, e.g.
infectious hepatitis, measles, Trichophyton rubrum infection and tuberculosis (M.
TB).
3 .Amphixenosis: Infection is maintained in both man and lower vertebrate animals
and may be transmitted in either direction, e.g. Salmonellosis and staphylococcosis

31
2.1.3. According to the mode of transmission (Its maintenance cycle in nature):

1. Direct zoonosis: It is transmitted from an infected vertebrate host by contact,

vehicle or mechanical vector, e.g. chlamydiosis, glanders, leptospirosis, pasteurellosis,
ringworm and scabies.
2. Cyclozoonosis: It requires more than one vertebrate host but, no invertebrate host
for the completion of the life cycle of the agent, e.g. echinococcosis and taeniasis.
3. Metazoonosis: It is transmitted biologically by invertebrate vector in which the
agent develops, multiplies or both in the vector, e.g., babesiosis, leishmaniosis,
trypanosomiosis and yellow fever.
4. Saprozoonosis: It requires a vertebrate host as well as non-animal sites like soil,
pigeon dropping and plant material for the development of an infectious agent, e.g.,
Aspergillosis, histoplasmosis and cryptococcosis

2.3. Modes of transmission of zoonotic pathogen

2.3.1.. Direct contact: contagious ecthyma, cow pox, monkey pox, goat pox,
dermatophytosis (ring worm), Marburg disease and scabies.

2.3.2.. Ingestion:

 Milk: Brucellosis, campylobacteriosis, coxiellosis (Q fever), tuberculosis.

 Meat: Taenia saginata, Taenia solium, Trichinella spiralis.
 Fish: Diphyllobothrium latum, vibrio parahaemolyticus.
 Poultry: Salmonella infection, Campylobacteriosis.
 Water: Amoebiosis, giardiosis, infectious hepatitis, shigellosis
 Inhalation: Anthrax, Aspergillosis, Bird flu, Chlamydiosis, Coxiellosis,
Cryptococcosis and Tuberculosis.
 Bite of animals: rabies, cat scratch disease, herpes simiae, pasteurellosis and rat
bite fever
 Bite of arthropods: Japanese encephalitis, leishmaniosis, plague (Yersinia pesti),
scrub typhus, trypanosomiosis, yellow fever.
 Intrauterine/transplacental: Listeriosis, Toxoplasmosis.
 Abraded skin/wound infection: Erysipelothricosis, necrobacillosis, tetanus

32
2.2. Emerging and re-emerging zoonoses
WHO estimates more than 75 emerging or re-emerging zoonotic diseases that can be
transmitted to humans either directly with or without the involvement of a vector or
indirectly via food, water or other environmental sources.

2.2.1 Emerging zoonoses:

A. Emerging zoonotic disease are new zoonotic diseases, not observed before, not
diagnosed before; e.g. RVF, Ebola, hemorrhagic fever, EHEC O157:H7
A. Re-emerging zoonoses: appearance after 10-20 years of complete absence or
manifestation in large numbers than usual e.g. Tuberculosis, leptospirosis, plague
(Yersinia pestis), yellow fever, etc

2.3. Bacterial Zoonoses

2.3.1 Anthrax

Synonymes: Malignant carbuncle, malignant pustule, splenic fever, wool-sorter’s

disease
Local Names: “Aba Sanga“,” Afrit”
 Etiology: Bacillus anthracis. Gram-positive aerobic bacillus.
This organism is found in vegetative state in man and animals.
When exposed to oxygen in the air, it forms spores that are highly resistant to physical
and environmental agents.
Bioterrorism agent
 Geographic distribution:
Worldwide, with some areas of enzootic and sporadic occurrence
 Occurrence in man
 Anthrax in humans is correlated with the incidence of the disease in domestic
animals.
 Human Anthrax is most common in endemic areas in developing countries among
those who:
 Work with livestock
 Eat insufficiently cooked meat from infected animals or
 Work in establishments where wool, hides and skin are stored and processed.

33
 In developed countries, it occurs only occasionally among humans. Some cases
stem from the importation of contaminated animal products
Sources of infection and modes of transmission
For man: infected animals, contaminated animal products, or environmental
contamination by spores from these sources.
 Cutaneous anthrax is contracted by inoculation during the process of skinning or
butchering an animal or by contact with an infected leather, wool or fur.
 Products made from contaminated hair (shaving brushes), skins (drums) or bone
meal (fertilizers) may serve as sources of infection.
 Pulmonary anthrax comes from inhaling spores from contaminated wool or
animal hair.
 Gastrointestinal form is contracted by the ingestion of meat from domestic and
wild animals that died from anthrax.

The disease in man occurs in three clinical forms:

Cutaneous form (malignant carbuncle/malignant pustule): This is the most
common form & is contracted by contact with infected animals usually carcasses or
contaminated wool, hides or skin.
Pulmonary form (wool sorter's disease): This form of anthrax is contracted by
inhalation of B. anthacis spores.

34
Intestinal form: It is contracted by ingestion of meat from infected animals. It is
manifested by violent gastroenteritis with vomiting and bloody stools.
Diagnosis
Microscopic examination of stained smears of vesicular fluid (in man), edema (in
swine), or blood
( in other animals),
 Culturing the microorganism from blood/ pus/
 Inoculation of laboratory animals (guinea pig)
 Ascoli's test
 Molecular techniqu
Treatment:
 Antibiotics especially tetracycline are effective in curing skin form anthrax. And
for the other forms penicillin is best.
Control: In man, the prevention of anthrax is based mainly on:
 Control of the disease in animals,
 Prevention of contact with infected animals and contaminated animal products,
 Environmental and personal hygiene in places where products of animal origin
are handled,

2.3.2. Brucellosis

Synonyms:
In animals: bang’s disease, contagious abortion, infectious abortion.
In man: malta fever, mediterranean fever, undulant fever.
Etiology:
Disease is caused by Brucella abortus, B. canis, B. melitensis and B. suis which are
small, non spore-forming, non motile, gram negative, rod-shaped organisms.
Host: - Man, buffalo, cattle, camel, goat, sheep, bear, dog, bison, deer, elk, horse, pig,
poultry, reindeer, yalk
Transmission:
 Direct contact with infected uterine discharge, aborted foetus, placenta, urine and
other body fluids and tissues.
 ingestion of unpasteurized, untreated, raw milk and other dairy products from
infected animals. Inhalation of infectious aerosol

35
 Pens, Stables, Slaughter houses
 Laboratory transmission
 Accidental inoculation with animal vaccines
Symptoms:
Man:
 Undulant fever characteristic
 Intermittent or irregular fever with variable duration.
 Non specific and variable symptoms
 depression, headache, weakness, arthralgia, fatigue
Diagnosis
 Microscopic examination
 Gram stain and Modified Ziehl Nelsen stains
 Small red-colored coccobacilli in clumps.
 Cultural method
 Animal inoculation
 Guinea pigs are inoculated 0.5-1 ml of suspected tissue homogenate IM and are
sacrificed at three and six weeks post inoculation and serum is taken along with
spleen and other abnormal tissues for serology and bacteriological examination,
respectively
Serological diagnosis
 Body fluids (serum, uterine discharge, and vaginal mucus, milk, or semen plasma)
from suspected cattle may contain different quantities of antibodies. The commonly
used tests are:
 Milk ring test (MRT)
 Rose Bengal (RB) plate test
 Complement fixation test (CFT)
 ELISA
Control:
 Surveillance Control in animals
 Pregnant animals (advanced) should be kept in isolation until parturition.
 Hygienic disposal of aborted fetuses, fetal membrane and discharges with
subsequent disinfections of contaminated area.
 Test and slaughter of positive reactors:

36
 Quarantining of imported stock
 Immunization: using vaccines
 Chemotherapy:
 Mostly not successful because of the intracellular sequestration of the organisms
in the lymph nodes, the mammary glands and reproductive organs.
 If deemed necessary the treatments often given are sulfadiazine, streptomycin and
chlortetracycline

2.3.3. Tubercluosis

Etiology:
The genus Mycobacterium comprises more than 70 species.
 Many of the species occur in the environment and are rarely associated with
disease in humans/animals/.
 Human TB Mycobacterium tuberculosis, M. africanum.
 TB in bovines & many other animal spp M. bovis.
 M. tuberculosis, M. bovis , M. africanum, M. microti (rodents) M. caprae, M.
canetti and M. pinnipedii form a very closely related phylogenetic group and referred
to collectively as the M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC)
Human infection with members of the MTBC produces an indistinguishable clinical
picture and the individual species cannot be distinguished from each other based on
microscopic examination of stained tissues or other clinical specimens.
Determination of which species is responsible for infection in a particular case
requires culturing of the microorganism in laboratory, however, the process may take
weeks, as the MOs grow slowly.
The principal agent of zoonotic TB is M. bovis.
 Host: - Man, cat, cattle, chimpanzee, deer, dog, elephant, goat, horse, leopard,
monkey, parrot, pig, sheep, other wild animals.
Transmission:
 Inhalation of infectious droplets or droplet nuclei from active pulmonary lesion of
a tuberculous infected person/animal/. Nosocomial infection very common
 Ingestion of unpasteurized or raw milk from cows infected with M. bovis. Or
consumption of raw or undercooked meat of infected animals.
 Transmission may also occur from infected dam to offspring by milk.

37
 Symptoms:
 Man: Productive cough, fever, fatigue, weight loss, chest pain,, haemoptysis night
sweat are the signs of pulmonary tuberculosis.
 In extra pulmonary form, cervical lymphadenitis (scrofula), osteomyelitis,
meningitis, pericarditis, genito-urinary disorder are observed
Diagnosis:
 Direct microscopic examination of sputum, pus, pleural fluid, exudates, lung
biopsy etc for the presence of acid fast bacilli with Ziehl Nelson staining technique.
 Isolation of organism from sputum, pleural fluid, CSF, urine etc on Lowenstein
Jensen (LJ) medium. M. tuberculosis cultured on Lowenstein-Jensen (LJ) but for M.
bovis on Lowenstein-Jensen medium with pyruvate.
 Guinea pig is also inoculated to recover the tubercle bacilli from
samples.Radiography is helpful to detect pulmonary lesions.Intradermal tuberculin
test in man and animals For routine diagnosis of TB in cattle, the only available
method is the tuberculin test using PPD.
 It is specific and not very costly to produce.
 May also be applied to goats, sheep and swine.
It is also recognized that M. bovis may be isolated on culture from lymph nodes that
appear normal on gross pathological inspection.
Since human infections caused by M. tuberculosis and M. bovis are clinically and
radiologically indistinguishable, diagnosis can only be achieved by isolating and
typing the etiological agent.
Treatment: Isoniazid, Ethambutol, Rifampin and Streptomycin
Epidemiology
 The most prevalent form caused by M. bovis is extra-pulmonary TB in human
Cervical lymphadenitis, genitourinary infection, TB of bones and joints
 The reason for extra pulmonary localization of the bovine bacillus is that it is
most commonly transmitted by consumption of raw milk or raw milk products.
 Children are among those most affected.
 The incidence of pulmonary TB caused by M. bovis is significant in occupational
groups in
 People suffering from pulmonary TB of bovine origin, can in turn, transmit the
infection to cattle.

38
 Inter human transmission of M. bovis is possible, but few cases have been
confirmed:
Prevention of Transmission of Zoonotic TB to Human
 Effective and well-controlled pasteurization of milk and dairy products.
 Effectiveness of the pasteurization process in individual plants should be closely
monitored.
 Educate farmers and farm families about the particular risks associated with the
consumption of milk from tuberculosis-positive herds.
 When private domestic consumption of milk by farm families is practiced proper
boiling is recommended.
 Educate dairy farmers, cheese makers and their families about the risks of
consuming unpasteurized milk.Effective and well-controlled pasteurization of milk
and dairy products.
 Prohibition of the sale of unpasteurized milk intended for human consumption.
 Audit of the ante-and post-mortem inspection of carcasses at abattoirs so as to
verify the control and removal of carcasses or parts thereof, considered unfit for
human consumption because of the presence of tuberculosis is recommended.

2.3.4. Salmonellosis

Etiology:
In 1885, the bacteriologist Theobald Smith (1859-1934) isolated S. Cholerae suis
from porcine intestine and the genus Salmonella was named after Daniel Salmon, his
laboratory chief.
Salmonellae is a:
Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, non-spore forming rods. Motile by flagellation
except S. Pullorum and S. Gallinarum.
From the epidemiological point of view, salmonellae can be classified in to three main
groups:
Human-adapted: Comprises S. Typhi, S. Paratyphi A and S. Paratyphi C, which infect
humans only. Serotypes that are host-adapted for particular species of vertebrates
includes:

39
S. Gallinarum, S. Dublin, S. Abortus-equi, S. Abortus-ovis and S. Cholerae suis.
Some of these are also pathogenic for human (especially S. Dublin and S. Cholerae
suis).
Non host-adapted: Contains the majority of the other Salmonella serotypes with no
particular host preference that infect both humans and other animals.
Salmonella causing infection in humans are classified into two groups
1. Salmonella causing human infection e.g., S. Typhi, S. Paratyphi (Human adapted
salmonella).
2. Enteric salmonelosis (Food borne salmonelosis).
The primary habitat of Salmonella is the intestinal tract of farm animals, humans,
birds, reptiles and occasionally insects.
They have also been found in spleen, liver, bile, mesenteric and portal lymph nodes.
The organisms are excreted in feces from which they may be transmitted by insects
and other living creatures to a large number of places.
They may also be found in polluted water.
Host: Man, cat, cattle, deer, dog, elk, fowl, goat, horse, opossum, rabbit, raccoon,
rodent, sheep, tortoise, turtle.
Source of infection for humans: Poultry (eggs, meat), pork, beef, milk and milk
products, vegetables, dirty utensils and water.
Transmission:
 Ingestion of Salmonella contaminated water, milk, meat, poultry, egg products,
vegetables and other foods.
 Infection can also be acquired by direct contact in hospital (infected patients, their
discharges, contaminated fomites like bedding, towel, lines etc…
 In endemic areas, arthropods may carry the organisms mechanically.
Predisposing factors: The following facilitates humans infection
Inadequate cooking
 Cross contamination
 Inadequate refrigeration/reheating/
 Infected food handler
 Animal carriers perpetuate the animal to animal cycle.
 Contaminated feed such as bone meal, meat meal, blood meal, fish meal play an
important role in the transmission of salmonellosis in animals

40
Symptoms:
Man:- Fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, Abdominal pain and diarrhea. Squeal:
reactive arthritis, rheumatic syndrome Death in very young, very old or in debilitated
persons.
Diagnosis:
 Clinical signs and history of patient.
 Isolation of organism from blood, urine, stool, vomitus, CSF, sputum,
nasopharyngeal swab, biopsies from liver, gall bladder, lymph nodes by culturing on
SSA agar, Mac Conkey agar (colorless colony), Brilliant green agar (pink colony),
Bismuth salt agar (black colony).
 Agglutination test by using patient sera
 FAT to demonstrate organism in smears.
Treatment:
 Ampicillin, Ciprofloxacin, Gentamicin.
 Antidiarrhoeal drugs like Bismuth salt and Magnesium trisilicate.
 In dehydration, give fluid therapy and electrolyte.
Control in animals
Surveillance
1. Hygienic management of livestock and poultry farms
2. Bacteriological control and decontamination of animal feed
3. Vaccination where applicable
Control of vehicles: Adhere to codes of hygienic practices of production, processing,
storage, transportation and distribution of foods
Prevention in man:
 Avoid eating food from unknown sources, especially raw or inadequately cooked
food of animal origin and salads
 Avoid cross-contamination of cooked food with raw products
 Maintain sanitary kitchens and protection of foods against rodent and insect
contamination
 Avoid contact with animals suffering from salmonellosis or suspected of
infection.

41
2.3.5. Campylobacteriosis

Synonyms: Avian vibrionic hepatitis, Vibrionic abortion, Vibrionic enteritis.

Etiology: The disease is mostly caused by C. jejuni and by C. coli to lesser extent.
C. upsalienses is associated with campylobacteriosis in children and is frequently
associated with a milder illness.
Transmission:
Infection is acquired by consumption of contaminated water, milk, chicken, beef, pork
and lamb.
Close contact with diseased animals or their discharges.
Clinically healthy animals may also be a source of infection.
 Source of infection for humans
 Mainly chicken
 Animal: both large and small ruminants (cattle, sheep, swine)
 Pets (dogs and cats)
 Food of animal origin: raw poultry, raw meat, raw milk, offal.
 Contaminated food and water
Risk factors associated with illness due to Campylobacter species
 Eating undercooked poultry
 Frequent contact with diarrheic animals, particularly young pets such as kittens
and puppies
 Drinking non-potable water
 Drinking unpasteurized milk or dairy products made from non heat-treated milk.
Symptoms:
 Man: Fever, diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea and diarrhea, sometimes
containing blood
Diagnosis:
 Isolating the agent from fecal samples using campy-cefex selective media that are
incubated under micro aerobic conditions at a temperature of 42oC for about 48
hours.
 This has to be followed by specific biochemical confirmation of presumptive
Campylobacter isolates.
 Latex agglutination test and
 Molecular techniques such as PCR can also be used for confirmation.

42
Treatment:
Clindomycin, Doxycycline, Enroflaxacin, Erythromycin, Gentamicin, Kanamycin,
Nalidixic acid.
Prevention and control
 Prevention is based on control measures at all stages of the food chain, both
commercially and domestically.
 In poultry enhanced biosecurity to avoid transmission of Campylobacter from the
environment to the flock of birds on the farm.
 Good hygienic slaughtering practices reduce the contamination
 Training in hygienic food handling for abattoir workers and raw meat
producers is essential.
 Bactericidal treatment, such as heating (for example, cooking or Pasteurization)
or irradiation, is the only effective method of eliminating Campylobacter from
contaminated foods.
 Hand hygiene and avoid eating raw meat/milk.

2.3.6. Listeriosis

Etiology:
Listeria: is gram positive, motile, non-spore forming bacilli.
L. monocytogenes (of more public health importance, L. ivanovii, L. innocua
Listeria grow between 1oc and 45oc, under aerobic and facultative anaerobic
conditions.
Listeria species have the unusual ability to grow at refrigeration temperature.
Transmission:
 Consumption of infected raw or unpasteurized milk, cheese and poultry meat.
 Direct contact with sick animals, healthy carriers, aborted fetuses, placenta.
 Inhalation of infectious organism by susceptible person.
 Transmission by sexual contact
 Neonatal infection in new born children
Symptoms:

43
Man: Incubation period 4 to 21 days, disease occurs in various forms viz.
meningitis, septicemia, abortion, conjunctivitis, pneumonia, and endocarditis,
neonatal meningitis leads to hydrocephalus.
New-born infants and >50 years of persons are most susceptible
Diagnosis:
Isolation of the causal agent using Listeria selective agar media which require
different successive stages:
primary selective enrichment in Half Fraser broth, secondary selective enrichment in
Fraser broth, selective plating onto PALCAM (Polymixin Acriflavin Lithium chloride
Ceftazidime Aesculin Mannitol) and Oxford agar plates followed by confirmatory
tests including catalase test, motility, hemolysis test, carbohydrate utilization test
(Rhamnose, xylose and mannitol) and CAMP test
An enhanced zone of beta hemolysis between the test strain and either of the culture
of Staphylococcus aureus and Rhodococcus equi is considered as a positive reaction
 Positive CAMP reactions of L. monocytogenes with Staphylococcus aureus
 L. ivanovii with Rhodococcus equi.
 No reaction can be detected with L. innocua.
Treatment:
Ampicillin, Enrofloxacin, Kanamycin, Perfloxacin, Tetracycline; do not give
Tetracycline < 7 years of age; Ampicillin is preferred for maternal foetal listeriosis.
Epidemiology:
Listeria are widely distributed in nature and have been isolated from soil, vegetable,
sewage, water, animal feed, fresh and frozen meat, slaughter house wastes and the
feaces of healthy animals.
Thus, farm animals and their environment may present an important source of
contamination and infection to humans.
Source of human infection
Raw milk ,Cheese produced from non-pasteurized milk., Ice cream, Raw vegetable.
Raw and cooked poultry, all type of raw meat, raw smoked fish.
Risk groups
Pregnant women, immunocompromized persons, AIDS patient, elderly.
Control:
 Industrial: pasteurization of milk, reduction of cross contamination

44
 Food service establishments/households/: boiling of milk, through cooking of
food of animal origin, thorough reheating of food, through washing of vegetables,
avoid high risk food such as soft cheese,
 Consumers: Teach pregnant women not to eat raw food of animal origin
 Use protective clothing including gloves while removing retained placenta.
 Proper disposal of infected material from aborted animal.
 Disinfection of premises where an animal had aborted.
 Spoiled silage should not be fed to animal.

2.4. Viral zoonosis

2.4.1. Rabies

Synonyms: Hydrophobia, Lyssa

It is a major viral anthropozoonosis which is highly fatal to man as well as animals.
Occurrence: Worldwide; but, eradicated from Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, New
Zealand, Norway, Singapore, Sweden, Taiwan, United Kingdom.
Etiology:
Rabies virus, Genus-Lyssa virus type 1, Family-Rhabdoviridae, RNA.Virus is a
bullet-shaped and has two antigens i.e. glycoprotein and nucleoprotein.
Three rabies cycles are distinguished:
Urban rabies: most human cases of rabies by far are recorded in cities and are due to
bites of rabid dog.
Transmission:
 Man usually contracts the disease through bites of dogs containing rabies virus.
 Direct contact of fresh open wound, abrasion of mucous membrane with saliva of
a rabid animals.
 Airborne transmission occurs only in caves where bats rest and also in the
laboratory working with rabies virus.
 Very occasionally inter-human transmission through transplantation of cornea
infected with rabies virus.
 Wild (sylvatic) rabies: This is rabies contracted from bites of wild carnivores such
as jackals, foxes, skunk and wolves etc. sylvatic rabies can become urban rabies. dogs
and wild carnivores which enter urban areas.

45
 Vampire rabies (paralysa): is transmitted by bites of blood-sucking bats which is
particularly important in Latin America
Symptoms:
Man: Rabies in man occurs in 3 stages
Pre-monitory stage:
This is characterized by fever (pyrexia), nausea, headache and difficulty in breathing
(dyspnea).
Abnormal sensation in the form of itching, stabbing pain and coldness at the site
of the bits.
Stage of excitement:
This is noted by aimless wandering about the room, incoherent speech, convulsions,
hydrophobia (fear of water), any fluid taken is ejected. Inability to swallow ones own
saliva.
Paralysis: Excitement and increased apathy and paralysis.
Diagnosis: man
Epidemiology
 History of dog or rabied animal bite
 Absence of vaccination
 Sensation at the site of bite
 Hydrophobia (paralysis)
Quarantine and observation of rabies suspected dog
If no clinical signs appear within 14 days then consider the case as negative and
postpone the vaccination.
If the quarantine observation reveals rabies, confirm the case by lab examination and
start with vaccination immediately.
If the dog has been found dead, send the head to lab. For confirmatory diagnosis.
If the dog escape or has been found difficult to identify, start with vaccination
immediately
. Laboratory diagnosis:
 Precautions: protect yourself and avoid infection by wearing rubber gloves, when
removing the brain for laboratory diagnosis.
 The portion of the brain to be cut should include: hippocampus, cerebellum and
cerebral cortex.

46
 Rapid diagnosis: prepare impression smears from hippocampus, stained with
Seller’s stain. Negri bodies are seen as cherry intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies.
Immuno fluorescence- (Fluorescence antibody test):
It is reliable method and used in conjunction with mouse
inoculation and microscopic negri body detection
 Isolation of virus from infected secretions like saliva. CSF or brain tissue by IC
inoculation in weaned mice (21 days or less).
 Electron microscopic examination of tissues for the presence of virus particles.
 Immunological tests like CF, ELISA etc are helpful in the diagnosis of rabies.
Testing of saliva by RT-PCR technique
Treatment
Once symptoms develop treatment virtually always unsuccessful
Intensive supportive care
Control and prevention:
 Surveillance should be carried out before designing a control program and this
should consider geographical and basic data on human and animal population.
 Epidemiological situation in man in form of:-
 a. Rabies case b. Exposure
 Rabies case in animals (prevalence and its distribution)
 Socio economic parameters on Current status of rabies control
 Condition in the neighboring countries or provinces
 Availability of services and resources
 Finance, equipment, vaccine
Rabies control in man
Pre exposure vaccination should be provided for:
 Persons frequently handling dogs or other animals should receive pre exposure
vaccination.
 Veterinarians and staff
 Wildlife officers etc likely to contact rabid animals
 Spelunkers
 Ravelers
 Rabies research workers

47
Post exposure vaccination (Prophylaxis): If a person is bitten with dog suspected of
being infected shall wash the wound with alkaline soap and immediately consult a
physician.
Clean wound: Include soap and water, alcohol or benzyl alkonium chloride etc.
Vaccination
Human Diploid Cell Vaccine
Purified Chicken Embryo Cell vaccine
Human rabies immune globulin
HRIG (infiltrate up to half around wound, rest IM

2.4.2. Rift Valley fever (RVF)

Synonyms: Enzootic hepatitis.

Host: Man, sheep, cattle, goat, buffalo, camel, antelope, rodent.
RVF is an acute mosquito borne disease of ruminants caused by an RNA virus of the
genus phlebovirus, family Bunyaviridae.
It is currently confined to the continent Africa.
The virus was first isolated in1930, during an investigation into an epidemic amongst
sheep on a farm in the Rift valley of Kenya.
Many different species of mosquitoes are vectors for the RVF virus.
There is, therefore, a potential for epidemics amongst animals and associated human
epidemics following the introduction of the virus into a new area where these vectors
are present.
This has been demonstrated in the past and remains a concern.
RVF vectors: RVF virus is primarily spread amongst animals by the bite of infected
mosquitoes.
A wide Varity of mosquito species may act as the vector for transmission of the RVF
virus; in different regions a different species of mosquito may prove to be the
predominant vector.
Flooding of mosquitoes habitats initiates outbreaks in animals
Transmission to humans: During epidemics, peoples may become infected with RVF
either by:
Bite by infected mosquitoes, through contact by animals during slaughter, necropsy,
raw milk or meat consumption, during food preparation, laboratory work.The virus

48
may infect humans through inoculation (broken skin or wound from an infected
knife), or through inhalation of an aerosol or ingestion
Clinical features: most human cases are relatively mild, a small proportion of
patients develops a much more severe disease (less than 3% of the cases). This
generally appears as one of several recognizable syndromes: eye disease, meningo
encephalitis (inflammation of the brain and surrounding tissue) or hemorrhagic fever.
The total case fatality rate has varied widely in the various documented epidemics, but,
overall, is around 1 %.
Diagnosis: Several approaches may be used in diagnosing acute RVF.
 Serological tests such as enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA)
 he virus itself may be detected in blood during the viremia phase illness or
post-mortem tissues by (cell cultures or inoculated animals), antigen detection tests
and RT-PCR, a molecular method for detecting the viral genome.
Treatment
Most human cases of RVF are relatively mild and short duration, so will not require
any specific treatment.
For the more severe cases, the mainstay of treatment is general supportive therapy
Prevention and control: RVF can be prevented by a continuous program of animal
vaccination.
Both live attenuated and killed vaccines have been developed for veterinary use.
The live vaccine requires only one dose and produces long-lived immunity.
Multiple doses must be given to produce protective immunity in the case of killed
vaccine.
An inactivated vaccine has been developed for human use.
This vaccine is not licensed and is not commercially available, but has been used
experimentally to protect veterinary and laboratory personnel at high risk of exposure
to RVF.
Gloves and other appropriate protective clothing should be worn, and care taken when
handling sick animals or their tissues.
Healthcare workers looking after patients with suspected or confirmed RVF should
have precautions when taking and processing specimens from patients.
Other approaches to the control of disease involves protection from vector mosquito.
use of insecticides

49
2.4.3. Bird flu

Synonyms: Avian influenza, Fowl influenza, Fowl plague.

Definition: It is an infectious emerging viral zoonosis
Etiology:
Influenza VirusFamily Orthomyxoviridae “myxo” means mucus
Three main types
1. Type A: Multiple species (mammalian (people, horses, pig), avian spp and other
animals wild birds are the natural hosts for these viruses)
2. Type B: Humans
3. Type C: Humans and swine
Influenza A
 Multiple species
 Birds, Humans, pigs, horses and others
 Most virulent group
Transmission to Human
Humans acquire the infection through Inhalation of droplets ,direct
contact ,conjunctiva inoculation, ingestion of contaminated water during swimming
Where does influenza A virus come from?

50
Laboratory Tests
 HP AI is usually diagnosed by virus isolation
Presence of virus is confirmed by AGID (agar jell immunodiffusion) ELISA,RT-PCR

2.4.4. Avian Influenza in Humans

Symptoms:
IP-average 2-8 days, maximum 17 days,
High fever, influenza-like symptoms, chest pain, respiratory distress, crackling sound
during inhalation, hoarse voice, abdominal pain, vomition, diarrhoea, bleeding from
the gums and nose; and acute encephalitis without respiratory symptoms
Treatment:
Drugs such as Amantadine, Oseltamir (Tamiflu), Rimantadine and Zanamivir are tried
Prevention: in humans
 Personal Protective Equipment
 Gloves, masks If working with poultry or wild birds
 Vaccine
 Antivirals

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 2.5. Parasitic Zoonoses
2.5.1. Toxoplasmosis

Etiology:- Toxoplasma gondii an obligate intracellular parasite capable of infecting

almost all nucleated cells.
It has the capacity to infect all warm-blooded animals while infection does not cause
clinical illness in the majority of animal species
In some it causes acute life-threatening disease and in others, particularly sheep and
goats, it may manifest itself as a disease of pregnancy by multiplying in the
placenta and fetus.
Final Host: domesticated and wild felids (shed resistant oocysts in feces) - intestinal
& extra intestinal cycle
Intermediate hosts: different animals and humans get infected by ingestion of
oocysts (feces) or bradyzoites (meat)-only extra-intestinal cycle
Pathways of T. gondii infection

Transmission to people
Food borne: ingestion of undercooked or raw meat (lamb, pork) containing tissue
cyst-bradyzoite, ingestion contaminated water, unwashed fruit and vegetables
(sporulated oocysts)

52
 Animal-to-human (zoonotic)–contact with cat feces- contamination while
cleaning litter box, gardening (poor hygiene)
 Congenital- mother to fetus (acute or primary infection). Transmission of the
parasite does not occur in subsequent pregnancies
 Organ transplant recipients and through blood transfusion
People at higher risk
 Veterinarians and para veterinary personnel,
 personnel ,
 Meat handlers P
 Pregnant women
 Pet attendants,
Humans can become infected by any of several routes:
 Eating undercooked meat of animals harboring tissue cysts .
 Consuming food or water contaminated with cat feces or by contaminated
environmental samples (such as fecal-contaminated soil or changing the litter box of a
pet cat) .
 Blood transfusion or organ transplantation.
 Transplacentally from mother to fetus
Symptoms
 In people: mild to severe, from flu-like illness (with muscle aches) to specific
organ impairment affecting virtually any organ of the body
 Lymph nodes are swollen
 Pregnant women may miscarry or give birth prematurely and infants often CNS
disorders (hydrocephalus, microcephaly, retarded brain development /intracranial
calcification/) and ocular disease
 Immunocompromised: encephalitis- death
 The rate of infection is particularly high during the first trimester of pregnancy.
The severity of the disease will be more when the transmission occur in the first stage
of the pregnancy
Diagnosis
 Lesion (eye), symptoms
 Parasite detection by microscopy of stained tissue section- CSF
 Isolation from blood, body fluid

53
 Molecular techniques that can detect the parasite's DNA (in the amniotic fluid-
for congenital transmission)
 Serologic testing
 Bioassay on mice, cats
Control
 Properly cook meat and wash hands and utensils following contact with raw
meat.
 Wear gloves when gardening or otherwise coming into contact with soil.
 Thoroughly wash fresh vegetables.
 Remove feces from litter boxes daily and Clean the boxes regularly
 Avoid litter boxes and gardening immediately prior to and during pregnancy.
 Don't feed cats with raw meat.
 Maintain cats as totally indoor pets to avoid hunting and infection from rodents.
 Keep cats out of pig, sheep and goat barns.
 Antiprotozoal drugs (pyrimethamine , Clindamycin and sulfadiazine )

2.5.2.Leishmaniasis

Leishmania are intercellular protozoan zoootic parasites causing infection of the skin
and visceral organs of man.
Leishmaaniasis occurs in Ethiopia. The causative agent is L. ethiopica, Leishmania
tropica, L. major, L. infantum and L. donovani.
Visceral leismaniais (VL) is distributed through out the low lands of Ethiopia.
Important foci are Abaya, the Segen Valley (Aba- Roba focus in Konso Woredea),
Omo river plains, Metema and Humera plains in North Western Ethiopia
Definitive Host: Man, dog, hyracoid
Intermediate host: Sand flies of phlebotom species

54
Leishmaniasis is transmitted by the bite of infected phlebotomine sand flies.
The sand flies inject the infective stage (i.e. promastigotes) from their proboscis
during blood meals.
Promastigotes that reach the puncture wound are phagocytized by macrophages.
Progmastigotes transform in these cells into amastigotes.
Amastigotes multiply by simple division and proceed to infect other mononuclear
phagocytic cells.
Sand flies become infected by ingesting infected cells during blood meals
In sand flies, amastigotes transform into promastigotes, develop in the gut; and
migrate to proboscis.
Clinical signs
Leishmaniasis causes 3 types of diseases in man
A. Cutaneous Leishmaniais (Old world L) denoted by irregular fever, loss of weight,
splenomegaly, gray discoloration of the skin, loss of hair
L. Aethiopca causes 3 types of lesions
A. Button or furuncle
B. Mucocutaneous
C. Diffuse cutaneous Leishmaniasis. The lesion develops slowly and may or may
not ulcerate. Healing takes place spontaneously after 3 years.
B. Visceral Leishmaniasis (New world L); known as Kal-azar in Asia is the most
severe form.
C. Muco cutaneous Leishmaniasis
Lesion usually appear on the earflap. It can also occur on the face and
extremities.The lesion begins with erythematous papule, which later ulcerate. When

55
the scab falls off, the surface bleeds easily. The lesions on the ears deform the ears,
in some cases, one observes the thickening of the skin especially on the face and the
legs in form of scattered plaques papules and nodules.
Diagnosis: The diagnosis of VL is difficult, while the clinical signs are shared by
other causative agents such as malaria, typhoid and tuberculosis.
Lab diagnosis can be made by the following:
 Demonstration of the parasite in tissues by microscopic examination of stained
specimen. The specimen used are liver, spleen or lymph node biopsy.
 Detection of the parasite DNA in tissue samples.
 Immuno diagnosis by detection of parasites antigen in tissue, blood or urine
samples.
 The parasite can also be demonstrated by inoculation of experimental animals
such as hamsters, mice or guinea pigs
Treatment
First line of treatment
 Pentostam (Sodium stibocluconate)
 Second line of treatment
 Glucantime (Megulmine antimonite
Control and prevention
1. Leishmaniais can be controlled using one or more of the following techniques
2. Vector control through spraying of insecticides e.g DDT. This can be combined
with malaria control.
3. Environmental control: making the environment unsuitable for the breeding of
the vector: destruction of rodent borrows, closing of crack walls.
4. Prophylactic methods: use of mosquito nets and repellents.
5. Health education: community participation in the destruction of resting places
of the vector.Chemotherapy: treatment of affected persons.

2.5.3. Schistosomiasis/ Bilharzias

Etiology: S. Japonicum and S. mansoni are considered to be true zoonotic disease.

Definitive hosts: man, cattle, sheep, goats and wild animals and birds. Intermediate
Hosts: different species of snails (amphibious snail)Endemic to central and

56
southwestern China, the Philippines and Indonesia. In China and Phillipines 1.5–2.0
million people estimated to be infected.
Transmission:
Cutaneous, Ingestion Reservoir hosts: Cattle, buffaloe, pig, dog
Risk groups:
 Farmers working in irrigation (rice and sugar cane fields).
 Fishermen working in fish culture ponds.
 Children swimming in body of water contaminated with snails.
 Women washing clothes and utensils at river banks

57
Clinical signs (humans): Degree of symptom depends on the worm burden
Phase 1: Denoted by dermatitis due to penetration of the skin.
Phase 2: Characterized by coughing, due to passage of the parasite through lung
capillaries.
Phase 3 (acute form): manifested by fever, diarrhea, hepatomegaly due to oviposition
in visceral organs
Phase 4 (chronic form) denoted by nodule formation in different organs due to
oviposition in internal organs
Diagnosis:
 History: travel, exposure to water bodies
 Demonstration of eggs in the feces/ urine
 Conducting immunologic tests such CF, HA and IF tests. Positive serology and
eosinophilia
 Differential Diagnosis: From hepatomegaly causing diseases like: viral hepatitis,
malaria, miliary tuberculosis, VL
Control: Chemotherapy: Praziquantel - drug of choice
 Massive population screening and treatment
 Prevention of contaminating of water by human excreta and urine.
 Provision of sanitary water and means of sewage disposal.
 Drainage of swampy area
 Improving irrigation system: lining of irrigation ditches with concrete.
 Health eduation
2.5.4.Taeniasis
Morphology of cestodes
Flat, segmented body with various length (several mm - several meters)
3 regions of worm body:
Scolex: suckers, hooklets, grooves Neck: germinal portion Strobila: immature, mature,
gravid proglottids (segments)
Taenia saginata (Beef tapeworm) / Hookless tapeworm
Taenia solium (Pork tapeworm) / Hook tapeworm
The disease in human being is called Taeniasis
Larva
Cysticercus bovis (beef measles)
Pea sized (Mostly on the striated muscles of the intermediate host)

58
Cysticercus cellulosae : bean shaped in the muscle
Eggs of these cestodes are totally indistinguishable in two species
Ovoid< Ascarid egg
Radically striated
Pathogenesis:

Taeniasis
 Infected by eating cysticerus; Pathogenic factor: adult worm
 Deprivation of nutrition,Abdominal discomfort ,Dysfunction of the intestine:
vomiting or diarrhea
 Allergic reactions,Obstructions of the intestine
 Cysticercosis: Intrinsic or extrinsic auto-infection; Cross infection due to T.
solium egg only; Pathogenic factor: cysticercus cellulosae
 Symptoms vary with site & intensity of infection
 linical aspects: headache, dizziness, epilepsy, blurred vision, subcutaneous nodule
etc
 When metacestode stage develops in the brain the condition is known as neuro
cysticercosis
Clinical sings
Cattle no clinical sings are associated.
Man – usually asymptomatic
But the adult parasite may produce: Diarrhea, hunger pains, headache, and
weakness, and dizziness, loss of weight, increased appetite and anal pruritus as a
result of movement of the gravid progloides. Gravid proglotids are passed in the feces,
each day which is evident to the infected individual.

59
 Diagnosis: Taeniasis
 Anal swab: to find egg at perineum region ,stool exam: to find segment (species
identification) or eggs
 Cysticercosis
 Biopsy (subcutaneous nodule)
 X-ray: cerebral cysticercosis
 Ophthalmoscopy: ophthalmic cysticercosis
 During PM examination of carcass
 Two longitudinal incisions of the tongue on ventral side.
 Full length sectioning of the heart
 Horizontal slicing of masseter muscele
 Examination of tricps muscele in one incision.
Distribution: Cosmopolitan
Factors for high prevalence of taeniasis in an area or society
1. Egg or gravid proglottid contamination of grass and soil
2. Method of raising domestic animals
3. Unhygienic dinning habit of eating raw or undercooked meat
Control
1. Treatment in the final host
 Paziquantel
 Niclosamide
2. Scientific cattle and pig raising system
3. Environmental hygiene (using toilet )
4. Avoid to consume raw meat
5. Meat inspection
6. Education of communities in sanitary & culinary hygiene

2.5.5. Echinococosis

Species: E. Granulosus the widest spread E. multilocularis are the frequent causes
of hydatidosis
Other species of Echinococcus with less importance include E. oligarthous and E.
vogeli

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Morphology
Adult worm:3-6 mm long with not more than 4 segments, Scolex & cervical
portion (2 rows of 28-40 hook lets and 4 suckers),
Immature, mature, gravid segments
2. Egg
Similar to the Taenia egg, Hydatid cyst the larval stage Round & cystic
It may be several cm in diameter. In locations where the growth of the cyst is not
restricted by anatomical structures, it can reach a very large size and contain large
volume of fluid. Sites in the host viscera.
Endemic factors
High resistant egg, intimate contact between dog, animals and man,contamination of
the feces by infected dogs, Improper viscera disposition
Diagnosis
 Physical (hepatic hypertrophy)
 History of residence in endemic area
 X-ray/Ultrasonography
 Immunological means
 Biopsy and puncture are forbidden unless during operation
Treatment
 Surgical removal of the cyst
 Long-term Mebendazole therapy may cause regression of the cyst 40 mg/kg/day
for 1-6 months
 Personal protection
 Reasonable disposition of the viscera from infected animals
 Treatment of dogs periodically
 Eliminate stray dogs.
Prevention and control
 Proper disposal of offal from abattoirs and in farms slaughtering animals or
burial or burning of condemned organs
 Construction of slaughter houses
 Control of dog population (registration, elimination of unwanted
 dogs, spaying of bitches)
 Health education (public education of butchers, Sheppard’s, dog owners

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 2.6.1 Ricettisial Zoonoses

2.6.1. Q-FEVER

Synonyms: Query fever, abattoir fever

Etiology:
Coxiella burnetii Multiplies only in living cells.stains purple with Giemsa.
Host: Found worldwide in wild and domestic animals in two self-perpetuating cycles:
 Wild animals, with numerous tick hosts
 Domestic animals - sheep, goats, cattle.
- Enzootic infection among domestic animals is the main reservoir of infection for
humans
Transmission:
The organism is shed in urine, feces, milk and especially birth products of domestic
ungulates that generally do not show clinical disease (usually sheep and goats).itis
resistant to drying and can persist for months while providing extensive
environmental contamination.
 Aerosol is a major means of transmission. Inhalation of aerosols originating from
parturient sheep, goat or cattle.
 .Contact with infected tissues and animals
 Ingestion of unpasteurized milk and contaminated meat.
One organism is considered to be enough to cause infection in humans. (biological
weapon)
 Between animals mainly through tick bite and airborne
Symptoms in man:- C. burnetii in humans causes highly variable clinical
manifestations ranging from acute to fatal chronic infections.
Acute coxiellosis :- is mainly Flu-like disease, atypical pneumonia or hepatitis.
Chronic coxiellosis:-Endocarditis is the most frequent and the most severe
manifestation
In pregnant women:- C. burnetii can cause placentitis leading to abortion ,neonatal
death premature birth and low birth weight

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Diagnosis: Isolation, microscopic identification, serological diagnosis,indirect
Immunofluorescence test,complement fixation test, ELISA, agglutination Tests,
molecular diagnosis,polymerase chain reaction (PCR), real-time PCR
Treatment:
Acute Q fever:- Doxycycline
Chronic Q fever:- Doxycycline plus Hydroxychloroquine
Control and prevention
In humans
 Do not handle or use gloves while dealing with infected materials aborted foetus,
placenta, amniotic fluid and other discharges with bare hand.
 Apply face masks to prevent exposure to infected aerosols.
 Proper pasteurization of milk or boiling of milk.
 Laboratory with proper containment facilities only should attempt isolation
/handling of viable culture.
 Early diagnosis and treatment of sick patient.
 Immunization of high risk groups with formalin inactivated vaccine.
 Health education of various occupational exposure about the severity of disease,
source of infection, mode of transmission and personal hygiene.

2.7. Fungal zoonosis

2.7.1. Aspergillosis

Synonyms: Pneumonomycois, Aspergillomycosis, Bronchomycosis, Brooder

pneumonia
It is a fungal saprozoonosis
Etiology: Principally caused by Aspergillus fumigatus; rarely other species such as A.
deflectus, A. flavus, A. nidulans, A. niger, A. terreus are also found implicated with
disease.
-These fungi are ubiquitous in environment and grow as saprophytes on decaying
vegetation, compost, litter, hay, grains, dead leaves, Soil and other organic matters
Host: Mammals: Man, camel, cat, cattle, goat, sheep, horse, buffalo, deer, dolphin,
guinea pig, hare, monkey, pig, rabbit, rat, rhinoceros, sea lion, whale
Avians: almost all bird

63
Transmission:
1. Man and animals (including birds) acquire the infection through respiratory route
by inhaling large number of infectious spores of Aspergillus from the saprobic
reservoirs.
2. Accidentally, infection can be introduced following a trauma to the skin by a
contaminated object.
3. Nosocomial infection
Symptoms:
 Man: Low grade fever, productive cough, breathlessness, haemoptysis, malaise,
weight loss, sinusitis, cellulitis, keratitis, myocarditis, endocarditis and fungus ball
(aspergilloma) in lung;
 Invasive disease occurs in severely immunocompromised person
Diagnosis:
 Direct microscopic examination of bronchial aspirate, sputum, pus, tissue
biopsies etc… in 10-15% KOH for the presence of 2-4 µm septate and branched
hyphae.
 Histopathological demonstration of dichotomously branched and septate hyphae
 Serological tests like AGID and ELISA for detecting antibodies against
Aspergillus infection.
 Pathogenecity of the organism can be done in laboratory mice.
 Radiological examination of chest to detect (aspergilloma) of the lung.
 PCR based methods have been developed for the detection of Aspergillus DNA.
Treatment
1. Surgical removal of fungus ball of the lung by lobectomy.
2. Combined therapy with Amphotericin B and Flucytosine
3. Intraconazole may help in less immuno-compromised patients with slowly
progressive invasive aspergillosis.
4. Posaconazole and Voriconazole are recently introduced drugs that may be tried in
clinical cases of aspergillosis
Control: Persons working in poultry industries should use face mask.
Do not handle mouldy feed or bedding.
Proper disposal of Aspergillus contaminated litter. 
Periodical spraying of 1% copper sulphate solution

64
 VETERINARY EPIDEMIOLOGY
Compiled by: Shiret Belete (DVM, MVSc, Assistant Professor)

1. INTRODUCTION TO VETERINARY EPIDEMIOLOGY

What is Epidemiology?
 “Epidemiology is defined as the study of disease in populations & of factors that
determine its occurrence”
 The study of disease at population level, and in natural setting (ecology of disease).
Epidemiology focused on;
 The health and disease status of a population
 The study of how disease is distributed in populations (denominator) and the factors
that influence or determine this distribution
 Epidemiology is a scientific discipline that involves the study of the frequency and
distribution of health and disease in order to find risk factors in populations for
prevention and control.

The Important of Epidemiology

• To identity the etiology (cause) of a disease & the relevant risk factors that
increase/decrease risk
• To determine the extent of disease found in the animal population. i.e describe the
distribution of disease, Predict trends, Consider mechanisms of transmissions, test
efficacy & evaluate interventions, identify health needs, identify nneeds for economic
justification of disease control.
• Epidemiology is data-driven and relies on a systematic and unbiased approach to the
collection, analysis, and interpretation of data.
• Epidemiologists often ask "what is the denominator?" - Meaning, what is the population
from which the cases arose?
• Collection of information on the etiology & describe the natural history of disease (host
ecosystem).
• Planning, monitoring & assessment of disease control programs.
• Assess the economic effects of a disease, and analysis of the costs & economic benefits
of alternative control programs.
Summary of importance:
1. Study the history of disease

65
2. Community/population diagnosis
3. Look at the risk of individual for the effect of the group/population
4. Identify the disease syndrome
5. Determine the cause and source of disease

Epidemiological Approach Vs Clinical Approach

A) Epidemiological Approach: Focus on Population of animals
 Collect data & information- Compare disease frequency b/n subgroups- Generate
& test hypothesis- Prevention & control
B) Clinical Approach: Focus on Individual patient
 History- Clinical examination –Laboratory-Treatment
Area Epidemiology Clinical Medicine
Unit of study Population ( Defined or at risk) Cases or case
Objectives To identify the source, Mode of To cure the patient.
transmission, etiological factors,
Examination Group of animals or population Individual case
Concern with Sick and healthy Sick
Diagnosis By survey, research Individual test done.
Where to go? Experts goes to population/herd Patient bring to clinics
Area concern Mainly concern to prevention by Mainly in curative field
intervention
Concept Bio-statistical Bio-medical
Presentation of By tables, charts and diagrams By laboratory and others reports
result
Time Long process Short time sometimes long time
outcome Planning, implementation and health Cured or disability or death
promotion

2. DISEASE CAUSATION
In epidemiological studies, ascertainment of cause-effect relationships is one of the
central and most difficult tasks of all scientific activities.
Epidemiological principles stand on two basic assumptions:
a. Animal disease does not occur randomly.
b. The disease and its cause as well as preventive factors can be identified by a
thorough investigation of population.
Hence, identification of causal relationship between a disease and suspected risk
factors forms part of epidemiological research.

66
Historical Theories/model of disease causation
 Supernatural causes”- disease is a punishment for transgression of GOD’s laws
 Theory of contagion- Believed that illness is contagious.
 Personal behavior - Believe in that people caused their own disease by living
fully unhealthy, not by GOD.
 Miasma theory - disease is caused by the odor of decaying of organic materials.
 The Germ Theory- Microorganisms cause diseases and control diseases using
antibiotics and vaccines.
 The Life Style Theory- unhealthy lifestyles are causes for diseases.
 The Environmental Theory- chronic disease are caused by occupational
hazards, toxins and due to synthetic additives to foods
 The Multi Causal Theory- It is called the web of disease causation - multiple
factors for the cause of a single disease entity. eg. Common in
non-communicable diseases
The most widely applied models of causation are:
 The epidemiological triad (triangle)- Host- Agent- Environment
 The web model
 The wheel model
 Rothman’s model- disease may have more than one sufficient cause
Causal Relationships
If a relationship is causal, four types of causal relationship are possible:
(1) Necessary And Sufficient
(2) Necessary, But Not Sufficient
(3) Sufficient, But Not Necessary
(4) Neither Sufficient Nor Necessary
Criteria of causation:
1) Strength of association: the stronger the association, the more to be a causal
relationship
2) Consistency: the same association is demonstrated repeatedly from multiple
studies in different populations at different times by different investigators.
3) Specificity of the association: If single risk factor consistently relates to a single
effect, then it likely plays a causal role.
4) Temporality: (the most important condition for causality) - the risk
factor/exposure must precede the outcome

67
5) Biological gradient (dose-response): the greater the exposure to a risk factor, the
greater is the risk of disease
6) Biological plausibility: a reasonable biological mode of action or plausibility is
satisfied if the relationship is consistent with the current body of knowledge
regarding the etiology and mechanism of disease. Note that biological
plausibility is dependent on the current state of knowledge.
7) Coherence: similar to biological plausibility, in that the cause-and-effect should
make sense with all knowledge available to the researcher

3. DISEASE DETERMINANTS
Definition
A determinant is any characteristic that affects the health of the population. Or
Determinant is the factors that are involved in a multifactorial causation
Disease is caused by multiple factors. These factors are determinants of disease.
When describing the epidemiology of a disease, factors or determinants must be
included. An important concept of epidemiology is that disease (outcome) does not
occur randomly in a population. Fort the outcome/ disease to be occurred; there must
be host, agents and environmental factors.
Host factors: age, sex, breed, etc,
Agent factors: viability, stability, antigen character, infectivity, virulence etc,
Environment factors: topography, climate, soil character etc.
Classification of determinants
 Primary (necessary/exciting) and
 Secondary (predisposing) OR
 Intrinsic (internal/endogenous) and
 Extrinsic (external/exogenous)
 Many of diseases occur as a result of Host, Agent and Environment interactions
such associated is called the Epidemiological Triad.
 In simple diseases, an infectious agent is the main determinant, and host and
environmental factors are of minor importance. eg. FMD, RP
 In complex diseases, multifactorial nature predominates & a clear interaction
between host, agent and environment can be identified. Eg. Environmental
mastitis involves interaction between E coli (agent), milking machine faults &

68
 poor environmental hygiene and the cows (hosts) are most susceptible in early
lactation.
The knowledge of determinants facilitates;
• Identification of groups of animals in the population at risk of developing a
disease.
• Essential for prevention and deferential diagnosis of a disease
Host factors as determinants
A) Intrinsic factor
i. Genetic (species, breed, sex, physical type, hereditary defects, resistance)
ii. Age
 Many bacterial and virus diseases are more likely to occur in young than old
animals due to absence of acquired immunity.
 Tumors are common in old than young animals.
 Endemic diseases affect young part of a population at risk.
 Epidemic diseases affect all age groups
iii. Physiological state
 Newborns are very resistant to infections due to maternal antibody protection.
B) Extrinsic factor [Animal use; Level of husbandry]
Agent factors as determinants vi. Social – crowding
A) Non-infectious agents: B) infectious agents
i. Physical agents Independent /intrinsic properties
 Mechanical: trauma and pressure 1. Morphology:
 Thermal: heat and cold Morphology may influence
 Radiation: x-rays, gamma rays epidemiology of disease
ii. Chemical agents – Spores-increase-viabilit
 Exogenous: lead and other y (clostridia) – increase
chemicals endemicity
 Endogenous: uric acid, gout – Capsules – increase
iii. Nutritional(deficiency, virulence (bacillus)
excess-obesity – Size – Pathogenesis
iv. Physiological abnormal (mycobacterium)
pregnancy, aging – Flagella – antigenecity
v.Genetic- chromosomes: alopecia, (salmonella)
hemophilia

69
 2. Viability
– Viability is ability of the antigens to persist in the environment
– May be related to survival of epidemic strains (staphylococcus) &
endemicity (clostridia)
– Influences mode of transmission – indirect versus direct
– Physical factors: temperature, pH, or oxygen, moisture, organic
matter affects viability.
3. Antigenic character and stability
- depends upon chemical composition & molecular configuration.
In general microorganisms need the following to be pathogenic;
1. Communicability (or transport)
2. Infectivity (ability to lodge itself in a host)
3. Viability or resistance
4. Pathogenicity - ability to induce disease
5. Virulence - severity of infection as measured by fatality or extent of host
tissue damage.
Environmental factor as a determinant
1. Physical environment
A. Topography/location:
o Geography, vegetation, climate affect the spatial distribution of both
animals and disease.
o The temporal distribution of disease is affected by location & season.
o Drainage: Poor drainage increases occurrence with;
– Soil-borne agents – helminthes eg. Schistosomiasis
– Water associated vectors – vector borne diseases
o Altitude: Increase host susceptibility to oral, respiratory and skin agents
o Air currents: spread disease in direction of prevailing winds (FMD,
Histoplasmosis)
B. Soil characteristics:
o Particle size – sandy loam  Ancylostomal cutaneous larva migrans
o Clay soil  Toxocara visceral larvae migrans
o Sandy loam + clay + Moisture in excess  Strongyloides larva
o Organic matter  feces from birds and animals  increased fungal
disease

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 o pH: alkaline  anthrax, clostridial disease
o Neutral  listeriosis
o Acid  histoplasmosis
C. Climate
Climatic variation can induce changes in disease occurrence. Eg. Epidemic of Rift
valley fever as a result of an increase in size of the mosquito vector population
during increased rainfall.
i. Macroclimate: Rainfall, temperature, solar radiation, humidity and wind, all
of which can affect animal health.
Macroclimate changes - alter the frequency and distribution of many diseases
Distribution of vectors: changes in vector transmitted diseases. Eg. Tsetse fly
(trypanosomes), ticks (tick-borne diseases) or Parasitic diseases like fascioliasis,
nematodes can be modified by temp.
 Temperature: Elevated temp. (>700F) related to host susceptibility
o Lowered ambient temperature; Increases susceptibility to respiratory disease
 Humidity: Increased humidity - increases respiratory disease; Decreased humidity
– increases vector-borne disease in semiarid environment.
 Precipitation/rain fall: High precipitation: increases rodent activity  increase
leptospirosis
o Low precipitation: summer animal disease  anthrax, rabies
 Season: Each infectious disease have a seasonal frequency
 Wind: Can carry infectious agents (eg. FMD virus) and arthropod vectors
(Culcoides with blue tongue virus) over long distances.
ii. Microclimate
A climate that occurs in a small defined space. The terrestrial microclimate affects the
dev’t of arthropods & helminthes. The biological microclimate (over the
surface of the host) can change during the course of a disease, assisting in its
spread. Eg. High level of ammonia causes keratoconjuctivitis in chicken and
turbinate atrophy in pigs.
 Housing; well-designed ventilation of house is important. Eg. Limb and hoof
lesions are common in pigs reared on concrete floors.
 Diet: deficiency of energy, protein, vitamin and minerals has serious effects
in disease.

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 Management: Increased stocking densities increase the challenge of microbial
pathogens
An internal replacement policy (closed population) is less likely to introduce
pathogens than a policy involving buying in animals from outside.
 Stress: Associated with weaning, overcrowding, transportation, changes in diet,
and other environmental factors.
• Stress as a primary determinant: capture of wild animals can produce
post-capture myopathy syndrome.
• Porcine stress syndrome- inability of pigs to tolerate the usual environmental
stressors (castration, vaccination, movement, high temperature).
• Stress as a secondary determinant: immune system can be suppressed by
stressors.
Eg. Shipping fever associated with transportation, dehorning, and castration.
Diseases caused by mixed agents:
• Common problems are enteric and respiratory diseases and mastitis.
• Eg. Diarrhea can be induced by agents; E.coli, rotaviruses, calciviruses, and
cryptosporidium species in most species of animals.
• Calf pneumonia can be caused by five viruses, four mycoplasma, and 19
bacterial species.
Respiratory disease in bovine is a mixed infection with Mannehemia spp, respiratory
syncitial virus, parainfleunza-3 virus, IBR virus, and other bacteria.

4. TRANSMISSION AND MAINTENANCE OF DISEASES

Dynamics of disease Transmission (Chain of Infection)
a) Entry into a susceptible host: *Through Mucous membranes of
 Respiratory tract (e.g. IBR, FMD)
 Alimentary tract (e.g. CSF, helminths)
 Genital tract (e.g. trichomoniasis)
 Eyes (e.g. Moraxella bovis)
*Through Skin
 intact skin(e.g. hookworms)
 injured skin (e.g. tetanus, trypanosomes, rabies)
b) Establishment of the agent within the susceptible host
 Incubation period: the time between infection and the first signs of disease

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  Infectious period: the length of the time period during which an animal can
transmit a pathogen
 Latent period: the time from infection until the infectious period starts
 Serial interval: The time between successive generations of cases
Factors affecting establishment...
 Agent characteristics [Species and strain, Size of inoculum, Route of entry]
 Host characteristics [Species, breed, sex, Immunological, physiological,
nutritional status]
***Disease Progression
Each disease has natural history of progression if no medical intervention is
undertaken and is allowed to run full course
a) Pre-pathogenesis: Before agent reacts with host
b) Pathogenesis: After agent reacts with host
c) Later stages of pathogenesis:
c) Modes of transmission /Multiplication and dissemination to exit
i. Contact transmission
 Direct [horizontal (e.g. Dourine, rabies) and vertical (e.g. BVD, leptospirosis)]
 Indirect (e.g. CBPP, rinderpest)
 Vehicular transmission (water, feed, soil, etc.)
 with multiplication (e.g. salmonella)
 without multiplication (e.g. SVD, FMD)
ii. Vector-borne transmission
a) Mechanical (e.g. T.evansi, A. marginale)
b) Biological (B.bovis)
Disease transmission at the population level (herd to herd)
i. Movement of infected/ carrier animals
– domestic animals (e.g. brucellosis)
– wildlife (e.g. Newcastle disease)
ii. Introduction by vehicles/ vectors
– man (e.g. CSF, FMD)
– flying insects (e.g. anaplasmosis)
– contaminated equipment
– contaminated biological products
– water

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iii. Wind-borne transmission
d) Exit from an infected host/exit routes/
*Secretions via
 Saliva (e.g. rabies)
 Respiratory secretions (e.g. FMD, IBR, CBPP)
 Genital secretions (e.g. Campylobacter)
 Milk (e.g. Leptospira spp.)
*Excretions via
 Faeces (e.g. Salmonella spp.)
 Urine (e.g. Leptospira spp.)
*Lesions of the skin (e.g. Streptococcus equi)
*Meat and cadavers (B.anthracis, T.spiralis)
e) Spread to other host: continue the cycle-- finding new host before it ‘dies’ and
be transferred between infected and susceptible host
Factors associated with the spread of infection
1. Characteristics of hosts
- Susceptibility - limited to spp or group of spp
- Infectiousness - duration & amount of agent transmit
2. Characteristics of pathogens
- Infectivity - amount to initiate infection
- Virulence - pathogenicity to elicit disease
- Stability - survival of agent outside the host (time available)
3. Effective contact (opportunity available) - agent stability, route of entry & exit,
host population density
f) Survival strategies of infectious agents
 ‘Short-cycle’ infection - rapid spread (e.g. rinderpest, distemper, FMD)
 Persistence in host by chronic infection (e.g. CSF, tuberculosis, brucellosis,
salmonellosis)
 Persistence in environment by adoption of a resistant form or free-living form
(e.g. B.anthracis, Clostridia spp., pox virus, helminths)
 Persistence in reservoir or intermediate hosts (e.g. Fasciola spp., Tryps.)
 Include development of active signs and symptoms.
 Clinical end points are: recovery, disability, or death

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Maintenance strategies
Five main strategies can be identified:
a) Avoidance of a stage in the external environment;(instead by vertical
transmission; venereal transmission; vector transmission and transmission by
sarcophagia (flesh eating);
b) The development of resistant forms (shells (spores or cyst). Eg. Clostridium,
Bacillus and fungi form spores and helminthes and protozoa form resistant
cysts.
c) A 'rapidly in-rapidly out' strategy (Some agents enter the host, replicate and
leave very quickly, before the host has time to mount an immune response or
die. Eg. Viruses of the URT can do this within 24 hours.
d) Persistence within the host (by immunosuppression and tolerance)
e) Extension of host range (Many infectious agents can infect more than one host.)

5. DISEASE EVENTS IN A POPULATION

 Endemic occurrence - disease present among a population at all times with a
low to moderate level
 Epidemic occurrence or outbreak: occurrence clearly in excess of the
expected level for a given time period.
 Pandemic: an epidemic usually affecting a large proportion of the
population, occurring over a wide geographic area such as a section of a nation,
the entire nation, a continent or the world, e.g. Influenza pandemics.
 Sporadic and exotic occurrence- scattered about: The cases occur
irregularly/haphazardly/infrequently from time to time, producing small,
localized outbreaks and could be the starting point of an epidemic when the
conditions are favorable for its spread.
Methods of Controlling Disease
To control disease in a population the normal life-cycle of the agent must be broken. It is
easiest to break the cycle at its weakest point.
1) Control of disease– reduction of the occurrence of disease (morbidity and mortality)
to minimal level, but the infectious agent may persist in the environment.

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2) Eradication of disease- elimination of disease & the infectious agent in a certain
geographical area (region, country, globe). Eg. Small pox, rinderpest – globally
eradicated
3) Prevention of disease- applies before disease occurrence.
 Primary prevention: preventing introduction/occurrence of disease. Eg. Screening test,
quarantine
 Secondary prevention – limiting the spread of disease/ outbreaks [by vaccination (ring
vaccination) and Chemoprophylaxis]
 Tertiary prevention – treating infected animals using drugs
 Reduce number of infective contacts:
o Quarantine;
o Shorten the time available for infected animals/farms to spread infection – i.e. Detect and
‘stamp-out’ cull quickly;
o Cleaning & disinfection;
o Prevent movement.
 Reduce number susceptible in population:
– Vaccination (prevention of disease, reduction of susceptibility, reduction of
virus output)
– Culling (stamping-out, active case finding, removal of case)
 Remove infected animals before they become infectious to others:
– Pre-emptive slaughter.eg. birds destroyed to control bird flu
Disease control planning process
a) Fundamental knowledge of disease (basic epidemiology, life-cycle of disease)
b) Information on disease occurrence (passive and active survey data)
c) Effects of disease on production process (farm production surveys / farmers’
information
d) Effects of disease outside production process (national trade figures etc.)
e) Potential control measures (expert veterinary knowledge, experience)
f) Cost and expected benefits of control measures (economic techniques)

6. DISEASE ECOLOGY
ECOLOGY is study of animals and plants in relation to their habits & habitats.
It’s the ways organisms (animals & micro-organisms) interact with and are influenced
by their natural surroundings.
Study of a disease’s ecology is

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 To understanding of the pathogenesis, maintenance, and transmission of disease.
 To predict disease occurrence and to develop suitable control techniques.
Basic ecological concepts
Major factors that determine the occurrence of disease is; distribution and size of
populations.
 Biomes: are life zones including all plants, animals, other organisms, as well as
the physical environment in a particular area.
 Ecosystem: it is an open system comprising plants, animals, organic residues,
atmospheric gases, water and minerals. Eg. The distribution of RVF is
associated with wet African ecological zones (abundant mosquito vectors).
• Ecosystem - The complex interaction of animals and plants with their physical
and climatic features. It is a biotic community living in its biotype.
 Biotype: the smallest spatial unit providing uniform conditions for life. It is a
physical environment in which a biotic community lives. Eg. Caeca of a
chicken for coccidia. Area of poorly drained land for Fasciola infection in
cattle.
 Biocenosis (biotic community): collection of living organisms (plants, animals
and microorganisms) in a biotope.
 Biomes are major biotic communities
 Dispersal: dramatic seasonal variations in climate affect population.
 Predation: control the size of insect populations
 Microparasites (virus, bacteria, protozoa)- depress host population size when
occur as epidemics or pandemics with high case fatality rates.
 Macroparasites (helminthes, arthropods): Parasitic rates govern the survival and
reproductive capacity of the hosts.
 Niche: places of population in the biotic environment in relation to food and
enemies.
– Niche is the total range of conditions under which the individual/ population
lives.
Epidemiological Interference
• If an organism occupies a niche, then cannot be filled by other agents
• Presence of one parasite may prevent infection with other types. eg. T.
congolense delay infection with other trypanosomes.
• Interference may affect the time of occurrence of other diseases

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• Interference can affect the rate of natural immunization
• An epidemic caused by one agent may suppress epidemics caused by other
similar agents.
Significance of food chain to disease transmission
 Food chain is the relationship between an animal and its food.
 Helminths are definitive and intermediate hosts transmitted via food webs. Eg.
Echinococcus granulosus - cysts in lung and liver of sheep are transmitted to
dogs when eat sheep offals.
 Parasitic food chains might be exploited by the control of other helminth
parasites.
 Predaceous fungi control nematode parasites of livestock.
– It traps & destroys free-living stages of trichostrongyloid larvae.
Types of Ecosystems
1. Autochthonous ecosystems: is one ‘coming from the land itself’.
• Eg. Found in biomes such as tropical rain forests and deserts.
2. Anthropurgic ecosystems: is one caused by man.
• Eg. Those found in cultivated pastures and towns.
3. Synanthropic ecosystems: is one that is in contact with man.
• Facilitate the transmission of zoonotic infections.
Eg. Infected rats inhabit rubbish dumps transmit leptospira to humans.
Ecological climax
 Ecological climax occurred when plants, animals, microbes, soil & microclimate
have evolved to a stable, balanced relationship. Infections in this stability are
endemic. Such stable situations can be disrupted by man resulting in epidemics.
Eg. Bluetongue of sheep occurrence after importation of exotic sheep breeds.
Ecological interface
 An ecological interface is a junction of two ecosystems. Infectious diseases can
be transmitted across these interfaces. Eg. Transmission of yellow fever
(arbovirus disease of man)
The virus is maintained in apes of Africa in autochthonous forest ecosystem.
Several diseases can be propagated across the interface between wildlife ecosystem
and cultivated land stocked with domesticated animals. Eg. Rabies between
wild carnivores and domestic dogs.

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Ecological mosaic
 Ecological mosaic is a modified patch of vegetation, created by man, within a
biome that has reached a climax. Infection may spread from wild animals to
man in such circumstances. If vectors are present for instance, anopheles
mosquito can transmit plasmodium from monkeys to man.
Climate change and infectious diseases
 How can we anticipate/predict and prevent the health risks linked to interactions
between wildlife, domestic animals and the people who live alongside those
animals?
 Humans, domestic animals and wildlife are inextricably/intimately linked by
epidemiology of infectious diseases. Infectious diseases will continue to
emerge, re-emerge and spread.
 Human-induced environmental changes, inter-species contacts, altered social
conditions; demography and medical technology affect microbes’ opportunities.
“One health concept” being developed
Landscape epidemiology
• It is the study of diseases in relation to the ecosystems they are found
Nidality: A natural home of diseases called nidi (nidus = nest).
Nosogenic territory: an area that has ecological, social and environmental conditions
to support a disease. Eg. Rabies & FMD in UK
Nosoarea: is a nosogenic territory in which a particular disease is present.
Eg. For vector transmitted diseases.
 Pathogens of fast spreading diseases are compulsory parasites
 Pathogens of the endemic disease are more or less facultative parasites
< ----- Epizootic ------------- Trade diseases
------------ Enzootics ----
(Fast spreading by vectors & movement) (Spread by animal in herds/flock) (Occurrence
only fomites)
FMD, ND, PPR, RVF …… LSD, Leptosp., Salm …………
Mastitis, TBD,
<--- Classical epizootics --------------------------------infectious factorial disease ---
 Compulsory <--------- Parasitism of the pathogen ------------ Faculitative

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 7. MEASUREMENT OF DISEASE FREQUENCY
Frequency is used to quantify the occurrence of disease in a population.
Counting cases and knows size of source population and helps to compare levels of
disease among individuals, time frames, and locations.
i. Counts: Disease accounting is one of the first activities in an outbreak
investigation. The number of cases and non-cases of a disease is accounted
• No. of cases: no. sick/ sero-positives
• A "case" can be defined as an affected animal or has an antibody titer to a given
disease agent, “with or without diagnosis”, at an “individual animal” or
“group” level.
ii. Ratios: A ratio is a relative size of two quantities expressed by dividing
numerator to denominator for which the numerator is not a subset of the
denominator. Eg odd Ratio allows comparing quantities of different nature
Eg. Sex ratio: male/ female or 1 Vet per 10,000 animals
iii. Proportions: A proportion is a special case of ratio, but the numerator is a subset
of the denominator. Proportion always ranges between 0&1. Eg: number of
sero-positive animals (30) divided by total number of animals tested (500). The
proportion of diseased animals is 30/470+30 = 0.06 or (6%). Percentage =
proportion x 100
Events such as disease or deaths are expressed in terms of rates or proportions. eg.
Prevalence, cumulative incidence, case fatality and survival are proportions.
iv. Rates: A rate is a ratio that expresses a change in the numerator with respect to
the change the denominator, usually in time.
In epidemiology the change in the number of cases is always expressed relative to
the number of animals at risk (because we always need to know about the
‘denominator population’). Incidence rate have time as part of the
denominator.
v. Incidence relates to the number of new events (eg new cases of a disease) in a
defined population within a specific period.
vi. Prevalence relates to cases of disease existing at a specific point in time rather
than new cases occurring over a period of time.
vii. Attack rates are used to describe the frequency of disease in outbreak situations.

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viii. Case fatality rate describes the proportion of animals with a specific disease that
die from it (within a specified time period). it is often used to describe the
impact of epidemic-type diseases or the severity of acute diseases for affected
individuals.
ix. Mortality rate describes the number of animals that die from all causes in a
defined time period and is analogous to Incidence except that the outcome of
interest is death.
x. Morbidity/mortality rates: calculated by dividing the number of cases / deaths
due to a specific disease by the number of cases /deaths from all disease s
diagnosed.
xi. Risk. also known as incidence, cumulative incidence, incidence proportion, or attack rate is a
measure of the probability of an unaffected individual developing a specified health outcome
over a given period of time.
Risk = # of new cases/total # of individuals at risk
xii. Summary Statistics
Common measures of central location include mode, median and mean. Common
measures of spread include the range, variance, and standard deviation.
Mode: The mode is identified by determining which numeric value occurs most
frequently. The mode is a descriptive measure and not used for statistical
purposes. Eg. Ages (in years) of a class of students: 15, 18, 18, 19, 15, 16, 18,
19, 18, 21. Now we can readily identify the most common value: Mode = 18.
We have 4 students with an age of 18.
Median is the middle value, or the value that splits the frequency distribution into two
equal parts, meaning half of the observations are smaller than the median and
half of the observations are larger than the median. To find the median in a
dataset, the observations in the dataset must first be arranged in numeric order.
Next, Find the middle position using the formula: (n + 1) / 2. This formula
identifies the position of the median value within the frequency distribution.
When there are an odd number of observations, the median will be equal to the
middle sample value. When there is an even number of observations, the
median will be the arithmetic mean of the two middle sample values. The
median is a good descriptive measure and is not generally effected by outlier
(extreme) values in the dataset. Let’s look again at the previous example of
ages of students in a class:

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15, 18, 18, 19, 15, 16, 18, 19, 18, 21
First, it is important to arrange the data in numerical order (create a frequency
distribution). Now we have: 15, 15, 16, 18, 18, 18, 18, 19, 19, 21
The n=10, so to find the position of the median: 10+1/2 = 5.5 position. We have an
even number of observations (10), so we must find the average of the 2 middle
(5th and 6th) values: 18+18/2 = 18.
Median = 18
The mean is the average value of a numerical dataset. It is calculated by dividing the
sum of the values in a dataset by the total number of values in the dataset.
The mean is affected by outlier values within the dataset. The mean has excellent
statistical properties and is a component of many statistical calculations, such
as the standard deviation. Again using our class age data example, to find the
average, we would first sum all of the values:
15+15+16+18+18+18+18+19+19+21 = 177
Next, we divide the total by the number of observations (n=10): Mean: 177/10 = 17.7
The range is the simplest measure of dispersion. In epidemiology, the range is often
represented with both the largest and smallest value, without taking their
difference. In our class age data example, we have the following ages: 15, 15,
16, 18, 18, 18, 18, 19, 19, 21. The range could be determined by subtracting 21
(largest value) and 15 (smallest value), and presenting the range = 6. In
epidemiology, it is more common to have Range = 15 to 21. “Cases at the
school ranged in age from 15 to 21 years.
The variance and standard deviation are related measures that quantify how closely
clustered the observed values are to the mean.
The variance is the average of the squared deviations (or differences) from the mean.
Standard deviation is the square root of the variance.
Standard deviation tells us how far a value is from the average (mean). The standard
deviation can be used to set limits as to what is normal (such as normal birth
weight, normal blood pressure, normal number of reported cases). The mean
and standard deviation can be used to distinguish between normal and abnormal
numbers of reported cases and set disease thresholds in disease surveillance.

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 8. ANALYTICAL OBSERVATIONAL STUDY DESIGNS
Epidemiologic studies are the foundation of evaluating the health of a population.
Epidemiologists use thus studies to:
 Determine the burden of disease,
 Describe the prevalence of risk factors and behaviors,
 Determine causes of health outcomes,
 Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and
 Support development of policy.
Epidemiologic studies fall into two large categories:
1. Descriptive study
 Are designed to describe health events.
 No comparisons are made between the different study groups;
 No conclusions can be made between exposures and outcomes.
 Example case reports, case series, ecological studies and surveys
2. Analytical study
 Making comparisons between groups of study participants
 Make assessments about relationships between exposures and outcomes
i. Observational study [Cross-sectional, Cohort, Case-Control]
ii. Experimental study [Clinical Trials, Community Trials, Field Trials,
Laboratory Studies
Observational studies
This is the type of study design where the investigators try not to influence the
natural course of events for the study subjects, but confine their activities to
making careful observations (which might include collection of a variety of
samples) about the study subjects with particular attention paid to the exposure
and outcomes of interest. Observational studies usually are the preferred study
design if the exposure (s) is more complex and not easily controllable by the
researcher either for practical, ethical, or economic reasons. They have the
advantages that a much wider array of hypotheses can be tested, and in most
instances the subjects will be exposed to the risk factor whether the study is
done or not.
The observational study could either be prospective or retrospective in the course.

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1) Prospective/cohort studies, only the exposure might have happened at the time
the study starts. The design of prospective studies will include
information-gathering techniques so that all the necessary data are recorded as
part of the study itself, or the study could build on available data sources,
supplementing these data as necessary.
Advantages of cohort studies include:
 Useful for rare exposures
 Can examine multiple outcomes
 Temporal relationship can usually be made clear
 Direct measurement of incidence in exposed and unexposed
Cohort studies require many resources to perform, including time and human resources. A
disadvantage of these studies is that they are expensive. Because they often are
performed over a long period of time, there can be problems with participants leaving
the study prior to completion, termed “loss to follow-up”. Disadvantages of cohort
studies include:
 Inefficient for rare outcomes
 Can be expensive and time-consuming
 Retrospective studies can have limited access to quality data
 Difficult to assess temporal relationships
 Validity is affected by follow-up
2) Retrospective/case-control studies, both the exposure and the outcome have
already occurred when the study begins and typicality these studies rely on
pre-recorded data from one or more secondary sources. The availability of
these data is an advantage, but often the quality and scope of the data are also
limitations of the retrospective approach. Here again, selecting a suitable study
design can maximize the information gained from the data available.
Advantages of case-controls studies
 They are efficient for rare diseases (rare outcomes).
 It takes less time and uses fewer resources and money, and multiple exposures can be
evaluated
 With good sampling, odds ratios provide an estimate of the risk or rate ratios.
Disadvantages include
 There might be some possible biases in the selection of the subjects, measurement of the
exposure, or the analyses.
 Does not provide a direct estimate for the risk or rate ratio.
 They are not good for rare exposures.

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 The time sequence between exposure and outcome cannot be determined in case-control
studies.
3) Cross-sectional studies are of lower rank than other observational studies
because of the inability to refute reverse-causation. Due to their ease of
implementation, cross-sectional studies are one of the most frequently chosen
study designs in veterinary epidemiology. The outcome frequency measure is
inherently prevalence.
Advantages of a cross-sectional study
 Relatively quick and easy to perform
 Less expensive than cohort studies
 Well-adapted to chronic/long-latency diseases
Disadvantages of cross-sectional studies
 less effective at determining causation (exposure and outcome measured at the same
time)
 Not useful to study disease etiology (provides a “snapshot” in time)
 Not well adapted to severe or acute diseases
Table 1. Comparison of case-control and cohort studies
study Case-control Cohort study
Starting point Outcome Exposure
Rare outcomes Useful Not useful
Rare exposures Not useful Useful
Multiple exposures Useful Difficult to use
Multiple outcomes Not useful Useful
Incidence measure No Yes
Strength of causal association Moderate High
Level of difficulty Moderate Difficult

9. MEASURES OF ASSOCIATION

Epidemiology studies evaluate the cause–effect relationships between risk factors and
a health outcome. These studies are usually based on a comparison of risks or
rates. The comparison can be performed by using measures of strength of
association. Measures of association are used to compare the association
between a specific exposure and health outcome. Common measures of
association include the risk ratio, rate ratio and odds ratio.

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Risk ratio (Relative risk)-RR
RR is the ratio of ‘the risk of disease in the exposed group’ to the risk of disease in the
non-exposed group.The numerator of RR is the conditional probability that
animals are diseased given that they are in exposed group and the denominator
is the conditional probability that animals are diseased given that they are in
non-exposed group. RR can be computed in cohort studies and, in some
instances, cross-sectional studies. It cannot be used in case-control studies
because the p (D+) is an arbitrary value determined by the number of cases
and controls included in the study. RR ranges from 0 to infinity.
 RR<1exposure is protective (e.g., vaccine)
 RR=1exposure has no effect (i.e., null value)
 RR>1exposure is positively associated with disease
Incidence rate ratio (IR)
The incidence rate ratio (IR) is the ratio of the disease frequency (measured as
incidence rate) in an exposed group to the incidence rate in a non-exposed
group. IR can only be computed from studies in which an incidence rate can be
calculated (i.e., cohort studies). It is sometimes referred to as the incidence
density ratio. IR ranges from 0 to infinity. A value of 1 means there is no
association between the exposure and disease, with values <1 indicating
protection and values >1 indicating an increased rate of disease in the exposed
group.
Odds Ratio (OR)
An odd is the ratio of the probability of an event occurring to the probability of
not occurring. Odds ratio is the odds of the disease in the exposed group
divided by the disease odds in the non-exposed group. Alternatively, it can be
calculated as the odds of exposure in the diseased group divided by the odds of
exposure in the non-diseased group. The odds ratio is the only measure of
association that exhibits above ‘symmetry’: the odds ratio of being exposed
(case versus control) is equal to the odds ratio of being a case (exposed versus
unexposed). OR is the only measure of strength of association applicable to
case-control studies. The interpretation of OR is the same as RR and IR. An
OR=1 indicates no effect while values <1 and >1 are indicative of reduced risk
(protection) and increased risk, respectively. Odds ratio cannot be calculated
when a 2x2 contingency table cell contains the value zero. This problem can be

86
 overcome by addition of ½ to the values in each cell of the table before
calculating the odds ratio and its associated confidence interval.
Measures of effect
Measures of effect in the exposed group
 Risk difference (RD)
 Incidence rate difference (ID
 Attributable fraction
RD or ID <0 exposure is protective
RD or ID=0 exposure has no effect
RD or ID >exposure is positively associated with disease
Attributable fraction (exposed)-AFe
The AFe expresses the proportion of disease in exposed individuals that is due to the
exposure, assuming that the relationship is causal. Values for attributable
fraction range theoretically from 0 (where risk is equal regardless of exposure;
RR=1) to 1 (where there is no disease in the non-exposed group and all disease
is due to the exposure; RR=  ).
Measures of effect in the population
Population attributable risk (PAR)
PAR is analogous to RD, in that it indicates a simple difference in risk between two
groups. However, the focus of PAR is the increase in risk of disease in the
entire population that is attributable to the exposure. Therefore, it is calculated
as the overall observed risk (combining exposed and non-exposed groups) in
the population minus the baseline risk (risk in the non-exposed). Clearly, PAR
is determined by both the strength of the association and the frequency of
exposure to the risk.

Population attributable fraction (AFp)

AFp is analogous to AFe, but is focused on the disease in the entire population rather
than the exposed group. Assuming a causal relationship, AFp indicates
proportion of disease in the whole population that is attributable to the exposure,
and would be avoided if the exposure were removed from the population. It is
calculated as the ratio of PAR to overall risk p(D+) in the population, and again
is a function of the strength of the association and the prevalence of exposure.

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Measures of disease frequency: Practical Interpretation
R = p(D+) =217/617 =0.352 35% of all cows had ketosis
RE+ = p(D+\E+) = 60/101 = 0.594 59% of fat cows had ketosis
RE- = p(D+\E-) = 157/516 = 0.304 30% of normal cows had ketosis
I = 217/2034 = 0.11 0.11 cases of ketosis per cow-months in whole population
IE+ = 60/284 = 0.21 0.21 cases of ketosis per cow-month in fat cows
IE- = 157/1750 = 0.09 0.09 cases of ketosis per cow-month in normal cows
Measures of association:
RR = 0.594/0.304 = 1.95 Fat cows were 1.95 times as likely to develop ketosis as normal
cows
IR = (60/284)/(157/1750) = 2.34 The rate of ketosis in fat cows was 2.34 times higher than the
rate in normal cows
OR = (60*359)/41*157) = 3.35 The odds of ketosis in fat cows was 3.35 times higher than the
odds in normal cows
Measures of effect:
RD = 0.594-0.304 = 0.290 For every 100 cows, 29 had ketosis due to the cows being fat
(assuming a causal relationship)
AFe = 0.290/0.594 = 0.488 49% of the ketosis occurring in fat cows was attributable to them
being fat
PAR = 0.352-0.304 = 0.048 For any 100 cows in this population, five had ketosis that was
attributable to them being fat
AFp = 0.048/0.352 = 0.136 14% of the ketosis in the population was attributable to some
cows being fat

The following table shows summary of calculation of various measures of association

by study type
Measure of association Cross-sectional Cohort Case-control
RR X X -
IR - X -
OR X X X
RD X X -
AFe X X Xb

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PAR X Xa -
AFp X Xa Xc
The PAR and AFp can be estimated from a cohort study bEstimated using OR as an approximation of RR; cEstimated using an
a

approximation of RR

10. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA

Data are a raw fact that will be used to draw a conclusion or make a decision in
addressing a certain characteristics of the population. Eg. Lists of names, sexes,
ages, etc
Data can classify as:
a) Qualitative like categorical data (nominal, ordinal)
b) Quantitative it is for continues or numerical data. OR
c) Primary/prospective/: (formed by the researcher gathered through observation,
experiment, interview (questionnaire).
d) Secondary/ retrospective/: obtained from documents or records
Data collection tools
i.Observation
ii.Questionnaires /Open-ended, closed-ended/
Pilot test / pre-testing questionnaire
 determine the ease with which it can be administered and to estimate the time
required
 identify questions that are confusing, ambiguous or misleading
 Determine if there are any problems with the layout of, or the instructions on, the
questionnaire.
iii.Focus group discussions
iv.Measuring instruments
Quantitative data are expressed in numbers or statistics – they answer the “what”
question (or “how many”), such as weight, height, volume. Quantitative data
can be further divided into discrete and continuous categories. Discrete data
are whole number that can only take on integer values, such as 15 students
(there cannot be a fraction of a student). Continuous data is can take on any
numeric value and is only limited by the increments of measurement system,

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 such as the height of students limited to the precision of the measuring stick
(170.03 cm).
Qualitative data are expressed in words or pictures and help understand or explain
the quantitative data by answering the “why” question. Qualitative data become
categorical variables. Examples gender, colors, and ethnicity. Epidemiologist
frequently work with categorical variables, such as “yes” or “no”, “male” or
“female”. Qualitative data can be further divided into nominal data
(non-ordered), such as nationality or gender and ordinal data. Ordinal data has
a natural order or level, such as severity of illness (mild, moderate and severe).
It is often useful to collect multiple types of data – each has certain advantages
and disadvantages.

11. SAMPLING STRATEGIES

Sample: a collection of data from a sub set of the population, not all population
(Census)
Why sampling?
 Get information about large populations with less costs,less field time, More
accuracy
 When it’s impossible to study the whole population
Objective of sampling
 Detect the presence of a disease;
 Demonstrate that a disease is not present within a population; and
 Establish the level of occurrence of a disease within a population.
The exact level of disease within a population will be obtained if every individual
within the population is examined (and if there was no measurement error).
This technique is a census.

Terminologies
Population: a collection of ‘units’ that have some particular characteristic in common
Target population: the population of interest
Study population: the population actually included in the study (accessible to the
study)
Stratum: a sub-group of the study population with a defined characteristic in common

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 Census: investigation including the whole study population
Sample: a selected part of the study population
Sampling frame: a list of all units in the study population
Sampling unit: each member in the sampling frame
Sampling fraction: the number of sampled units divided by the total number of units
in the study population
Sampling error: the difference between the true value of a parameter of the study
population that
estimated from a sample
Sampling variation: random variation in the results from repeated samples from the
same study
population - influences the precision of the results
Bias: a systematic error in a statistical result - influences the accuracy of the results
Non-sampling errors: differences between the true population parameter and the
results from the study which are not due to the fact that only a sample was
studied. Examples: response error, e.g. sensitive questions measurement error,
e.g. serological tests recording and transcription error

Types of sampling
a) Non-probability sampling:
Chooses based on personal interest rather than formal randomising procedure, so,
Sampling variation cannot be estimated. Example
i. Convenience sampling: units chosen as easy to access. Not ideal but often
unavoidable
ii. Purposive sampling: units chosen as they are known to have a characteristic of
interest.
iii. Judgement sampling: units chosen as in the judgement of the investigator they
are “typical” of the target population. Usually best to avoid!
b) Probability (random) sampling:
Each unit in the study population has a pre-determined probability of being selected.
 The selection is based on a formal randomising procedure.
 Sampling variation can be estimated - calculation of sample statistics accounts for
sampling procedure
i. Simple random sampling
 Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily available
 All sampling units are given an equal (non-zero) probability of selection.
 The selection process requires a sampling frame.
 A table of random number or lottery system is used to determine which units are
to be selected.
ii. Systematic random sampling
 Easier to implement under field condition.
 The selection process does not require a sampling frame.

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  The sampling units are selected from the population at regular interval.
iii. Stratified random sampling:
 It is a sampling technique designed to produce more representative sample.
 The popln is first divided into groups (strata) having similar characteristics (e.g.
Sex, age, breed, species, etc) and sample is drawn from each stratum.
 Then systematic or simple random sampling can be used to sample from each
stratum.
iv. Cluster sampling
There are three types of cluster sampling:
 One stage cluster sampling occurs when clusters are selected by simple random
sampling and then, once selected; all of the listing units within the cluster are
examined.
 Two stage cluster sampling occurs when clusters are selected by simple random
sampling and then, once selected, a random sample of listing units within each
cluster are selected for examination.
 Multi stage random sampling

It used to draw a sample from a population using smaller and smaller groups
(units) at each stage. It’s often used to collect data from a large,
geographically spread group of people in national surveys.

12. DIAGNOSTIC TESTS

Diagnostic tests used for;

1. Making medical decisions, to initiate or withhold treatment and to determine the
level of treatment.
2. Reducing diagnostic uncertainty
 Diagnostic tests applied at the herd/ population level;
 To determine the frequency of disease within the herd,
 To identify the cause of a disease & the process
 To select those animals that needs to be culled.
 Test results reported either in a nominal, ordinal or interval scale.
 Serological test,
 Interpreted as either positive or negative (nominal),
 Strong or weak positive (ordinal) or
 Reacting up to a given dilution of serum or titer (interval).
Diagnostic tests:

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• Begins with diseased individuals
• Used to confirm or classify disease status,
• Provide a guide to selection of treatment, or
• Provide an aid to prognosis.
Screening tests: applied to apparently healthy animals; to detect sero-prevalence of
certain diseases, the presence of disease agents, or subclinical diseases.
Criteria for selecting a diagnostic test
• Simplicity • Validity (accuracy)
• Cost • Repeatability (precision)
• Safety • Robustness
• Automatability • Objective of the test
• Specimen required • Rapidity of result
• Availability of
reagents/replacements

The goal of diagnostic tests is reducing diagnostic uncertainty.

• Establishing a diagnosis is an imperfect process, resulting in a probability
rather than certainty of disease status
• No perfect test, false positive and false negative results can occur.
• Calculation of Se & Sp requires an independent valid criterion, termed as a
"gold standard" by which to define an animals' true disease status.
What are the requirements to reach a diagnosis?
– clinical signs,
– post-mortem,
– samples for laboratory.
It is impossible to be 100% certain about diagnosis, e.g. …
– you may think it is disease X, when it is not (false positive), or,
– you may think it is not disease X, when it is (false negative).
– False positive diagnosis: results in control measures when not needed.???
– False negative diagnosis results in NO control measures when they are needed.
… Which is worse … ?? FN
Sensitivity and specificity are probabilities
Sensitivity and specificity are constant parameters of a diagnostic procedure. If an
individual is randomly selected from the diseased population, there is a

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 constant probability that the test or procedure will give a ‘positive’ result. This
probability is called the sensitivity of the test or procedure. If an individual is
randomly selected from the healthy population, there is a constant probability
that the test or procedure will give a ‘negative’ result. This probability is called
the specificity of the test or procedure.

Diagnostic Test properties (Sensitivity & Specificity)

a) Sensitivity
Defines the proportion of animals with the disease, which test positive [p(T+|D+)] or,
• The proportion of true positives that are detected by the test.
• Sensitivity: Likelihood a diseased animal will have a positive test
• Diseased animals are correctly identified.
• Gives an indication of how many false negative results can be expected.
b) Specificity:
• defines the proportion of animals without the diseases, which tests negative
[p(T-|D-)] or
• The proportion of true negatives that are detected.
• : likelihood a healthy animal will have a negative test
• It correctly identifies non-diseased/healthy animals.
• Gives an indication of how many false positive results can be expected.
Table 1: Sensitivity and Specificity

Sensitivity (Se): Specificity(Sp)

Proportion of diseased individuals Proportion of healthy individuals
identified by the test, i.e. A/(a+c) identified by the test, i.e. D/(b+d)

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False negative “rate”: proportion of False positive “rate”: proportion of
diseased individuals missed by the healthy individuals falsely
test, i.e. c/(a+c) classified as diseased by the test,
i.e. b/(b+d)
Low sensitivity = high false negative rate, Low specificity = high false positive rate,
i.e. infected animals missed i.e. healthy animals wrongly
diagnosed
NB:
• A test is said to be sensitive, when percentage of false negative is low,
• A test is said to be specific, when the percentage of false positive is low,
Reasons for lack of sensitivity (false negative results)
• Natural or induced tolerance • Immunosuppression
(no immune reaction) • Non-specific inhibitors
• Improper timing • Blocking antibodies
(disease or reaction not yet • Laboratory errors
developed)
Reasons for lack of specificity (false positive results)
• Cross-reactions with other infectious agents
• Non-specific reactions
• True exposures (e.g vaccination, passive immunisation, previous exposure)
• Laboratory errors

Cut-off value

 The optimum cut-off level depends on the diagnostic strategy;

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 If the objective is to detect diseased animals (meaning false -ves to be
minimized and limited number of false +ves is acceptable, a test with a high
sensitivity and good specificity is required).
 If the objective is to make sure that every test positive is “truly” diseased
(meaning no false +ves, but limited amount of false -ves acceptable), the test
should have a high specificity and good sensitivity.
Selecting a cut-off value
Selection of a cut-off value should consider:
• The distribution of the values in the diseased and non-diseased segments of the
population
• The objective of carrying out the test
– Screening test: used for the detection of disease in a population of
animals (high sensitivity desired so that most infected animals are found).
– Diagnostic test: used to distinguish between animals that have the disease
in question and those that have other diseases on a differential list (high
specificity desired so that few animals are misdiagnosed).
• The cost (and other consequences) of misclassification
• The prevalence of the disease…
Performance of tests
 Accuracy (validity); closeness b/n test result & true clinical state.
 It’s the proportion of tests that are correct.
 The likelihood that a test results will be correct, on average.
 Bias; systematic deviation of values from the true clinical state.
 Repeatability (precision, reliability): degree of fluctuation of test series
around a central measurement or diagnostic test.
 The likelihood that repeated measures on the same sample/subject will yield
the same result.
 Ideal tests have high validity and high precision.
Predictive values:
 Predictive values are when taking into account test characteristics during the
diagnostic decision process.
 They quantify the probability that a test result for a particular animal correctly
identifies the condition of interest.
a. Positive predictive value (PPV):

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 • Is the proportion of test positive animals which have the disease or (the
percentage of +ve animals, who truly have the disease of interest).
PPV: likelihood that an animal with a positive test have the disease
b. Negative predictive value (NPV)
• Is the proportion of test negative animals which really does not have disease
(% of animals with -ve test results that actually do not have the disease).
• NPV: likelihood that an animal with a negative test is free of the disease.
Summary
1. Apparent prevalence: proportion of individuals with a positive test result, i.e.
(a+b)/N
2. True prevalence: proportion of individuals with the disease, i.e. (a+c)/N
3. PPV: proportion of test-positive individuals that actually have the disease, i.e.
a/(a+b)
4. NPV: proportion of test-negative individuals that are actually healthy, i.e. d/(c+d)
5. Accuracy: proportion of all individuals correctly classified by the test, i.e. (a+d)/N
Estimation of predictive values requires knowledge of sensitivity, specificity and the
prevalence of the condition in the population.
i. The effect of prevalence on predictive value is huge:
ii. Given a 30% disease prevalence, 95% sensitivity and 90% specificity, the
predictive value of a positive test would be 80% and for a negative test 98%.
iii. If disease prevalence is only 3% and test characteristics remain the same, the
predictive value of a positive test will be 23% and for a negative test 99.8%.
As the prevalence increases, the % of positive predicts value increases, and of the %
negative predicts value decreases
General rules about diagnostic tests
• Se & Sp are independent of prevalence
• If prevalence increases, PPV increases & NPV decreases
• If prevalence decreases, PPV decreases & NPV increases
• The more sensitive a test, the better is the NPV
• The more specific a test, the better is the PPV
Example 1
Diseased Non diseased Total
Test +ve 60 (a) 20 (b) 80 (a+b)

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 Test - Ve 15 (c) 105 (d) 120 (c+d)
Total 75 (a+c) 125 (b+d) 200 (N)
PPV = a/a+b = 60/80*100%= 75% AP = a+b/N= 80/200*100% =40%
NPV = d/c+d = 105/120*100%=87.5 TP = a+c/N = 75/200*100% =37.5%
Example 2
Diseased Non diseased Total
Test +ve 99 79 178
Test - Ve 1 821 822
Total 100 900 1000
How does our test perform?
• Sensitivity (SE): 99/100 = 0.99 or 99%
• Specificity (SP): 821/900 = 0.912 or 91.2%
• Apparent prevalence (AP): 178/1000 = 0.178 or 17.8%
• True prevalence (TP): 100/1000 = 0.10 or 10%
• Accuracy (AC): 920/1000 = 0.92 or 92%
• Positive Pred. Value (PPV): 99/178 = 0.556 or 56%
• Negative Pred. Value (NPV): 821/822 = 0.999 or 99.9%
Prevalence Estimation with diagnostic tests
• Tests produce false –ve & false +ve results, so any diagnostic test can produce
an estimate of the apparent prevalence (AP).
• The AP is the proportion of all animals that give a positive test result.
• AP can be >, < or = to the true prevalence
• Estimates of the true prevalence (TP) obtained taking account of test Se & Sp
using the formula;
True prevalence = Ap prevalence + (Specificity -1)
Specificity + (Sensitivity -1)
Example; Babesiosis survey
- PCV test result; Se = 90% Sp = 90%
• Result; apparent prevalence of 25%
• What is the true prevalence?
True prevalence = 0.25+ (0.9 -1) * 100= 47.2%
• To calculate the evaluation of tests and test result a 2x2 table layout is used.
• Even if no information about the actual number in each cell, the table can be
filled with proportions to calculate PPV and NPV as long as prevalence,
sensitivity and specificity are known.
Strategies for selection of an appropriate test

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• If the objective of diagnostic testing is to “rule out” disease, it means that a
reliable negative result is required and the test should generate few false -ves (=
high sensitivity).
• In order to find evidence “rule in” of true disease and minimize false +ve
results, a reliable positive result is required with few false +ves (= high
specificity).
• If the objective is to confirm likely diagnosis “rule in”, a test with at least
95% SP and 75% Se is required.
• To confirm that an animal is free from disease “rule out”, the diagnostic test
should have at least 95% Se & 75% Sp.
Combining tests
• Different diagnostic methods are frequently used in combination to increase
the confidence in a particular diagnosis.
• Different approaches:
– Parallel and series interpretation
– Screening & confirmatory test
– Negative- herd retesting
Multiple test strategies
• When multiple tests are performed and all are positive, the interpretation is
straightforward: the probability of disease being present is relatively high.
• Multiple test results can be interpreted in parallel or series.
Serial and Parallel Testing
• Parallel testing: two or more tests are run on an animal at the same time.
- Only animals with a -ve result on all tests are considered to be free of the disease
(ruled out).
- To be +ve for the combination, a positive for either one of the tests will
sufficient.
- Often used before import of individual animals
• Increases sensitivity (but decreases specificity)
• High -ve predictive value
The technique is recommended if
– rapid assessment is required or
– For routine examinations, because the animal is considered positive
after first test.

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Parallel test interpretation will;
• Increase Se and NPV for a given disease prevalence, so disease is less likely to
be missed.
• Reduce Sp and PPV, hence false positive dx will be more likely.
Serial testing
Serial testing: animals with a +ve result on an initial test are subjected to a 2nd
confirmatory test.
- Only animals positive to both tests are considered diseased (ruled in).
- Often used to screen whole herds, or populations
- Increases specificity (but decreases sensitivity)
- High positive predictive value
• This saves money, lowers Se, and raises Sp.
• It maximizes Sp and PPV, means that more confidence can be attributed to
positive results.
• It reduces Se and NPV and therefore it becomes more likely that diseased
animals are being missed.
Improving positive predictive value
• If we want to be more certain that animals we identify as positive are TRULY
positive we could use two tests in SERIES…
– Test all animals with a ‘screening test’
– Test only those positive to screening test with a ‘confirmatory test’
• Interpretation:
only animals positive to both tests are classified as positive.
• Screening test - the aim is to quickly identify as many as possible of the
diseased animals
- a high sensitivity is the first priority.
• Series test is applied to every animal in the population to screen the
population for positives.
• This test should be easy to apply and low in cost.
• Its Sp should be reasonable, so that the number of false +ves subjected to the
confirmatory test remains economically justifiable.
• Individuals that return a negative result to the screening test are considered
definitive negatives & not submitted to any further examination.
• Any animal positive to the screening test is subjected to a confirmatory test.

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• Confirmatory test - aim is to identify false positive (healthy) reactors to the
screening test,
• A high specificity is the first priority and any positive reaction to the
confirmatory test is considered a definitive positive.
Improving negative predictive value
• If we want to be more certain that animals we identify as negative are TRULY
negative we could use two tests in PARALLEL…
– Test all animals with two (or more) different tests at the same time
• Interpretation:
only animals negative to both (or all) tests are classified as negative.
• Se & Sp are constant parameters of a diagnostic procedure. This is not strictly
true. Se & Sp are really only constant in a defined population at a defined time.
• Se and Sp are affected by many things, such as exposure to cross-reacting
organisms etc. which may change over time or be different in different
populations or geographic areas.
Rules of thumb
• If the objective is to find disease, use a highly sensitive test.
• If the objective is to confirm the absence of disease, use a highly specific test.
Negative-herd retesting
• "Parallel", same test carried out on same animals at different times e.g. TB
Testing 1  testing 2  testing 3
• Positive animals are removed (culled)
• Increase Se at aggregate level
• Specificity becomes more important with decreasing prevalence.

a. “Rule out” the disease

– Free from disease?
– Few false negative (c): high sensitivity. E.g. parallel testing
b. “Rule in” the disease
– Find evidence of the disease
– Few false positives (b): High specificity
E.g. series testing: for test & removal programs
• When prevalence of a disease is low, series test is used to increase Sp &
confirm whether false +ve is due to the disease or not.

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• When prevalence of a disease is high, parallel tests; used to increase
sensitivity whether the negative is due to test or absence of disease

Summary of multiple test strategies

Parallel Series Negative–herd retesting
Effect of strategy Se +++ SP +++ Se+++ el-aggreg. Level
Predictive value Negative Positive Negat. at the herd level
Objectives Rule out Rule in Rule out
Application Rapid assessment Test & slaughter Test & slaughter
Comments When important When important When important penalty
penalty for penalty for for missing disease
missing disease false +ve

13. OUTBREAK INVESTIGATION AND MANAGEMENT

What is an outbreak? An outbreak is a cluster of disease cases.

An outbreak has boundaries: (Space & time)
– Geographic boundaries: an outbreak occurs in a defined space.
– Temporal boundaries: an outbreak has a beginning and an end.
If the frequency of outbreaks is more than usual the term ‘epidemic’ may be used.
Cases Transmission
 Index – the first case identified
 Primary – the case that brings the infection into a population
 Secondary – infected by a primary case
 Tertiary – infected by a secondary case
Objectives of outbreak response
 To prevent/limit spread of the disease; therefore need to know how it has
been, and may be further spread
 To destroy all infection as quickly as possible. Stamping-out, etc.
 To describe the pattern of spread so that determinants of spread can be
identified.
 To control spread and prevent future outbreaks

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Outbreak investigations provides valuable data for economic appraisal/assessment of
any proposed disease control programmes
Types of outbreak
a) Propagating
– usually infectious disease
– Spread from animal to animal – primary case transmit to secondary case, eg.
FMD
b) Common source
All cases are infected from a source that is common to all individuals. e.g food-borne
infection or intoxication
– point source - if the period of exposure is brief (Rapid build-up - many cases
at start;,Rapid decline - no secondary spread)
– Multiple sources (Rapid build-up - many cases at start; No decline - new
cases all the time). Eg. epidemic has common source, then propagates
Steps in outbreak investigation
1. Case definition
 Describing disease patterns in space, Time and population =Involving
measurement of incidence and prevalence
 Could be with or without diagnosis (FMD- diagnosed on clinical signs,
Brucellosis - diagnosed by lab. Test, ‘Sudden death’).
 Could be at animal or group level (Anthrax - individual animals, Newcastle
disease - case may be defined as a whole village affected)
2. Data analysis (Attack rate, Case fatality rate, Losses)
Follow-up investigations for source identification
 Analysis of patterns of disease spread help to identify potential source and if
source is animals brought from another village then source village must be
investigated - called ‘source tracing’
 Disease in other villages should be controlled and further spread prevented
called ‘spread tracing’.
Spread tracing window:
 Spread by movements of animals and other products.
 Animals could be incubating infection any time after the date of introduction
of infection, therefore animal movements OFF during the time between the

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 probable introduction of infection and the start of control measures must be
traced.
 Spread by other ‘vehicles’ is most likely after infected animals have started to
shed the disease agent – usually around the time of clinical disease.
Prioritizing tracings
• Tracing to source (back)
• Prioritise - veterinary judgement on the most likely source of infection
• Tracing spread (forward) – identify dangerous contacts, risk analysis
(qualitative), level of risk, and scale of possible consequences
*Action to be taken on dangerous contacts identified by tracing
• Look for clinical disease - if none found...
• Veterinary risk analysis
– consider both: the likelihood of infection and the consequences of
infection
– if either are great, pre-emptive cull may be justified
– alternatively, quarantine and start routine surveillance to ensure early
detection of disease
3. Control and prevention
 Reporting
 Immediate report of suspicion
 to alert the surrounding areas
 to trigger disease control plans
 Regular updates of the situation (to monitor the development of the
outbreak)
 Final report
 to summarize the effects of the outbreak and the control plan
 for future use, e.g. in annual reports.

14. ANIMAL HEALTH INFORMATION SYSTEM

What is animal health information system/ AHIS/?

 AHIS refer to any system that collects, stores, manages or transmits
information related to the health of animals or the activities of organizations
that work within the animal health sector.

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 It’s a system of data collection, organization and analysis in order to make
evidence based decision in animal health management. Incorporates things such
as;
 District level routine information system
 Disease surveillance system and
 Laboratory information system,
 Abattoir/meat inspection information system
 Clinic/hospital patient administration system
 Human resource management information system.
 Information systems provide greater transparency regarding animal health
management
 Information is required for the planning of animal health management
 Disease control programs are expensive & require SMART disease information,
 Based on good information, strategic control programs can be developed to
areas where the effect will be greatest. e.g. FMD vaccination to high FMD
incidence areas
Purposes of AHIS
 It serve as a reporting & notification tool for outbreaks of animal diseases
 Serve as early warning system within a country & to the OIE notification &
reporting system
 Serve as a reporting tool on the presence/absence of diseases for
epidemiological information
 Provide supporting information on animal health for decision making on
disease prevention and control measures
 To inform the stakeholders/investors on the animal health situation.
Generating data on disease occurrence (monitoring & surveillance)
Disease surveillance
 Looking out for cases of a disease (i.e not usually present ) or which is subject to a
control effort
 Usually associated with short-term disease control effort
 Surveillance is ‘over time’
Objectives
 To detect disease as quickly as possible when and wherever it occurs (early disease
detection)

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 To activate a disease control response (prevent spread of infection/early
warning-early réaction)
 Out break investigation
 Monitoring of Progress in control and éradication program
Disease monitoring
 Measuring and recording the occurrence of a disease in a specific area
(prevalence, incidence)
 May provide information for long-term planning and priority setting
 ‘Monitoring’ implies a repeated activity
Sources of data
Passively acquired [(scanning) surveillance]
 Continuous;
 Coverage is widespread
 Most important for quick detection [Routine disease reports (notifiable
diseases), Reports from animal owners, Routine reports from clinics,
laboratories, abattoirs)
 Coverage is selective - notifiable diseases only
 Coverage is biased
 Quality varies & difficult to control
Actively acquired [(targeted) surveillance]
 Field surveys
 Targeted on high risk areas (Targeted sample taking at markets; ‘door to door’
case findings
 Organised activity, so not continuous
 Supplementary to passive surveillance
 Often includes the use of diagnostic tests (e.g. tuberculosis testing)
 Serological surveillance may be useful
 Situations in which a formal and active approach to disease detection is
needed;
 Control of epidemics (e.g. FMD in UK 2001)
 Eradication programs (e.g. tuberculosis)
 Certification of freedom from disease / infection (e.g. Rinderpest)
 Importing / international trade
Data analyses & information management

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 Reliable data collection, interprétation, management
 Data processing: adapted software programmes (Access, Epinfo…)
Once information has been gathered,
 firstly, it must be managed, controlled and quality-checked;
 secondly, it must be analyzed in order to become more understandable, and
 thirdly, it must be acted upon

15. ANTI-EPIZOOTIC MEASURES

This study involves the description and analysis of disease in groups of animals using
three related techniques:
1) Observation and recording of the natural occurrence of disease and its
determinants, and presentation of the recorded observations;
2) Statistical analysis of the observations;
3) Modeling.
These three techniques are used in conjunction with clinical, pathological and,
sometimes, experimental investigations to:
 Estimate disease morbidity and mortality;
 Elucidate the cause of disease;
 Understand the ecology of disease (transmission, maintenance and nidality);
 Investigate the efficiency of different techniques of disease control.
Definition of 'control' and 'eradication
Control is the reduction of the morbidity and mortality from disease. it can be
achieved by treating diseased animals and by preventing disease, which
therefore reduces both incidence and prevalence.
Eradication
The term 'eradication' has been used in four different senses.
1) First, it has been used to mean the extinction of an infectious agent
2) Secondly, eradication has been defined as the reduction of infectious disease
prevalence in a specified area to a level at which transmission does not occur
3) Thirdly, eradication has been defined as the reduction of infectious disease
prevalence to a level at which the disease ceases to be a major health problem,
although some transmission may still take place

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4) Fourthly, and most commonly in veterinary medicine, eradication refers to the
regional extinction of an infectious agent. For example eradication of RP in
Ethiopia.
Elimination
Elimination (out of threshold) means reduction in the incidence of infectious disease
below the level achieved by control, so that either very few or no cases occur,
although the infectious agent may be allowed to persist. In some circumstances,
the natural history of a disease is such that the incidence of the disease is
reduced by doing nothing. This is not strictly a technique of control, but
illustrates that the incidence of disease may be reduced by natural changes in
host/parasite relationships without the intervention of man. Thus, bluetongue
does not occur in Cyprus in winter because the vector (Culicoides spp.) of the
causal virus cannot survive then. Similarly, the incidence of trypanosomiasis in
the dry savannah regions of Nigeria is reduced during the dry season when the
tsetse fly is absent.
Quarantine
Quarantine is the isolation of animals that are either infected or suspected of being so,
or of non-infected animals that are at risk. Quarantine is an old method of
disease control that is still very valuable. It is used to isolate animals when they
are imported from countries where exotic diseases are endemic.
It is also used to isolate animals suspected of being infected, until infection is either
confirmed or discounted by clinical examination or laboratory testing (e.g.,
cows suspected of being infected with Brucella abortus). Similarly, when an
infectious agent is not spreading within a herd or flock, quarantine may be
adopted as part of a control campaign. Ultimately, eradication can be achieved
by the gradual removal of affected animals. Quarantine is commonly applied
during epidemics to isolate infected from susceptible individuals. The period of
quarantine depends on the incubation period of the agent, the time taken for the
infection to be confirmed, and the time taken for an infected animal to become
non-infectious (either with or without treatment).
Slaughter
The productivity of animals usually is decreased when they are chronically diseased.
If a disease is infectious, affected animals can be a source of infection to others.

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 In such circumstances it may be economically and technically expedient to
slaughter the affected animals.

Eradication of specific diseases from herds often involves a 'test-and-removal'

strategy, in which all animals are tested, and only those testing positive are
removed and slaughtered to reduce the risk of transmission; this is termed as
'stamping out'.
Vaccination
Vaccines can confer immunity not only to many bacteria and viruses, but also to some
helminths. They are used routinely to prevent disease.
a. Ring vaccination: Ring vaccination is the rapid creation of an immune belt
around an infected area and may be carried out to contain a rapidly spreading
epidemic disease outbreak or in situations where the effectiveness of other
methods to prevent the spread of the disease in and around infected zones, e.g.
quarantine and livestock movement controls, cannot be guaranteed, or where
these areas may be relatively inaccessible.
b. Blanket vaccination: This involves the comprehensive vaccination of all
susceptible species animals over a larger area. It may be the preferred option
when the disease outbreak has become well established and there are multiple
foci of infection, or when other disease control methods are impractical for one
reason or another. The vaccination area should cover known and suspected
infected areas together with those areas considered being at high risk for spread
of the disease.
c. Natural vaccination When animals are exposed to a low level of challenge from
agents in the environment, natural vaccination can occur.
Movement of hosts
Animals can be removed from 'high risk' areas where infections are endemic. This
control strategy is implemented in tropical countries where hosts are seasonally
migrated from areas in which biological vectors are active.
Restriction of movement of hosts
The movement of animals is often restricted during epidemics and eradication
campaigns to reduce the risk of disease transmission.
Mixed, alternate and sequential grazing

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The alternate grazing of a pasture with different species of livestock again reduces
pasture contamination. The level of infection with some nematodes can be
reduced by mixed, alternate and sequential grazing.
Control of biological vectors
Infectious diseases transmitted by biological vectors can be controlled by
 Removing the vectors insecticides.
 destroyed the habitat of the vectors by draining land (remove snails to control
Fasciola
Control of mechanical vectors
Living organisms that mechanically transmit infectious agents can be controlled by
destruction and disinfection. Eg. Biting fleas that transmit bacteria, destroyed
by insecticides. People can also act as mechanical vectors; follow strict
procedure for personal disinfection when dealing with outbreaks of highly
contagious infectious diseases.
Disinfection of fomites
Fomites (Inanimate carriers of agents) can be disinfected to prevent the transmission
of infectious agents. Fomites include farm equipment, vehicles, surgical
instruments and sometimes drugs themselves, the last two being associated with
iatrogenic transmission (created by a doctor' which is transferred during
surgical and medical practice).
Biosecurity
'Biosecurity' is the application of management practices that reduce the opportunities
for infectious agents to gain access to, or spread within, a food animal
production unit. Biosecurity can also be extended to the national level, with the
aim of excluding pathogens and pests from a country. During epidemics,
biosecurity is also relevant to preventing infection being taken from animals on
infected farms to healthy animals on 'clean' farms.
Biosecurity encompasses:
 Cleanliness
 Disinfection,
 Reduction of exposure (e.g., maintenance of perimeter fencing
 Testing of animals before inclusion into a herd,
 Isolation of new additions and diseased animals,
 Waste management),

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 Management of personnel (limiting visitors, adequate training of staff), and
 Ensuring that animals can be traced.
Niche filling
The presence of one organism within a niche can prevent its occupation by another
organism. This is epidemiological interference (a particular case of competitive
exclusion ('one species, one niche'- survival of the fittest).
Genetic improvement /Modification of Host Resistance/
Many diseases of both agricultural and companion animals have a variable heritable
component. The disease may be determined predominantly genetically.

16. RISK ANALYSIS

Risk definition
Risk is defined as a potential future hazard, therefore only can be estimated and not
measured
Risk is the probability that an adverse event could occurs and the estimation of the
magnitude of the negative effects on health (human or animal), the environment,
the economy, and trade
Risk- uncertainty as to which two or more possible outcomes will occur with at least
one possible outcome being unwanted (hazard).
Hazard: is a potentially harmful to humans, animals, plants, and environment)
Risk analysis is a standard process by which matters which pose great danger/risk are
dealt with (estimated and managed).
Risk analysis (RA)
 It is a systematic, formal process used to estimate the probability and
consequence of an adverse effect or hazard that may occur in a specified
population.
 Risk Analysis is built on scientific evidence, providing a framework for making
decisions based on objective factors
 Risk analysis methodology is a tool that facilitates decision-making.
International setting organizations provide their own risk analysis methodologies are:
• OIE => Importation and exportation of animals and animal products
• CODEX Alimentarius (FAO/WHO)
=> Food products (Focused on food safety)

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 International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) => focused on pests that can
affect different crops or plants
• Some countries make their own risk analysis using its own methodology
Components of Risk analysis
1) Hazard identification- Steps in hazard identifications:
 Define the product under the analysis (Describe in detail the process of
production and transport of goods or products)
 Define the scenario/ context
 Identify all potential hazards or risks that are associated with the good or product
 Determine whether the risk is real or possible, then proceed to estimate and
characterize it in the risk assessment phase of the analysis
 Develop a communications strategy for this step
2) Risk assessment- the process evaluating/estimating the risk of a specific hazard
that entering, spreading, and established in a population for adverse effect
/risk/.
Steps in the risk assessment
 Identify and describe the population susceptible to each hazard
 Identify the Population at Risk
 Description of Chain of Events that allow the manifestation of damage (risk path
way)
 Final Estimation of the Risk
3) Risk management- The pragmatic decision making process concerned with
regulating the risk/implementing appropriate control option/.
Risk management components:
 Risk evaluation. Evaluate the consequences
 Develop interventions (reduce the level of estimated risk)
 Implementing, monitoring and review of the intervention applied to determine
their effectiveness/validity
4) Risk communication- open two way exchange of information and opinions
about a risk, leading to better understand and better risk management decision.
The purpose of risk communication is to achieve an interactive process between those
involved, which enables the free exchange of information, favoring the RA
process and ensuring transparency.

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 17. GIS AND SPATIAL EPIDEMIOLOGY
Introduction to GIS
Geographic Information System (GIS) – is an organized collection of computer
hardware, software, geographical data and personnel designed to efficiently
capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of
geographically referenced information”. Or It is a Compteriez system for the
input, Storage, analyses and output of spatial information Knowledge and
visualisation of animal mouvements, distribution of epizooties, animal health
status. Or GIS is a system of hardware, software and procedures to facilitate the
management, manipulation, analysis, modelling, representation and display of
geo-referenced data to solve complex problems regarding planning and
management of resources
What is the Difference Between?
Ordinary epidemiology: Data collection- Data organisation- Data analysis- Report.
Spatial epidemiology: Remote sensing -GIS- GIS ±spatial statistics packages- Map
±report.

GIS and its application in animal disease control and epidemiological research
 One of the main features of GIS is its data integration capability.
 Data integration involves the combination of data from two or more data sources,
and the analysis of the combined data.
 It is achieved by linking two databases on the basis of a common key.
 Efficiently linking geographical and attribute information is a central part of the
function of a GIS. As a result, most GIS have very powerful, and simple to use
data linking capabilities. This makes them well suited to the task of integrating
the many different data sources that are required in animal health research.
 An important component of the epidemiology of a disease is the distribution of
that disease in relation to a number of factors, such as species, age, sex, time
and so on. One of the most important of these factors is the disease’s
distribution in relation to space, or its geographical distribution.
 The use of a GIS offers the ability to include the spatial distribution of disease in
the analysis of all the other factors.

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 Understanding of the spatial distribution of disease is important for a full
appreciation of the epidemiology of the disease and support disease control and
eradication programs.
The core concept of GIS
 The power of a GIS comes from the ability to relate information in a spatial
context and to reach a conclusion about this relationship.
 The analysis of these maps is the heart of GIS.
5 Components of a GIS [Software, Hardware, People, Method and Data]
 Computer hardware is needed to run software and to store the data (spatial)
database.
 Specific software used to manipulated/queried/displayed/modeling spatial data.
 Project management working in multi-disciplinary team / People, Method and Data
(map)]

Creation of a GIS project

A GIS-project starts with the input, the editing and the display of data.
 Step 1: open ArcGIS/QGIS  Step 3: prepare and Organizing
 Step 2: Input Data. Layers
 Step 4: Display data/map/
Definition & concept of remote Earth’s surface without being in
sensing (RS) or earth direct contact with the object or
observation area.
 It is a multi-disciplinary science  It is a technique to observe the earth
which includes a combination of surface or the atmosphere from
optics, spectroscopy, photography, out of space using satellites (space
computer, electronics and borne) or from the air using
telecommunication, satellite aircrafts (airborne).
launching etc.  Humans accomplish this task with
 All these technologies are integrated aid of eyes or by the sense of
to act as one complete system in smell or hearing.
itself, known as Remote Sensing  Remote sensing techniques allow
System. taking images of the earth surface
 It refers to obtaining information in various wavelength region of
about objects or areas at the

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 the electromagnetic spectrum  Allows the user to capture, collect,
(EMS). and transform spatial and thematic
 It records the electromagnetic data into digital form.
energy reflected or emitted by the  The data inputs are usually derived
earth’s surface. from a combination of hard copy
Application of remote sensing maps, aerial photographs,
 Data of various types gathered remotely sensed images, reports,
either by satellite or aerial survey documents etc.
photography can be used to
provide information relevant to Data output
animal diseases.  Allows the user to generate graphic
 The main applications have been in displays, normally maps, and
using data such as plant cover, tabular reports representing
surface temperature, moisture derived information products.
indices and brightness in the GIS Data Types:
analysis of the distribution of 1. Spatial Data: Describes the
vector-borne diseases. absolute and relative location of
 Such techniques have recently been geographic features.
applied to ectoparasites, malaria, a) Vector: Points, Lines & Areas
filariasis, Rift Valley and Lyme (Polygons)
disease. b) Raster or grid data e.g., elevation,
 Remote sensing imagery has many population, herbicide use, etc.
applications in mapping land-use c) Images or pictures such as remote
and cover, agriculture, soils sensing data or scans of maps or
mapping, forestry, city planning, other photos.
archaeological investigations, d) TINs – Triangular Irregular
military observation, and Networks – used to discretize
geomorphological surveying, land continuous data
cover changes, deforestation, e) Terrain datasets built from lidar
vegetation dynamics, water and other point clouds.
quality dynamics, urban growth,
2. Attribute Data (tabular data). are
etc.
non-spatial characteristics that are
Data input techniques in GIS
Data Input

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 connected by tables to points,  Cut-off point: The result of a
lines, number, letter or name. diagnostic test selected for
3. Metadata: necessary if you’re distinguishing between positive
going to use data, or if someone is and negative results.
going to use your data later  Predictive value: The predictive
Common sources for spatial data are: value (PV) can be expressed as
 Hard copy maps; aerial positive (PV+) or negative (PV-)
photographs; Remotely-sensed value. The PV+ is an indicator of
imagery; existing digital data files. the probability that individuals
point data samples from surveys. with positive test results do have
 A hard copy map is the most the disease, whereas the
popular source for any GIS PV-expresses the probability that
project. Government agencies are individuals with negative testing
an excellent source of data. results do not have the disease.
Data Input Techniques  Repeatability: Agreement between
Procedures for inputting spatial data into replicates within and between
a GIS are: runs of the same assay.
 Manual digitizing;  Reproducibility: The ability of a
 Automatic scanning; test to provide consistent results
 Entry of coordinates using when applied to aliquots of the
coordinate geometry same sample at different
 Conversion of existing digital data. laboratories.
 Sensitivity (diagnostic): Proportion

GLOSSARY OF of known infected individuals that

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL TERMS test positive in an assay. Infected

individuals that test negative are
 Immunogenecity: is the ability of considered as false negatives.
an agent to cause a detectable  Specificity (diagnostic): Proportion
antibody response in a host. of uninfected individuals that test
 Stability: The length of time for negative in an assay.
which the organism survive  Uninfected individuals that test
(stable and labile) outside of the positive are regarded as false
host. Eg. Leptospira, Anthrax positives.
bacillus

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 Aberrant host: Host which does period, (e.g. 10 new cases per
not play a role in epidemiology 100,000 populations per year).
and is a ‘blind end’ for the  Life-cycle: Biological cycle of a
parasite (same as accidental host). parasite.
 Accidental host: see aberrant host.  Domestic cycle: Cycle involves
 Carrier: Host that is infected only domestic animals.
without displaying clinical  Mixed (intermediate) cycle: Cycle
symptoms and signs, and that can involves domestic and wild
be a source of infection to other animals.
individuals.  Sylvatic cycle: Cycle involves only
 Case fatality: Proportion of wild animals.
individuals that die of a disease in  Synanthropic cycle: Cycle
a population of affected associated with human habitats
individuals. (syn: with anthropos: man)
 Cost-benefit ratio: Ratio of costs  Monitoring: Routine collection of
of a disease in relation to the information on disease and
benefits that accrue from their parameters possibly related to
control. them in a population.
 Endemic occurrence: Constant  Morbidity: Proportion of diseased
occurrence of a disease in a individuals in a population.
population.  Mortality: Number of deaths due to
 Epidemic occurrence: Occurrence a disease that occur in a
of a disease to a level in excess of population in a particular
the expected level. geographic area within a defined
 Pandemic occurrence: Widespread period (e.g. 10 deaths per 100,000
epidemic that usually affects a populations per year).
large proportion of the population.  Odds ratio: Ratio of probability of
 Sporadic occurrence: Occurring an event occurring to that of it not
irregularly, from time to time and occurring.
generally infrequently  Point prevalence: Number of cases
 Incidence: Number of new cases of of an infection or related
a disease that occur in a attributes (e.g. presence of
population in a particular antibodies) in a population at one
geographic area within a defined given time without distinction of

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 old and new cases (example: 10 can be taken to improve the health
cases per 100,000 in May 1998). status of a population.
 Period prevalence: Number of  Survey: Investigation for collecting
cases of an infection or related information on a disease.
attributes (e.g. presence of  Transhumance: Seasonal moving
antibodies) in a population during of livestock to regions of different
a specified period of time without climate.
distinction of old and new cases  Zoonosis: Infection shared in nature
(example: 10 cases per year). by humans and other vertebrates.
 Group prevalence: prevalence in a
smaller group of subjects which
may not be representative for a
larger population.
 Rate: new cases of a disease
occurring in a population during a
defined period of time.
 Sample: Selected part of a
population.
 Spatial distribution: Distribution
of organisms within an area.
 Steady state: Parasite population is
neither increasing nor decreasing
over time.
 Extinction steady state: No
parasite present (see also
eradication).
 Screening: Procedure for
identification of an unrecognized
infection or disease or defect
using tests or other procedures
that can be applied to a population
or a selected subset.
 Surveillance: Intensive form of
monitoring designed so that action

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 Biostatistics and Research Methodology

Compiled by: Ashenafi Damtew (DVM, MVSc, Assistant Professor)

INTRODUCTION TO BIOSTATISTICS

Biostatistics is a growing field with applications in many areas of biology including

epidemiology, medical sciences, health sciences, educational research and
environmental sciences.

Concern of Biostatistics Applied Statistics: the application of statistical methods to

solve real problems involving randomly generated data and the development of new
statistical methodology motivated by real problems. Biostatistics is the branch of
applied statistics directed toward applications in the health sciences and biology.
Biostatistics: The tools of statistics are employed in many fields - business, education,
psychology, agriculture, and economics, to mention only few. When the data being
analyzed are derived from the public health data, biological sciences and medicine,
we use the term biostatistics to distinguish this particular application of statistical
tools and concepts.

Classification of Biostatistics

Descriptive statistics

A statistical method that is concerned with the collection, organization,

summarization, and analysis of data from a sample of population. Inferential statistics.
A statistical method that is concerned with the drawing conclusions/infering about a
particular population by selecting and measuring a random sample from the
population.

Statistical procedures used to summarize, organize, and simplify data. This process
should be carried out in such a way that reflects overall findings. Raw data is made
more manageable. Raw data is presented in a logical form I Patterns can be seen from
organized data.

Some statistical summaries which are especially common in descriptive analyses are:

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  Measures of central tendency
 Measures of dispersion
 Measures of association
 Cross-tabulation
 Contingency table
 Histogram
 Quantile
 Q-Q plot
 Scatter plot
 Box plot.

Inferential Statistics

This branch of statistics deals with techniques of making conclusions about the
population Inferential statistics builds upon descriptive statistics The inferences are
drawn from particular properties of sample to particular properties of population
Inferential statistics are used to make generalizations from a sample to a population.
They encompasses a variety of procedures to ensure that the inferences are sound and
rational, even though they may not always be correct. In short, inferential statistics
enables us to make confident decisions in the face of uncertainty.

E.g. Antibiotics reduce the duration of viral throat infections by 1-2 days; Five
percent of women aged 30-49 consult their GP each year with heavy menstrual
bleeding

OBSERVATINAL AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDY DESIGNS

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Point of both observational studies and designed experiments is to identify variable or
set of variables, called explanatory variables, which are thought to predict outcome or
response variable. Observational studies are an investigation of the association
between treatment and response, where subject who decide whether or not they take a
treatment. In experimental designs, experimenter decides who is given a treatment
and who is to be a control, the experimenter alters levels of treatments when
investigating how these alterations cause change in the response.

Experimental study

Experimental studies are ones where researchers introduce an intervention and study
the effects. Experimental studies are usually randomized, meaning the subjects are
grouped by chance.

The experimental study is a powerful methodology for testing causal relations

between one or more explanatory variables (i.e., independent variables) and one or
more outcome variables (i.e., dependent variable). In order to accomplish this goal,
experiments have to meet three basic criteria: (a) experimental manipulation
(variation) of the independent variable(s), (b) randomization - the participants are
randomly assigned to one of the experimental conditions, and (c) experimental control
for the effect of third variables by eliminating them or keeping them constant.

Randomized controlled trial (RCT): Eligible people are randomly assigned to one
of two or more groups. One group receives the intervention (such as a new drug)
while the control group receives nothing or an inactive placebo. The researchers then
study what happens to people in each group. Any difference in outcomes can then be
linked to the intervention.

The RCT is still considered the “gold standard” for producing reliable evidence
because little is left to chance. But there’s a growing realization that such research is
not perfect, and that many questions simply can’t be studied using this approach. Such
research is time-consuming and expensive - it may take years before results are
available. Also, intervention research is often restricted by how many participants
researchers can manage or how long participants can be expected to live in controlled
conditions. As a result, an RCT would not be the right kind of study to pick up on

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outcomes that take a long time to appear or that are expected to affect a very minute
number of people.

Observational study

Observational studies are ones where researchers or investigators observe or assess

the effect of a risk factor, diagnostic test, treatment or other intervention without
manipulation or intervention, i.e., trying to change who is or isn’t exposed to it.
Observational studies are used for assessing the mean levels, the natural variation, and
the structure of variables.

The key difference between observational studies and experimental designs is that a
well-done observational study does not influence the responses of participants, while
experiments do have some sort of treatment condition applied to at least some
participants by random assignment.

Cohort studies and case control studies are two types of observational studies.

Cohort study: For research purposes, a cohort is any group of people who are linked
in some way. For instance, a birth cohort includes all people born within a given time
frame. Researchers compare what happens to members of the cohort that have been
exposed to a particular variable to what happens to the other members who have not
been exposed.

Case control study: Here researchers identify people with an existing health problem
(“cases”) and a similar group without the problem (“controls”) and then compare
them with respect to an exposure or exposures.

Subjects are classified into groups either by the presence of an exposure, which is
called a cohort study, or the presence or absence of a disease, which is called a
case-control study.

RESEARCH DATA MANAGEMENT

Data analysis is what happens under the larger umbrella of data analytics. Analysis of
qualitative data allows businesses to run data analytics on a larger scope and address
company-wide issues such as productivity and performance. What data analysis

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involves is evaluating qualitative data in the hopes of establishing a reason for
something that has happened. It can also identify patterns that then inform business
decisions.

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Inferential statistics is a branch of statistics that can be used when researchers and
mathematicians want to attempt to extrapolate on and reach conclusions that extend
beyond the raw data itself. While a study only uses a small sample of the total
population it is studying, inferential statistics can be used to attempt to estimate traits
and thought patterns of behavior among the population as a whole.

Inferential statistics look at the relationship between several variables present in a

sample. These statistics will predict the future of variables. Sometimes they generalize
about larger groups of people. They tell us what is happening.

The methods derived in inferential statistics are used by researchers and scientists
who want to try and understand the larger groups they are studying as a whole. These
often have a reach that extends beyond the population samples that had tests
performed on them or answered surveys. Many statisticians do not want to deliver
information about the studied sample alone, they want to provide extrapolations on
the behavior of the population as a whole. There are a number of different specific
statistical analysis tools used by inferential statisticians in this process.

Most of the modeling and algorithms used in inferential statistics come from a group
of different statistical models called the General Linear Model. This also includes
different multivariate analysis tools. When combined with the various other tests used
in statistics, these models can help paint a picture of population behavior and
attributes.

These statistics interpret the data for us. This allows social scientists to view patterns.
They can make sense of the information. They also use complex mathematics. This is
the core difference between inferential and descriptive statistics.

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How to use inferential statistics?

Inferential statistics examine relationships between variables in a sample. The

statistics help people make predictions, or inferences, about a larger population.
Scientists may use these kinds of statistics as a more affordable way to measure
groups based on small samples so that it can later be applied to a large population.

For example, if you wanted to know the exact age at which each person in the country
went on their first date, you probably wouldn’t be able to ask everybody. Instead, you
would need to find a sample size and draw conclusions based on the sample.

Inferential statistics is all about relationships and quantitative analysis. You can use
inferential statistics to create logistic regression analysis and linear regression
analysis.

Stages in statistical investigation

There are five stages or steps in any statistical investigation

1. Collection of data

The process of obtaining measurements or counts.

2. Organization of data

Includes editing, classifying, and tabulating the data collected

3. Presentation of data

Overall view of what the data actually looks like, it facilitate further statistical
analysis. Can be done in the form of tables and graphs or diagrams.

4. Analysis of data

To dig out useful information for decision making. It involves extracting relevant
information from the data (like mean, median, mode, range, variance. . .)

5. Interpretation of data

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It concerned with drawing conclusions from the data collected and analyzed; and
giving meaning to analysis results. A difficult task and requires a high degree of skill
and experience

Definitions of Some basic terms

Statistics: is a branch of mathematics dealing with data collection, organization,

analysis, interpretation and presentation.

Sampling: The process or method of sample selection from the population.

Sample Size: The number of elements or observation to be included in the sample.

Variable: It is an item of interest that can take on many different numerical values. A
variable is a characteristic or attribute that can assume different values in different
persons, places, or things.

A. Depending on the characteristic of the measurement, variable can be:

1. Qualitative (Categorical) variable

A variable or characteristic which cannot be measured in quantitative form but can

only be identified by name or categories, for instance place of birth, ethnic group,
type of drug, stages of breast cancer (I, II, III, or IV), degree of pain (minimal,
moderate, sever or unbearable). The categories should be clear cut, not overlapping,
and cover all the possibilities. For example, sex (male or female), vital status (alive or
dead), disease stage (depends on disease), ever smoked (yes or no).

2. Quantitative (Numerical) variable:

It is one that can be measured and expressed numerically. Example:

 Survival time
 Systolic blood pressure
 Number of children in a family
 Height, age, body mass index.

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They can be of two types

1. Discrete Variables

They have a set of possible values that is either finite or countably infinite. The values
of a discrete variable are usually whole numbers. Numerical discrete data occur when
the observations are integers that correspond with a count of some sort

2. Continuous variables

A continuous variable has a set of possible values including all values in an interval of
the real line. No gaps between possible values. Each observation theoretically falls
somewhere along a Continuum

B. On the basis of Scales of measurement:

There are four types of measurement scales:

1. Nominal scales of measurement

Only "naming" and classifying observations is possible. When numbers are assigned
to categories, it is only for coding purposes and it does not provide a sense of size
Example:

 Sex of a person (M, F)

 Eye color (e.g. brown, blue)
 Religion (Muslim, Christian)
 Place of residence (urban, rural) etc

2. Ordinal Scales of Measurement

Categorization and ranking (ordering) observations is possible. We can talk of greater

than or less than and it conveys meaning to the value but; Impossible to express the
real difference between measurements in numerical terms. Example:

 Socio-economic status (very low, low, medium, high, very high)

 Severity(mild, moderate, sever)

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  Blood pressure (very low, low, high, very high) etc.

3. Interval Scales of Measurement

Possible to categorize, rank and tell the real distance between any two measurements.
Zero is not absolute. Example: Body temperature in degree F. and Celsius (measured
in degrees). It is a meaningful difference

4. Ratio scales of Measurement

The highest level of measurement scale, characterized by the fact that equality of
ratios as well as equality of intervals can be determined. There is a true zero point, i.e.,
zero is absolute Example:

 Volume
 Height
 Weight
 Length
 Time until death, etc...

C. On the basis of source of data

1. Primary Data:

Data generated for the first time primarily/originally for the study in question. It needs
the involvement of the researcher himself. Census and sample survey are sources of
primary types of data

2. Secondary Data:

Obtained from other pre-existing/ priory collected sources. In this case data were
obtained from already collected sources like newspaper, magazines, DHS, hospital
records and existing data like:

 Mortality reports
 Morbidity reports
 Epidemic reports

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  Reports of laboratory utilization (including laboratory test results)

Qualitative Data

In essence, qualitative data is non-numerical data. It might include customer behavior,

such as how and when a consumer clicks on a link. It can also include customer
feedback, transcripts, or recordings of sales calls.

Quantitative research methods are deals with numbers and amounts for describing an
event that support the hypotheses and predication modal.

Qualitative research method enable researcher to use texts for findings, quality of
subject and kind of providing picture from researcher view.

Categories of Data Analytics

There are four main categories of analytics: descriptive, diagnostic, predictive and
prescriptive. Descriptive analytics documents what has happened over a certain period
of time. Diagnostic analytics assess the why in an event: Did an election affect sales
in November? Predictive analytics looks to the future and determines what will
happen based on previous, similar events and models. Finally, prescriptive analytics
assesses data then makes recommendations based on that data analysis.

Developing a hypothesis

As a first step, you want to develop a hypothesis for whatever event or behavior you
want to explain via your data analysis. Is the heat during the summer affecting beer
sales? Are the bright colors on a landing page driving more customers through your
sales funnel or fewer? Take a moment to develop a workable theory for the why, then
use your data analysis to prove or disprove your hypothesis.

Analyzing data

The first step in any data analysis is segmenting the data optimally. You want to look
at the metrics that most directly affect your hypothesis. Segment your data by
category, looking at factors such as time or location. You can also code data to make

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it easier to analyze. Next, look over the data to spot trends and spikes. Finally, assess
the impact of any trends that you spotted in your assessment of the data.

Data is generally classified into two categories: descriptive and numerical.

Descriptive data, also called qualitative or categorical data, are represented by words
that characterize a set of values while numerical data, known as quantitative data, are
denoted by numbers. In discrete data, the number of possible values is countable,
while continuous data is measurable and can take on infinite values. Some examples
of discrete data include shoe size, set of natural numbers and number of siblings.
Distance, set of real numbers and mass are some common examples of continuous
data.

SAMPLE SIZE

Sample size determination is the act of choosing the number of observations or

replicates to include in a statistical sample OR Sample size determination is the
mathematical estimation of the number of subjects/units to be included in a study.

Optimum sample size determination is required for the following reasons:

1. To allow for appropriate analysis.

2. To provide the desired level of accuracy.
3. To allow validity of significance test etc

If the sample is too small:

 Even a well conducted study may fail to answer its research question
 It may fail to detect important effect or associations
 It may associate this effect or association imprecisely

If the sample size is too large:

 The study will be difficult

 Time constraint
 Available cases e.g. rare disease
 Loss of accuracy

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Steps to use sample size formulae

 1st Formulate a research question.

 2nd Select appropriate study design, statistical significance.
 3rd use the appropriate formula to calculate the sample size.

Sample size in quantitative studies

1) The larger the sample, the more representative

2) The larger the sample, the smaller the sampling error.
3) Descriptive studies and correlational studies require large samples.
4) Quasi-experimental and experimental studies use smaller samples than
descriptive and co-relational studies.

Sample size in quantitative studies (Non-Experimental/ Descriptive Studies)

Level of confidence

 Probability of value of parameters will fall within specified range, closely

connected with the level of significance for statistical tests.
 For example, we can be ‘95% confident’ that the true mean value lies somewhere
within a valid 95% confidence level, corresponds to significance testing at the 5%
level (P < 0.05) of significance.
 Likewise, we can be ‘99% confident’ that the true mean value lies somewhere
within a valid 99% confidence level, corresponds to significance testing at the 1%
level (P < 0.01) of significance.

Precision

A measure of how close an estimate is to the true value of a population parameter

Or it can be thought of as the amount of fluctuation from the population
parameter that we can expect by chance alone in sample estimates

Degree of Precision

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  This is presented in the form of a confidence interval (Range of values within
which confidence lies). For example, a survey of a sample of patients indicates
that 35 per cent smoke.
 We can accept that the figure for the wider population lies between 25 and 45
per cent, (allowing a margin for random error (MRE) of 10% either way).

Before you can calculate a sample size, you need to determine a few things about the
target population and the sample you need:

1. Population Size - How many total people fit your demographic? For instance,
if you want to know about mothers living in the US, your population size
would be the total number of mothers living in the US. Don’t worry if you are
unsure about this number. It is common for the population to be unknown or
approximated.
2. Margin of Error (Confidence Interval) - No sample will be perfect, so you
need to decide how much error to allow. The confidence interval determines
how much higher or lower than the population mean you are willing to let
your sample mean fall. If you’ve ever seen a political poll on the news, you’ve
seen a confidence interval. It will look something like this: “68% of voters
said yes to Proposition Z, with a margin of error of +/- 5%.”
3. Confidence Level - How confident do you want to be that the actual mean
falls within your confidence interval? The most common confidence intervals
are 90% confident, 95% confident, and 99% confident.
4. Standard of Deviation - How much variance do you expect in your responses?
Since we haven’t actually administered our survey yet, the safe decision is to
use 0.5 – this is the most forgiving number and ensures that your sample will
be large enough.

Okay, now that we have these values defined, we can calculate our needed sample
size.

Your confidence level corresponds to a Z-score. This is a constant value needed for
this equation. Here are the z-scores for the most common confidence levels:

 90% – Z Score = 1.645

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  95% – Z Score = 1.96
 99% – Z Score = 2.326

If you choose a different confidence level, use the Z-score table to find your score.
Next, plug in your Z-score, Standard of Deviation, and confidence interval into this
equation:*

Necessary Sample Size = (Z-score)2 * StdDev*(1-StdDev) / (margin of error)2

If you find your sample size is too large to handle, try slightly decreasing your
confidence level or increasing your margin of error - this will increase the chance for
error in your sampling, but it can greatly decrease the number of responses you need.

The formula to calculate the sample size for a mean estimate is:

N = (SD/SE)2

Where N = the required sample size,

SD = the standard deviation, and

SE = the standard error of the mean

The standard deviation could be estimated either by looking at some previous study or
by carrying out a pilot study.

 First, the SE (standard error) is calculated by deciding upon the accuracy level
which you require.
 If you want a 95% confidence level, then divide the maximum acceptable
MRE (margin for random error) by 1.96 to calculate the SE.
 If instead you want a 99% confidence level, then divide the maximum
acceptable MRE by 2.56 to calculate the SE.
 The standard error is 5 divided by 1.96 = 2.55.

The formula for the sample sizes for a proportion, calculate:

N = P (100%-P)/(SE)2

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First, the SE can be calculated by dividing the confidence interval by 1.96.

- In case no literature for proportion, it is safer to assume the worst case

scenario and assume that the proportion is likely to be 50%.
- Other things being equal, this will allow for the largest possible sample size -
and in most circumstances it is preferable to have a slight overestimate of the
number of people needed, rather than an underestimate.

For survey type- prevalence study

where p is prevalence

q is the 1 – p

d is the precision

(Assuming 95% confidence level)

n= 4pq/d2

n is the sample size required for the study

Key points to remember

 Increasing the sample size increases the sensitivity of the study to detect a
difference between the groups being compared
 To estimate the sample size for a descriptive study, in order to estimate a mean
or a proportion, it is necessary to specify the maximum acceptable margin for
random error.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Epidemiological studies are broadly categorized into non - observational

(experimental) studies and observational studies. Four main types of
epidemiological study

1. Experimental studies
2. Observational studies

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  Cross - sectional studies
 Case - control studies
 Cohort studies

Non-observational (experimental) studies

Includes clinical trials or intervention studies. Basic principle is that the design of
the study involves deliberately changing population parameters and assessing the
effect. With this type of study an attempt is made to simplify observation by creating
suitable conditions for the study. Involves dividing a group of animals into a subgroup
which is being treated and another subgroup which is being left untreated and acts
as a control, based on random allocation – randomization.

After a period of time the status with respect to a response variable (e.g. disease status)
is assessed for each animal. Summary measures of the response are then compared
between both subgroups and differences in the summary values suggest the presence
of an effect of the treatment on the response variable. Conducted as laboratory
experiments or as field studies such as clinical trials

Clinical trials

Used to evaluate therapeutic or preventive effects of particular interventions, but are

also useful to investigate etiologic relationships. Clinical trials are considered the
method of choice for investigation of causal hypotheses about the effectiveness of
preventive measures. Provides the researcher with effective control over the study
situation. Investigator has the ability to allocate animals randomly to various groups,
according to factors. Control of factors other than the treatment which are likely to
have an effect on disease can be achieved by using them to define homogeneous
subgroups with respect to the status of these variables - blocking or matching -
within which treatment is then allocated randomly. Less opportunity for systematic
error compared with the observational studies.

Disadvantages: require large groups, costly, bias may be introduced through selection
error and required long duration if disease incidence is low

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Schematic diagram of non - observational (experimental) study

Observational studies

Most frequently used techniques in epidemiological research. Conducted on

naturally occurring cases of disease in the field, and so it is not possible to assign
animals to groups randomly because the investigator has little control over the
factors that are being studied. Assumes that the study does not interfere with the
population characteristics. Animals are allocated to groups with respect to certain
characteristics that they possess (trait or disease; other health related problems).

Investigator is only allowed to select suitable conditions for the study.

Observational studies can be further categorized into prospective cohort studies and
retrospective studies as well as cross - sectional studies. Latter events may be
recorded prospectively from the present into the future; or may be a retrospective
record of past events.

 Retrospective studies include case - control and retrospective cohort

studies

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  Cross-sectional survey records events occurring at a particular point in
time

Schematic diagram of a prospective and retrospective cohort study

Case - control study

Animals with the disease (cases) and without the disease (controls) are selected.
Their status with regard to potential risk factors is then examined. Compares a group
of diseased animals with a group of healthy animals with respect to exposure to
hypothesized causal factors. Involves comparing the frequency of past exposure
between cases who develop the disease (or other outcome of interest) and controls
chosen to reflect the frequency of exposure in the underlying population at risk. Used
effectively for the study of low incidence diseases as well as of conditions
developing over a long time. Allow the investigation of preliminary causal
hypotheses

Advantages

 An efficient method for studying rare diseases

 Because subjects have experienced the outcome of interest at the start
of the study
 Quick to run and are considerably cheaper than other study types

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Disadvantages

 Cannot provide information on the disease incidence or frequency in a

population
 The study is reliant on the quality of past records or recollection of
study participants
 Not suitable for the study of rare exposures, and data collection is reliant
on the quality of past records
 Very difficult to ensure an unbiased selection of the control group and, as a
result, the representativeness of the sample selection process is difficult to
guarantee

Schematic diagram of a case - control study

Cross - sectional study

A random sample of individuals from a population is taken at one point in time.

Animals are categorized according to presence and absence of disease and
hypothesized causal factors. Inferences then can be made about associations
between disease and the hypothesized causal factors. Individual animals included in
the sample are examined for the presence of disease and their status with regard to
the presence or absence of specified risk factors. Investigates relationships between
disease and hypothesized causal factors in a specified population.

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Useful for describing the situation at the time of data collection. Allows
determining prevalence and commonly involve surveys to collect data

Advantages: relatively quick to conduct and their cost is moderate, compared with
other study designs

Disadvantages: provide only a “snapshot in time” of the disease occurrence, i.e.,

cannot provide information on the incidence of disease in a population - only an
estimate of prevalence; difficult to investigate cause and effect relationships.

Schematic diagram of a cross - sectional study

Veterinary Preventive Medicine

Compiled by Simegn Legesse (BVSc, MVSc)
HOST DEFENSE MECHANISMS AGAINST INFECTIONS

1.1. Resistance
Host resistance is defined as the ability of the host to hinder or arrest the growth
and/or development of the pathogen. Resistance could be absolute or relative.
A) Absolute resistance: It is complete insusceptibility of a host organism to
specific pathogen. This type of resistance is so complete and no need to mount

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specific immune response to be detected serologically. It is usually species specific.
E.g. Equines are absolute resistance to FMD virus.
B) Relative resistance: It is composed of passive and active resistance factors.
Genetically determined animals constitution but the qualities of traits may vary. Eg.
Breed
The body’s defense mechanisms can be divided into: innate (natural) immunity and
acquired (adaptive) immunity.

1.2 Innate immunity

Innate immunity is the resistance that an individual possesses by birth. Innate
immunity may be classified as (a) individual immunity, (b) racial immunity, and (c)
species immunity.
Individual immunity: Individual immunity denotes resistance to infection, which
varies within different individuals in the same race and species and is genetically
determined. For example, if one homozygous twin develops tuberculosis, there is a
very high possibility that the other twin will also develop tuberculosis. But in
heterozygous twins, there is a very low possibility of the other twin suffering from
tuberculosis.
Racial immunity: Racial immunity denotes a difference in susceptibility or resistance
to infection among different races within a same species. For example, races with
sickle cell anemia prevalent in Mediterranean coast are immune to infection caused by
malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. This is due to a genetic abnormality of
erythrocytes, resulting in sickle shaped erythrocytes that prevent parasitization by P.
falciparum. Similarly, individuals with a hereditary deficiency of glucose-
6-phosphatase dehydrogenase are also less susceptible to infection by P. falciparum.
Species immunity: Species immunity denotes a total or relative resistance to a
pathogen shown by all members of a particular species. For example, chickens are
resistant to Bacillus anthracis, rats are resistant to Corynebacterium diphtheriae,
whereas humans are susceptible to these bacteria. The exact reason for such type of
immunity is not known.
Innate immunity of the host performs two most important functions: it kills invading
microbes and it activates acquired (adaptive) immune processes. Innate immunity
unlike adaptive immunity, however, does not have any memory and does not improve
after re-exposure to the same microorganism. The innate immunity is primarily

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dependent on four types of defensive barriers: (a) anatomic barriers, (b) physiologic
barriers, (c) phagocytosis, and (d) inflammatory responses

Anatomic barriers: Anatomic barriers include skin and mucous membrane. They
are the most important components of innate immunity. They act as mechanical
barriers and prevent entry of microorganisms into the body. The intact skin prevents
entry of microorganisms. For example, breaks in the skin due to scratches, wounds,
or abrasion cause infection. Bites of insects harboring pathogenic organisms (e.g.,
mosquitoes, mites, ticks, fleas, and sandflies), introduce the pathogens into the body
and transmit the infection. Skin secretes sebum, which prevents growth of many
microorganisms. The sebum consists of lactic acid and fatty acids that maintain the
pH of skin between 3 and 5, and this pH inhibits the growth of most microorganisms.
Mucous membranes form a large part of outer covering of gastrointestinal,
respiratory, genitourinary, and many other tracts of human host. A number of
nonspecific defense mechanisms act to prevent entry of microorganisms through
mucous membrane. Saliva, tears, and mucous secretions tend to wash away potential
invading microorganisms, thereby preventing their attachment to the initial site of
infections. These secretions also contain antibacterial or antiviral substances that kill
these pathogens. Mucus is a viscous fluid secreted by the epithelial cells of mucous
membranes that entraps invading microorganisms. In lower respiratory tract,
mucous membrane is covered by cilia, the hair-like protrusions of the epithelial cell
membranes. The synchronous movement of cilia propels mucusentrapped
microorganisms from these tracts. In addition, nonpathogenic organisms tend to
colonize the epithelial cells of mucosal surfaces. These normal floras generally
compete with pathogens for attachment sites on the epithelial cell surface and for
necessary nutrients.
Physiologic barriers: The physiologic barriers that contribute to innate immunity
include the following:

Gastric acidity: is an innate physiologic barrier to infection because very few

ingested microorganisms can survive the low pH of stomach contents. Lysozyme,
interferon, and complement are some of the soluble mediators of innate immunity.
Lysozyme: has antibacterial effect due to its action on the bacterial cell wall.

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Interferon: are secreted by cells in response to products of viral infected cells. These
substances have a general antiviral effect by preventing the synthesis of viral
structural proteins. The ability of the host to immediately recognize and combat
invaders displaying such molecules is a strong feature of innate immunity.
Complement system: consists of a number of small proteins found in the blood,
generally synthesized by the liver, and normally circulating as inactive precursors
(pro-proteins). When stimulated by one of several triggers, proteases in the system
cleave specific proteins to release cytokines and initiate an amplifying cascade of
further cleavages.
Phagocytosis: Phagocytosis is another important defense mechanism of the innate
immunity. Phagocytosis is a process of ingestion of extracellular particulate material
by certain specialized cells, such as blood monocytes, neutrophils, and tissue
macrophages. It is a type of endocytosis in which invading microorganisms present
in the environment are ingested by the phagocytic cells. In this process, plasma
membrane of the cell expands around the particulate material, which may include
whole pathogenic microorganisms to form large vesicles called phagosomes.

Inflammatory responses: Tissue damage caused by a wound or by an invading

pathogenic microorganism induces a complex sequence of events, collectively
known as the inflammatory responses. The end result of inflammation may be the
activation of a specific immune response to the invasion or clearance of the invader
by components of the innate immune system. The four cardinal features of
inflammatory responses are rubor (redness), calor (rise in temperature), dolor (pain),
and tumor (swelling).

1.3 Adaptive (Acquired) Immunity

Adaptive immunity is also called acquired immunity, since the potency of immune
response is acquired by experience only.

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Table 1: Difference between Innate and Acquired Immunity

Source: (Parija, 2012)

Types of Acquired Immunity
Acquired immunity against a microbe may be induced by the host’s response to the
microbe or by transfer of antibodies. It is of two types; Active immunity and passive
immunity.
A. Active Immunity
The immunity induced by exposure to a foreign antigen is called active immunity.
Active immunity is the resistance developed by an individual after contact with
foreign antigens. This contact may be in the form of:
Clinical or subclinical infection
Immunization with live or killed infectious agents or their
antigens
Exposure to microbial products, such as toxins and toxoids
In all these circumstances, the immune system of the host is stimulated to elicit an
immune response consisting of antibodies and activated helper T (TH) cells and
cytotoxic T lymphocytes/cells (CTLs). Active immunity develops after a latent period,
during which immunity of the host is geared up to act against the microorganism.
Hence it is slow in onset, especially during this primary response. However, once the
active immunity develops, it is long-lasting and this is the major advantage of the
active immunity. The active immunity is of two types: natural active immunity and
artificial active immunity.

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Natural active immunity: It is acquired by natural clinical or subclinical infections.
Such natural immunity is long lasting. For example, individuals suffering from
smallpox become immune to second attack of the disease.

Artificial active immunity: It is induced in individuals by vaccines. There is a wide

range of vaccines available against many microbial pathogens. These may be live
vaccines, killed vaccines, or vaccines containing bacterial products.

Mediators of active immunity: Active immunity is mediated by humoral immunity

and cell-mediated immunity. These two types of immunities are mediated by different
components of the immune system and function in different ways to kill different
types of pathogens

Humoral immunity: It is mediated by molecules in the blood and mucosal secretions

called antibodies. The antibodies are secreted by a subset of lymphocytes known as B
cells. The antibodies recognize microbial antigens, combine specifically with the
antigens, neutralize the infectivity of microbes, and target microbes for elimination by
various effector mechanisms. Humoral immunity is the principal defense mechanism
against extracellular microbes.

Cell-mediated immunity: It is mediated by both activated TH cells and CTLs.

Cytokines secreted by TH cells activate various phagocytic cells, enabling them to
phagocytose and kill microorganisms. This type of cell-mediated immune response is
especially important against a host of bacterial and protozoan pathogens. CTLs play
an important role in killing virus-infected cells and tumor cells. They act by killing
altered self-cells

B. Passive Immunity

When immunity is conferred by transfer of serum or lymphocytes from a specifically

immunized individual, it is known as passive immunity. This is a useful method for
conferring resistance rapidly, i.e., without waiting for the development of an active
immune response. Passive immunity may be natural or artificial.

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Natural passive immunity: It is observed when IgG is passed from mother to fetus
during pregnancy. This forms the basis of prevention of neonatal tetanus in neonates
by active immunization of pregnant mothers. It is achieved by administering tetanus
toxoid to pregnant mothers during the last trimester of pregnancy. This induces
production of high level of antibodies in mother against tetanus toxin, which are
subsequently transmitted from mother to fetus through placenta. The antibodies
subsequently protect neonates after birth against the risk of tetanus. Natural passive
immunity is also observed by passage of IgA from mother to newborn during breast
feeding.

Artificial passive immunity: It is induced in an individual by administration of

preformed antibodies, generally in the form of antiserum, raised against an infecting
agent. Administration of these antisera makes large amounts of antibodies available in
the recipient host to neutralize the action of toxins. The preformed antibodies against
rabies and hepatitis A and B viruses, etc. given during incubation period prevent
replication of virus, and hence alter the course of infection. Immediate availability of
large amount of antibodies is the main advantage of passive immunity. However,
short lifespan of these antibodies and the possibility of hypersensitivity reaction, if
antibodies prepared in other animal species are given to individuals who are
hypersensitive to these animal globulins (e.g., serum sickness), are the two noted
disadvantages of passive immunity.
Antibodies
Antibodies are globulin proteins (immunoglobulins) that are synthesized in serum and
tissue fluids, which react specifically with the antigen that stimulated their production.
Three types of globulins are present in the blood: alpha, beta, and gamma.
The antibodies are the gamma globulins. They are one of the major plasma proteins,
and against infection often referred to as “first line of defense”. The most important
function of antibodies is to confer protection against microbial pathogens. Antibodies
confer protection in the following ways:
1. They prevent attachment of microbes to mucosal surfaces of the host.
2. They reduce virulence of microbes by neutralizing toxins and viruses.
3. They facilitate phagocytosis by opsonization of microbes.
4. They activate complement, leading to complement-mediated activities against
microbes

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Antigens
Molecules that can be recognized by the immunoglobulin receptor of B cells or by the
T-cell receptor when complexed with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are
called antigens. The word antigen is a shortened form of the words “antibody
generator.” Antigens are substances that react with antibodies, while immunogens are
molecules that induce an immune response. In most cases, antigens are immunogens,
and the terms are used interchangeably. The antigens that are not immunogenic but
can take part in immune reactions are termed as haptens. The term immunogenicity
means the ability of an antigen to elicit an immune reaction in the form of a B-cell or
T-cell response, whereas the term antigenicity means just the ability to combine
specifically with the products of the above responses. All molecules that are
immunogenic are antigenic too, but all antigenic molecules cannot be considered
immunogenic. Thus, haptens can be said to lack immunogenicity.

2. ANTI-EPIZOOTIC MEASURES
2.1 Definitions of Terms
 Prevention: Disease prevention is a procedure through which individuals,
particularly those with risk factors for a disease, are treated in order to prevent a
disease from occurring. Prevention includes both biosecurity and vaccination
 Vaccination: is the practice of artificially building up the animal body against
specific infectious diseases by injecting biological agents called vaccine.
 Control: The reduction of disease incidence, prevalence, morbidity or mortality to
a locally acceptable level as a result of deliberate efforts; continued intervention
measures are required to maintain the reduction. Example:
 Elimination of disease: Reduction to zero of the incidence of a specified disease
in a defined geographical area as a result of deliberate efforts; continued
intervention measures are required.
 Elimination of infections: Reduction to zero of the incidence of infection caused
by a specific agent in a defined geographical area as a result of deliberate efforts;
continued measures to prevent re-establishment of transmission are required.
 Eradication: Permanent reduction to zero of the worldwide incidence of infection
caused by a specific agent as a result of deliberate efforts; intervention measures
are no longer needed.

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 Surveillance: the systematic ongoing collection, collation, and analysis of data,
and the timely dissemination of information to those who need to know so that
action can be taken
 The strategy for disease prevention, control and eradication represents the policy
which, respecting society needs, biological and methodological as well as
economic and organizational feasibilities, identifies main concepts, priorities and
objectives and determines systems.
 The strategy, programmes and practical measures should be based on an
adequate analysis of epizootiological situation as well as on prognosis considering
influencing factors.
 Biosecurity: refers to measures that are taken to stop the spread or introduction of
harmful organisms to human, animal and plant life. The measures taken are a
combination of processes and systems that have been put in place by bioscience
laboratories, customs agents and agricultural managers to prevent the use of
dangerous pathogens and toxins
2.2 Prevention Measures
 Preventing diseases entering and spreading in livestock populations is the most
efficient and cost-effective way of managing disease.
 While many approaches to management are disease specific, improved regulation
of movements of livestock can provide broader protection.
 A standard disease prevention programme that can apply in all contexts does not
exist. But there are some basic principles that should always be observed.
 The following practices aid in disease prevention:
o Elaboration of an animal health programme
o Select a well-known, reliable source from which to purchase animals, one
that can supply healthy stock, inherently vigorous and developed for a
specific purpose. New animals should be monitored for disease before
being introduced into the main flock.
o Good hygiene including clean water and feed supplies.
o Precise vaccination schedule for each herd or flock.
o Observe animals frequently for signs of disease, and if a disease problem
develops, obtain an early, reliable diagnosis and apply the best treatment,
control, and eradication measures for that specific disease.

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 o Dispose of all dead animals by burning, deep burying, or disposal pit.
o Maintain good records relative to flock or herd health. These should
include vaccination history, disease problems and medication.
 Infectious disease prevention activities can be categorized as primary, secondary,
or tertiary.
 Primary prevention occurs at the pre-disease phase and aims to protect
populations, so that infection and disease never occur.
 The goal of secondary prevention is to halt the progress of an
infection during its early, often asymptomatic stages so as to prevent disease
development or limit its severity; steps important for not only improving the
prognosis of individual cases but also preventing infectious agent transmission.
 Tertiary prevention focuses on diseased individuals with the objective of limiting
impact through, for example, interventions that decrease disease progression,
increase functionality, and maximize quality of life.
 Broadly, the health efforts to control infectious diseases focus on primary and
secondary prevention activities that reduce the potential for exposure to an
infectious agent and increase host resistance to infection.
 The objective of these activities can extend beyond disease control, to reach
objectives of elimination and eradication.
 The causation and spread of an infectious disease is determined by the interplay
between agent, host, and environmental factors. For any infectious disease, this
interplay requires a specific linked sequence of events termed the chain of
infection or chain of transmission

Source: (Natasha and Jean Maguire, 2017)

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 Figure 1: The chain of disease transmission

 Control and prevention focus on breaking one or more links of the chain to stop
disease spread.
 Chain starts with the infectious agent residing and multiplying in some natural
reservoir; a human, animal, or part of the environment such as soil or water that
supports the existence of the infectious agent in nature.
 The infectious agent leaves the reservoir via a portal of exit and, using some
mode of transmission, moves to reach a portal of entry into a susceptible host.
 A thorough understanding of the chain of infection is crucial for the prevention
and control of any infectious disease, as breaking a link anywhere along the chain
will stop transmission of the infectious agent.
 Often more than one intervention can be effective in controlling a disease, and the
approach selected will depend on multiple factors such as economics and ease
with which an intervention can be executed in a given setting.
 It is important to realize that the potential for rapid and far-reaching movement
of infectious agents that has accompanied globalization means that coordination of
intervention activities within and between nations is required for optimal
prevention and control of certain diseases

2.3 Control Measures

There are three main methods of controlling communicable diseases:
1. Elimination of the Reservoir
 Man as reservoir: When man is the reservoir, eradication of an infected host is
not a viable option. Instead, the following options are considered: Communicable
Disease Control
Detection and adequate treatment of cases: arrests the communicability of the
disease (e.g. Treatment of active pulmonary tuberculosis).
o Isolation: separation of infected persons for a period of communicability
of the disease. Isolation is indicated for infectious disease with features
such as high morbidity and mortality and high infectivity.
o Quarantine: limitation of the movement of apparently well person or
animal who has been exposed to the infectious disease for duration of the

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 maximum incubation period
of the disease.
 Animals as reservoir: Action will be determined by the usefulness of the
animals, how intimately they are associated to man and the feasibility of
protecting susceptible animals.
 Reservoir in non-living things: Possible to limit Animal’s exposure to the
affected area (e.g. Soil, water, forest, etc.).
2. Interruption of transmission
 This involves the control of the modes of transmission from the reservoir to
the potential new host through: Improvement of environmental sanitation and
personal hygiene, Control of vectors and disinfections and sterilization.
3. Protection of susceptible host: This can be achieved through:
 Immunization: Active or Passive
 Chemo-prophylaxis
 Better nutrition
 Personal protection.
2.4 Eradication
Principles of disease elimination and eradication
The animal disease prevention and control activities of Veterinary Services
throughout the world are a global public good. These activities have major benefits
for agricultural production, food security and safety, public health, animal welfare,
access to markets and alleviation of rural poverty. The effectiveness of prevention and
control policies depends on the good governance and quality of the Veterinary
Services, in compliance with OIE standards and guidelines on animal disease control.
Eradication has been defined in various ways – as extinction of the disease pathogen,
as elimination of the occurrence of a given disease, even in the absence of all
preventive measures, as control of an infection to the point at which transmission
ceased within a specified area, and as reduction of the worldwide incidence of a
disease to zero as a result of deliberate efforts, obviating the necessity for further
control measures. The aim is the biological extinction of an animal disease or
zoonosis, finally resulting in a free or ‘officially free’ status of the territory

 Disease elimination and eradication programmes can be distinguished from

ongoing health or disease control programmes by:

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 o The urgency of programmes
o Requirement for targeted surveillance,
o Rapid response capability,
o High standards of performance
o Dedicated focal point at the national level.

3. ANIMAL DISEASE COMPLEX IN THE TROPICS

3.1 Vector-Borne Diseases

3.1.1 Characteristic Features

Vector-borne infections/diseases are transmitted through vectors. Vectors are

arthropods (insects, ticks, or mites) which can transmit infections from host to future
host. The pathogen exists in the blood or skin of the host. The vector becomes
infected when it feeds on a host. The pathogen develops and multiplies inside the
vector, which then becomes infectious. Animals are usually infected through the bite
of an infectious vector, though other ways of entry are possible. With several
vector-borne diseases animal hosts are important reservoirs. We use vector borne
infections only for infections with a biological vector, that is a vector in which the
pathogen goes through a development before further transmission is possible (e.g.
mosquitoes, tsetse fly, body louse). We do not classify as vector borne those
infections which are transmitted by mechanical vectors that is the animal is only a
vehicle for transporting the pathogen (e.g. domestic flies, cockroaches).
Arthropod vectors are cold-blooded (ectothermic) and thus especially sensitive to
climatic factors. Weather influences, survival and reproduction rates of vectors, in
turn influencing habitat suitability, distribution and abundance; intensity and temporal
pattern of vector activity (particularly biting rates) throughout the year; and rates of
development, survival and reproduction of pathogens within vectors. However,
climate is only one of many factors influencing vector distribution, such as habitat
destruction, land use, pesticide application, and host density. Vector-borne diseases
are widespread in Europe and are the best studied diseases associated with climate
change. Vector-borne diseases account for more than 17% of all infectious diseases,
causing more than 700 000 deaths annually. They can be caused by parasites, bacteria
or viruses. Malaria is a parasitic infection transmitted by Anopheline mosquitoes. It

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causes an estimated 219 million cases globally, and results in more than 400,000
deaths every year. Most of the deaths occur in children under the age of 5 years. Viral
diseases transmitted by vectors include chikungunya fever, Zika virus fever, yellow
fever, West Nile fever, Japanese encephalitis (all transmitted by mosquitoes), and
tick-borne encephalitis (transmitted by ticks). Distribution of vector-borne diseases is
determined by a complex set of demographic, environmental and social factors. Many
of vector-borne diseases are preventable, through protective measures, and
community mobilization.

3.1.2 Rift Valley Fever

 Synonyms: Enzootic hepatitis

 Rift valley fever is an acute arthropod-borne disease of sheep, cattle and goats,
causing high mortality among young lambs, calves and kids and abortion in
pregnant females.
 Many species can be infected by Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV), including
humans. Horses and pigs are resistant to this disease.
 This disease found throughout Africa. Recent outbreaks have occurred in Saudi
Arabia and
 Yemen considerable humans have succumbed.
 This disease is caused by single stranded RNA virus belonging to the genus
Phlebovirus, family Bunyaviridae.
 Rift Valley fever occurs in Africa and the Middle East in sheep, goats, cattle,
camels, antelopes and humans.
 This disease is transmitted by mosquitoes (Aedes spp.), by contact and also by
aerosol.
 Prevention And Control:
Modified live virus and killed virus vaccines are used in countries where the
disease is endemic.
The modified live vaccine should not be used in pregnant animals.
Mosquito control reduces the chances of infection.
In countries where the disease does not occur, outbreaks are dealt with by
strict quarantine and slaughter.

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3.1.3 Rabies

Synonyms: Hydrophobia, Lyssa, Mad dog disease

 Rabies is acute viral encephalitis of all warm-blooded animals characterized
by altered behavior, aggressiveness, progressive paralysis and in most species
by death.
 It is an important disease of man and animals, which is usually transmitted
through the bite of rabies animals to other animals or human result in rapid
fatal encephalomyelitis after a somewhat lengthy incubation period.
 The disease in man is called hydrophobia because the patient exhibits fear of
water, being incapable of drinking though subject to intolerable thirst.
 Rabies in animals is not called hydrophobia because they do not have this
peculiar feature.
 Fox, wolf, coyotes and jackal are extremely susceptible. Guinea pig, Hamster,
Bat, Mongoose, mice, rabbit, skunk and cattle are highly susceptible. Dog,
sheep, goat, horse and human are moderately susceptible. Poultry and
opossum are resistant.
 At the present time rabies occurs in most parts of the world except in Japan,
UK, New Zealand, Antarctica, Australia, Hawaii islands and Switzerland. In
India the incidence is very high.
 Rabies virus belongs to the Rhabdo virus group, one of the RNA helical
enveloped virus group.
 It is found in nerve tissue, saliva, salivary glands, and pancreas, less often in
urine and lymph and rarely in blood, milk and other body fluids of infected
animals.
 It is readily inactivated by sunlight, drying in air, 40-70% alcohol, quaternary
ammonium compounds, tincture-iodine, carbolic acid and any lipid solvents.
 The virus is very resistant to autolysis and putrefaction. The virus will persist
for months in infected nervous tissue in 50% glycerol. The virus survives at
4degree Celsius for weeks.
 Five or six day’s old embryonated hen’s eggs are preferred for growth of virus
by yolk sac route.
 Duck eggs are commonly used for preparation of vaccine.

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 In usual circumstances the only risk of rabies virus transmission is by the bite
or scratch of a rabid animal, although in bat caves, where the amount of virus
may be very high and the extremely high humidity may stabilize the virus
transmitted by aerosol infection.
 In rare circumstances the virus can pass through the intact mucous membrane
 The amount of virus required and to initiate infection varies considerably and
depends upon the susceptibility of the patients.
 Susceptible wild living animals particularly foxes, wolf, jackals constitute the
most important residual focus of rabies infection.
 The most prevalent and most difficult to control, because they carry 106
infectious units of virus/ml of saliva.
 Domestic dog is still the most important source of infection. Although virus
titers in the saliva of confirmed case of rabies in dog varies widely.
 The saliva is believed to be infective in only 50-60% of the rabid dogs at the
time of bite and the presence of virus is greatly evident in a few days before
death.
 The factors, which influence the course of infection, include the virulence,
invasiveness and concentration of inoculated virus, the amount of nervous
tissue near the site of wound, the degree of trauma and the type of animal
inflicting the bite.
 Blood licking bats in chiroptera family constitute an important reservoir in
central and South Africa and they frequently infect cattle, man by biting at
nights.
 In a report from Ethiopia in 1964, the isolation of true rabies virus was
obtained from the saliva of dog, which remains clinically healthy 4 years after
the sample had been taken.
 The clinical features divided into three phases.
Prodromal form:
 During the prodromal period, which lasts 1-3 days, animals show only vague
CNS signs, which intensify rapidly.
 Dog has a change in the temperament aimless snapping and barking at
imaginary objects.
Furious form:

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  By about 3rd day after the onset of illness the dog enters the furious stage
which lasts for 3-7 days.
 During this stage dog becomes irritable, restless, nervous, deprived appetite,
aggressive, and often dangerous as it loses all fear of humans and bites at
anything that gains its attention. There is usually exaggerated response to light
and sound.
 Dog exhibit characteristic change in its barking and may howl in an unusual
tone due to the paralysis of laryngeal muscle.
 Salivation and frothing at the mouth becomes progressively more profound.
 Terminally, there are often convulsive seizures, coma and respiratory arrest,
with death occurring 2 to 14 days after the onset of clinical signs. If it does not
die it passes into paralytic stage.
Dumb or paralytic form:
In cases when the furious phase is extremely short or absent the animal
rapidly enters the paralytic or dumb stage; where the dog is rarely irritable
and seldom bites.
Paralysis of the throat and masseter muscles, dropping of the lower jaw or
lower jaw paralysis is the clinical signs common in dogs.
In dumb form animals are not vicious and rarely attempt to bite.
The paralysis progresses rapidly to all parts of the body, and coma and death
follow in a few hours.
Prevention and Control
Nervous tissue vaccine
• This is a flurry type vaccine. These are prepared from brain tissues of sheep
inactivated through 1% phenol. These are made as 5% and 20% suspension.
o Pasteur’s cord vaccine: this vaccine is prepared by drying over caustic
potash for varying period’s pieces of infected rabbit spinal cord.
o Semple vaccine: This vaccine was developed by Semple (1911) at the
Central Research Institute, Kasauli. It is a 5% or 20% suspension of sheep
brain infected with fixed virus and inactivated with phenol at 370C.
o Beta Propinolactone vaccine: This is a modification of Semple vaccine in
which BPL is used as the inactivating agent instead of phenol.
o UV treated vaccines (Webster): Inactivated vaccines prepared from brain of
infected animals, which were exposed to UV rays.

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Non - nervous tissue vaccine
o Duck egg vaccine: This is fixed virus adapted for growth in duck eggs and
inactivated with BPL. This has been discontinued because of its poor
immunogenicity.
o Live attenuated chick embryo vaccine: Two types of vaccines are available.
o Avianized or chick embryo vaccine: This is made through passaging
the virus in chicken embryo. Low egg passage (LEP) (40 to 50
passages) is completely safe for dogs. Avianized live virus vaccine is a
single dose vaccine. Age of first vaccination is 3 months, dose 3 ml i/m.
Immunity 3 years. Repeat after 3 years. High Egg Passage (HEP)
vaccine at 180 passage level used for cattle and cats.
o Tissue culture vaccine: The first cell culture vaccine was the human
diploid cell strain (HDCS) vaccine developed by Koprowsky, Wiktor
and Plotkin. It is a purified and concentrated preparation of fixed rabies
virus (Pitman –Moore Strain) grown on human diploid cells (WI 38 or
MRC 5) and inactivated with betapropinolactone. It is highly antigenic
and free from side effects. Its only disadvantage is high cost.
Nowadays more economical, primary chicken embryo and vero cell
culture adapted vaccines are available. The avianized live virus vaccine
is a single dose vaccine. Age of first vaccination is 3 months, dose 3 ml
i/m. Immunity 3 years. Repeat after 3 years. Revaccination should be
done after 6 months and then at yearly intervals. Dose 5 ml s/c in the
neck or flank region.

o Subunit vaccine: The glycoprotein subunit on the virus surface, which is the
protective antigen has been cloned and recombinant vaccines produced. They
are still in the experimental stage.
o Pre exposure vaccination- Pre exposure vaccination schedule for dogs starts
at 12th week age – first dose, 28 days later – second dose, one year later- third
dose, three years later- fourth dose.
o Post exposure immunization: 0, 3, 7, 28, 60, 90 days after exposure.
Control (as per the WHO recommendations)
 Notification of suspected cases, and destruction of dogs with clinical signs and
dogs bitten by a suspected rabid animal.

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  Compulsory immunization of dogs
 Sterilization and vaccination of stray dogs by using baits
 Epidemiological Surveillance
 Education of Public
 Development of cost effective vaccine

3.1.4 African Horse Sickness

African Horse Sickness (AHS) is an acute or sub-acute, febrile, arthropod

borne disease of horses characterized by oedema of subcutaneous tissues,
lungs, hemorrhages of internal organs and accumulation of serous fluids in the
body cavities.
This disease is caused by orbi virus belonging to the family Reo viridae which
is a double stranded RNA virus.
Horses of all breeds are highly susceptible to natural infection.
Mules and zebras are less Affected and donkeys are generally resistant. The
disease occurs principally in Southern, Eastern and Central Africa.
From there it spreads to Syria, Lebanon, Israel and other parts of Middle East.
It has been recorded in Afghanistan, West Pakistan, Turkey and Iraq.
It is a seasonal disease, common in late summer in warm, humid, low lying
marshy districts.
This disease is not directly contagious.
Various nocturnal biting insects including mosquitoes are the most important
vectors of infection in Africa.
Culicoides species of mosquito and insects belonging to Tabanidae family and
genus stomoxys have been incriminated in outbreaks in Turkey.
Many serotypes have been described. In Africa 9 distinct serotypes are
recognized and considerable variation in virulence amongst individual strains
within each immunological type occurs.
4 different clinical forms of illness were described.
o Very mild form - only rise in temperature to 41°C.
o Acute or pulmonary form (DUNKOP) in this there is severe dyspnoea,
pyrexia and coughing with abundant frothy discharge from the nostrils.

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 This form is common in virulent outbreaks and mostly the affected
horses die.
o Sub-acute form (DIKKOP). It is characterized by remarkable swelling
of head, neck and supraorbital fossa associated with cardiac dyspnoea.
This form usually occurs when the immunity has been broken down by
a natural infection or in animals inoculated with mild strains of virus.
This form is much milder than the acute form and the affected animals
recover.
o Mixed form: Combination of pulmonary form and cardiac form. Heart is
affected.
Prevention and Control
 Vector control
 Quarantine of affected animals
 Vaccination
 Recently freeze dried live attenuated neurotropic mouse brain virus
vaccine has been proved useful and polyvalent vaccines from 7 or 8
antigenically distinct serotypes appear to be safe and highly effective
against all field strains.
 Regular annual immunization is advocated.
 Tissue culture adapted virus, Hamster or Monkey kidney cell culture
vaccines are widely used in Africa and Middle East.
3.2 Soil Borne Diseases
3.2.1 Epidemiological Characteristics

 Bacteria of different types are capable of living in the soil for long periods of
time.
 There is one genus of bacteria that is responsible for a large number of our
common animal diseases and which has several distinct characteristics, this is
the genus Clostridium.
 These organisms form spores that they cease to multiply but are capable of
remaining alive for indefinite periods of time even under very adverse
conditions.
 Also the Clostridia grow only under anaerobic conditions, that is the oxygen
concentration must be lower than average.

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  These organisms become established in soil so are maintained in a given area
for years.
3.2.2 Anthrax

 Caused by Bacillus anthracis which is a rod-shaped organism occurring in

pairs or chains and staining positively with Gram’s stain.
 In the vegetative state in the animal or where there is low oxygen content, the
bacillus is
surrounded by a capsule.
 If the dead animal’s tissues become exposed to the air or the organism is
cultured aerobically, then spores develop, which appear as round filling
defects in the stained rods.
 A high temperature or weak pulse is a serious sign, generally indicating
pulmonary disease, which results from the inhalation of a large dose of spores.
 Intestinal anthrax is another uncommon, but severe form of the disease
resulting from people eating infected meat
 However, cutaneous anthrax is the commonest form even in people who
butcher and subsequently eat an animal that has died from anthrax.
 Transmission:
o Spores are ingested or become accidentally inoculated through the skin,
such as by thistle scratches around the muzzle or legs of an animal
close grazing in an infected pasture.
o Biting flies have also been incriminated.
o The spores germinate into the vegetative form, which rapidly invades,
increasing in virulence.
o A local lesion grows at the point of inoculation and extensive oedema
develops around it.
 The capsulated bacilli produce a lethal factor, which causes anoxic
hypertension or cardiac collapse, resulting in sudden death of the animal.
 After death, the animal appears black from tarry blood that is slow to clot.
 People are infected by contact with the deceased animal, either in butchering
and handling of the infected meat, or at a place far removed from the death
of the animal from spores in its hide, hair or bones
 Not transmitted from person to person

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 Widespread in the bovine populations of the world, its persistence in the
environment and in the produce of cattle makes it an ever-present threat both
in the developing and developed world.
 It is a particular problem in Africa, Southwest Asia, Russia, South and
Central America.
 Control and prevention:
o It is difficult due to the persistence of the organism in the environment,
but once an outbreak starts, it should be possible to bring it to an end
by vigorous control of animals and their slaughter.
o No animal that dies from anthrax should be allowed to be butchered and
sold for meat.
o Its hide and bones are also infectious, so should be deep buried with lime
or burnt.
o Anthrax is a common disease in pastoralists. For fuel, they often
conserve dried cow dung, which also makes an ideal material to
incinerate the carcass as it burns slowly but continuously.
o The animal should not be cut open to obtain specimens or perform
autopsy, but
cutting off an ear is quite sufficient for diagnostic purposes.
o Once anthrax is recognized, then all animals should be vaccinated with a
live, attenuated vaccine.
o Due to the persistence of the organism in the soil, especially at a site
where an infected animal has been buried, anthrax is likely to recur
year after year at the same site, so-called anthrax districts.
o Hot, moist areas are particularly liable to offer the right conditions for
continuous sporulation and germination, leading to a steady infectious
state throughout the year.
o In contrast, hot arid areas encourage spore formation and when the
vegetation dries out, close grazing brings the animal into proximity
with the spores in the dust, so a dry season outbreak is more common.
This can be anticipated and cattle vaccinated prior to the anthrax
season.
o Treat with penicillin to which the organism is very sensitive

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3.2.3 Clostridial Diseases

 Members of this genus are phenotypically characterized as anaerobic,

gram-positive rods capable of forming endospores.
 Clostridium spp. are ubiquitous in nature, found in soils and sediments throughout
the world and as members of the intestinal microbiome of humans and most other
animals.
 Their natural habitats are soils and intestinal tracts of animals, including humans.
 Dormant spores of several clostridial species have been found in healthy muscular
tissue of horses and cows.
 Clostridial diseases can be divided into two categories:
1. Those in which the organisms actively invade or when locally dormant
spores are activated and reproduce in tissues of the host, with the
production of toxins that enhance the spread of infection (the gas-gangrene
group, the clostridial cellulitides group)
2. Those characterized by toxemia resulting from the absorption of toxins
produced by organisms within the digestive system (the enterotoxemias),
in devitalized tissue (tetanus), or in food or carrion outside the body
(botulism)
 Clostridial diseases are not spread from animal to animal or from animals to
humans.
 They have been classified into three forms:
 Histotoxic diseases
 Neurotoxic diseases
 Enteric diseases
Black leg
 Blackleg is an acute, febrile, highly fatal, worldwide disease of cattle and
sheep caused by Clostridium chauvoei and characterized by emphysematous
swelling and necrotizing myositis that commonly affects large muscles
(clostridial myositis)
 Rapidly fatal disease in well-nourished beef cattle suggests blackleg.
 In cattle, characteristic lesions of emphysematous swelling of the musculature
often develop without a history of wounds.

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  In contrast, the disease in sheep is almost always the result of a wound
infection after shearing cuts, docking, castration, and similar.
 C chauvoei is found naturally in the intestinal tract of animals. Spores remain
viable in the soil for years and are purported to be a source of infection.
Outbreaks of blackleg have occurred in cattle on farms in which recent
excavations have occurred, or after flooding.
 The organisms probably are ingested, pass through the wall of the GI tract,
and, after gaining access to the bloodstream, are deposited in muscle and other
tissues (spleen, liver, and GI tract) and may remain dormant.
 The disease usually occurs in summer and fall and is uncommon during the
winter.
 Prevention and Control of Blackleg in Animals:
o Administration of a multivalent vaccine containing C. chauvoei, C.
septicum, and where needed, C.novyi
o Move animals from affected pastures
o A multivalent vaccine containing C. chauvoei, C. septicum, and, where
needed, C .novyi antigens are safe and reliable for cattle and sheep.
Calves 2 months old should be vaccinated twice, 4 weeks apart,
followed by annual boosters before the anticipated danger period
(usually spring or early summer).
o In an outbreak, all susceptible cattle should be vaccinated and treated
prophylactically with administration of penicillin (10,000 IU/kg, IM)
to prevent new cases
o Cattle should be moved from affected pastures
o Clostridial vaccines are reported to create a weaker immune response in
sheep and goats than in cattle.
o Carcasses should be destroyed by burning or deep burial in a fenced-off
area to limit heavy spore contamination of the soil.
Botulism
 Botulism is a rapidly fatal motor paralysis caused by ingestion or in vivo
production of the toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum types A–G.
 It is a neuroparalytic disease that occurs in warm-blooded animals

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 The spore-forming anaerobic organism proliferates in decomposing animal
tissue and sometimes in plant material.
 The usual source of the toxin is decaying carcasses or vegetable materials such
as decaying grass, hay, grain, or spoiled silage.
 Most botulism in cattle occurs in South Africa and South America, where a
combination of extensive agriculture, phosphorus deficiency in soil, and C.
botulinum type D in animals creates conditions ideal for the disease.
 Prevention and control
o Control and correction of dietary deficiencies
o Immunization with region-specific type toxoid
o Supportive care
o Sometimes, botulinum antitoxin
o Treatment involves hydration, correcting electrolyte disturbances, and
general supportive measure by catharsis as most animals don’t vomit
o Prevention of water source and soil contamination
o Vaccination
Tetanus
 Tetanus is caused by the neurotoxin produced by Clostridium tetani , which is
found in soil and intestinal tracts and usually introduced into tissues through deep
puncture wounds.
 The toxin causes a generalized muscular spastic paralysis.
 It is ubiquitous and has been recovered from a wide variety of other sources,
including street and hospital dust, cotton wool, bandages, catgut, plaster of Paris,
clothing etc. It may occur as an apparently harmless contaminant in wounds.
 C.tetani is Very strict anaerobic and non-capsulated.
 The endospores are highly resistant and Spores are able to survive in soil for years
and they are resistant to most antiseptics.
 Prevention and control:
 The disease is due to the action of the toxin, and hence, the obvious and most
dependable method of prevention is to build up antitoxic immunity by active
immunization.
 The available methods of prophylaxis are
o Surgical attention

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 o Antibiotics
o Immunization – passive, active or combined.
 Surgical attention aims at removal of foreign bodies, necrotic tissue and blood
clots, in order that an anaerobic environment favorable for the tetanus bacillus
is not provided.
 Flushing with hydrogen peroxide in the wound area is produces aerobic
conditions
 Tetanus can be prevented by antibiotics (Large doses of penicillin) when
administered 4hrs after infection but not after eight hrs.
 For prevention, the farm animals should be vaccinated routinely with tetanus
toxoid.
Enterotoxaemia—A disease of Sheep and Lambs
 Clostridium welchi is the cause of several different types of disease conditions.
 The most serious disease from an economic standpoint seems to be
enterotoxemia of sheep and lambs.
 In this disease young lambs, feeder lambs and old sheep are involved.
 The primary requirement seems to be that the sheep are on a diet high in
readily available foods.
 Ewes on very luxuriant pastures may show no evidence of disease while the
lambs may die of a disease known as lamb dysentery.
 Another condition which appears to be due to the same organism is termed
"pulpy kidney disease" because of the severe degenerated changes in the
kidneys.
 The disease, enterotoxemia, is primarily a disease of feeder lambs.
 Prevention and control
o Vaccination has a considerable value in decreasing losses of feeder
lambs. It appears, however, duration of immunity following
vaccination is rather short and that sheep on a prolonged feeding
regime may have to be vaccinated twice.
o Those diseases produced by Clostridium welchi may be sporadic in
which case treatment with sulfa drugs can be indicated
o The method of carcass disposal is important in any disease control
program

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3.3 Contact Infections

3.3.1 Characteristics

 They are communicable diseases that can be spread rapidly by direct/indirect

contact. Direct contact is through direct cutaneous contact, mating, licking etc.
While indirect contact is through air borne, food borne, water borne etc.
Most of them occur as epidemic diseases.
Most of them affect all age groups.
The pathogens of most contact disease have serotype/strain diversity.
Most of them are emerging or re-emerging.
Most of them have great social-economic impact on livestock production.
Most of them are notifiable diseases.
Numerous contact diseases have become almost limited to developing
countries.
Developed countries controlled most contact diseases through test and
slaughter policies.
In most contact diseases, immunity is more or less long lasting immunity
after natural infection or vaccination with live vaccine.
Efficient vaccines are available and can be controlled if adequate
veterinary infrastructure is present in tropics.
Most of them cannot be prevented or controlled by normal commercial
methods so they need national disease control programmes.
The presence of pathogen reservoirs either in domestic or wild animal
species is very important
The way in which the disease alternate between different species, can also
enhance the infectiousness of the particular pathogen
Some of major contact diseases include:
 Mycoplasmosis
 Tuberculosis
 Burucellosis
 Haemorrhagic Septicaemia,
 Foot and Mouth Disease

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  Peste Des Petits Ruminants

3.3.2 Mycoplasmoses

 The Mycoplasma species that affect ruminants cause some of the most
economically important diseases worldwide.
 Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) and (CCPP), are in the genus
Mycoplasma.
 Mycoplasma bovis is the most commonly identified pathogen mostly from
pneumonic calves but also from cattle with mastitis and arthritis.
 Mycoplasma bovis is a major pathogen causing respiratory disease, arthritis,
mastitis, and other diseases such as otitis in cattle.
 Transmission:
o Mycoplasma bovis is mainly transmitted by close direct contact with
infected animals or unhygienic milking and is usually introduced to a herd
by a bought in carrier animal, which may not show any signs of infection.
o Once infected, the bacteria can spread around the body and be shed
through the mucosal surfaces (eyes, nose, rectum, and vagina) and also
gets into the milk which introduces the disease to calves.
 Prevention and Control:
o No commercial vaccines are available for Mycoplasma bovis
o So prevention is based solely on biosecurity measures.
o Incoming animals must be isolated as normal, and can be screened by
blood testing.

3.3.3 Tuberculosis

 Bovine Tuberculosis (BTB): is an infectious, granulomatous bacterial disease

caused by acid-fast bacilli of the genus mycobacterium.
 The occurrence is worldwide, cattle are primary hosts and also affect other
species including human
 The main source of infection are infected cattle with exhaled air and sputum,
feces, milk, urine, vaginal and uterine discharges and discharges from open
peripheral lymph nodes

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  A large number of wildlife and feral species are naturally infected with
M.bovis
 Transmission:
• Mainly through inhalation of droplet nuclei from aerosol generated by
infected cattle
• Ingestion of feed contaminated with feces and communal use of feed and
water troughs
• Calves by ingestion of infected milk
• Cutaneous contact
• Congenital infection
• Artificial insemination with infected semen
 Predisposing factors:
• Large number of animals in a farm
• Purely intensive rearing
• Intercurrent infection
• Poor sanitation
• In adequate ventilation
• Purchase of new animals as replacement
 Prevention and control
o Test and slaughter
o Test and segregation methods
o Retesting periodically with tuberculin test
o Infected herds are usually quarantined, and animals that have been in
contact with reactors are traced
o Sanitation and disinfection may reduce the spread of the agent within the
herd
o Barriers to prevent wildlife access
o Biosecurity measures on farms decrease interactions between wildlife
and domesticated animals
o Effective tuberculosis vaccine is not currently available for cattle

3.3.4 Brucellosis

Bang’s disease, Enzootic abortion, Undulant fever, Malta fever

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 Characterized by abortion, retained placenta, orchitis, epididymitis and
infection of accessory glands
Persistent(lifelong) infection is the characteristic of the organism
Most cases in humans are occupational and occur in farmers, veterinarians
and butchers
Occurrence
o Worldwide distribution
o Eradicated in some countries
o Occurs in all ages of cattle, but common in matured animals
especially dairy cattle.
Source of infection
o The organism is found in uterine discharge, fetus and fatal
membranes, milk and semen
o Many cows that have recovered from the infection act as permanent
carriers
Transmission
o Ingestion
o Contact
o Congenital infection of calves from dams
o Intramammary spread
o Artificial insemination
o Important zoonosis causing undulant fever in humans
Control and Prevention
o Test and reduction of reservoir of infection
o Quarantine
o Vaccination

3.3.5 Hemorrhagic Septicaemia

 Pasteurella multocida (PM), is an acute, fatal and septicemic disease

of cattle and buffalo
 Prevalent in vertebrate animals and frequently found as commensal organisms
in the oral, nasopharyngeal and upper respiratory tract
 Many are opportunistic pathogens

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 Pasteurella multocida have 5 capsular serogroups A, B, D, E, and F with 16
serotypes
based on LPS antigens
 Transmission:
 Can be passed from animals to humans through bites or nasal secretion, with
PM being the most common zoonosis
 Regarding emerging or re-emerging infections of zoonotic origin, Pasteurella
spp. have major implications for both human and animal health
 Outbreaks may be associated with wet, humid weather
 Hemorrhagic septicemia has the potential to cause mass mortality up to
100%
 Prevention and control
 In enzootic areas, vaccination is the only practical prevention method
 The first prophylactic HS vaccine was killed (0.25% Lysol
inactivated-broth) and offered 6 weeks of immunity
 Subsequent live attenuated vaccines were developed and novel acellular
(subunit, recombinant and DNA) vaccines are under development
 Control depends on public awareness, good husbandry practices,
legislation to control animal movement and responsible use of
chemotherapeutic agents

3.3.6 Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD)

 An acute, febrile, highly contagious viral disease of cloven hoofed

domesticated and wild animals
 Characterized by fever and vesicle formation around mouth and feet
 Globally have seven serotypes (A, O, C, SAT1, SAT2, SAT3 and Asia1.)
 Four serotypes in Ethiopia (A, O, C and SAT2.)
 There is no cross-immunity between serotypes. That means, immunity to one
type does not confer protection against others
 Source of infection
o Incubating and clinically affected animals
o Carriers
 Transmission

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 o Contact with infected animals or inanimate objects
o Consumption of untreated/contaminated products
o Ingestion of contaminated milk
o Artificial insemination
o Inhalation of infectious aerosol
o Airborne
o Mechanical transmission by wild animals, birds and non-susceptible
domestic animals
 Prevention and control
o Airborne route is very difficult to control
o Control of livestock movement
o Where the disease is not endemic, the policies of quarantine, slaughter
and disinfection of infected premises
o Eradication in developing countries is very costly, hence, regular
vaccination in conjunction with control of animal movement

3.3.7 Peste Des Petits Ruminants (PPR)

 Peste des petits ruminants (PPR), is a highly contagious, devastating viral disease
of domestic and wild ruminants, primarily affecting goats and sheep
 Prevalent in West Africa and the Middle East
 Peste des petits ruminants virus is a lymphotropic and epitheliotropic virus
 Transmission:
 The virus is easily transmitted by direct contact with secretions and excretions
from infected animals or contact with fomites
 The main entry route is respiratory
 There is no known carrier state.
 The spread is not dependent on vectors.
 Predisposing factors :
o History of recent movement or gathering together of sheep and/or goats of
different ages
o Introduction of recently purchased animals
o Change in weather such as the onset of the rainy season or dry, cold
periods

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 o Contact with trade or nomadic animals
 Prevention and control
 There is no treatment for PPR.
 Oxytetracycline and chlortetracycline are recommended to prevent secondary
bacterial
infections.
 Hyper immune serum which may be obtained from cattle hyper immunized
against rinderpest can be used as therapy.
 Quarantine of the newly purchased animals, isolation of the affected animals,
and following strict hygienic measures will helps to control the disease.
 Vaccines:
o Sheep or goats vaccinated with PPR vaccine at the age of 6 months and
booster dose should be given once in a year.
o The tissue culture rinderpest vaccine at a dose of 102.5 TCID50 protects
goats for at least 12 months against PPR.
o The vaccine is currently used in many African countries for vaccination
against PPR. This vaccine is safe in pregnant goats.
o A homologus PPR tissue culture vaccine produced by attenuation in vero
cells is commercially available.
o In southern India, a homologus PPR vaccine using AR-87 strain is used
to control PPR in sheep and goats.
o Newly developed recombinant vaccinia or capripox viruses expressing
the fusion (F) and Haemagglutinin (H) protein genes of the rinderpest
virus are also effective against PPR.

4. PRODUCTION SYSTEM AND THEIR RELEVANCE TO

ANIMAL HEALTH
4.1 Pastoral Production System
Nomadism
Nomads are, literally, those who lead a nomadic life. Nomadism is a livestock
production system which practiced in the tropics and other parts of the world.

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Pastoralism is the branch of agriculture concerned with the raising of livestock.
The practice of herding is the primary economic activity of a society. Pastoralism
often has a mobile aspect but this can take many forms and be at different scales.
Nomadism: the migration of the entire group with animals, whereby “pure nomads”,
concentrate on pastoral animal husbandry and are not involved in farming.
Semi‐nomadism: predominantly oriented towards pastoral animal husbandry, but
farming may be done partly.
Transhumance: migration with a herd with the necessary herdsmen and parts of their
families. The relative advantages of nomadic production system:
 The exploitation of autochthonous breeds adapted to a location.
 Some of the breeds in this system are relatively resistant to some of the
vector‐borne diseases.
 The traditional knowledge and experience which the nomads have about the
seasonal occurrence of disease vectors and pathogens, is helpful to protect
animals from infection. For example:
 Grazing cattle at midday and late evening during the inactive time of
Tsetse flies.
 Keeping cattle around smoke of a grass fire in the evening to protect
from haematophagous flies and mosquitoes.
 The knowledge of the nomads about edible and poisonous plants is remarkable
Disadvantages of the nomadic production system:
 Lack of knowledge or lack of interest about the connection between the keeping
and feeding of calves as well as the infectious causes of infertility. Example, the
poor feeding and keeping of calves as well as a lack of interest in regularly
removing the ticks from the calves.
 There are many obstacles to veterinary services in pastoral areas:
• Difficult environment
• High cost of delivery due to poor infrastructure
• Illegal operators
• Low cash economy
• The mobility of pastoralists
• Insecurity
 To bring the veterinary services closer to the livestock owners, most countries
have introduced community animal health workers (CAHWs).

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Disease prevention
Vector borne diseases
Systematic vector control or chemoprophylaxis of vector‐borne diseases are
both untenable and contraindicated with the nomadic production system.
No public infrastructure in developing countries is in position to organize or
finance such a program.
It is possible that the calves do not become premunized at the right time and
can lethally infect during migration in a heavily infested vector area.
In haemoparasite endemic area, the application of long acting tetracycline may
be
helpful for supporting the organism of the young animal in building up its
premunity.
Regularly collect ticks from calf to prevent a heavy tick burden and to lessen
natural
infection which help the calf to develop a premunity
Soil borne diseases
 Grazing rotation
 Provide animals with minerals (phosphorus)
 Application of vaccines
 An effort should be made to achieve long‐lasting protection with booster
vaccinations for calves.
Contact diseases
 Vaccination.
 Short term vaccination interval necessary for protection is economically
untenable for nomadic production system.
 Encourage private initiatives amongst the nomads so that they get their
calves vaccinated a number of times against common diseases such as
CBPP, brucellosis.
 At the same time, the adult animals could be vaccinated.
 Vaccinations should be carried out in sufficient intervals.
Endoparasites
 Cause considerable loss in nomadic production system.

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  Improve the keeping and feeding of calves support the development of
immunity against endoparisites.
 Chemotherapeutic or chemoprophylactic
 Anthelmintic treatment of calves if the animal owner in the position to
acquire.
 Reducing overstocking
Mineral deficiency
 It is a considerable problem in pastoral animal husbandry.
 The degradation of the pasture leads to extreme conditions of lack of fodder,
which enhances the development of botulism.
 Providing minerals licks at the watering points is an indispensable aid for
maintaining the health and productivity of the herds.

4.2 Small Holder Livestock Production Systems

Characteristic features
 Small holder farming is found in the tropics and subtropics.
 The main income for small holder farmers is derived from crops.
 The economic functions of small holder farming:
o Self-supply of milk and meat
o Drought power for land preparation
o Producing dung for soil fertility or fuel as necessary
o Increasing the farm income by selling milk and dairy products.
 The size and structure of the farm can vary from purely subsistence farms to
integrated crop‐animal production farms.
o The relative advantages and disadvantages of small holder animal
production systems integrated with crop farming:
o Advantage
• the availability of by‐products or harvest remains from the crops
• little traditional knowledge and little interest in animal husbandry is
required.
o Disadvantage
 The replacement of robust indigenous breeds with exotic ones
due to unplanned and indiscriminate use of AI
 Poor utilization of available resources

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  No knowledge of how to produce balanced feed rations
 Keeping animals communally on degraded community pasture
during the cropping season.
 Inadequate care of young animals
Disease complex
 Disease complexes of small‐holder animal production system are:
 Vector borne diseases in areas where exotic breeds have replaced
autochthonous ones,
 Soil‐borne diseases
 Contact diseases such as FMD, brucellosis, tuberculosis and CBPP
 Endoparasites in young animals
 Plant poisoning if exotic breeds are grazed on stubble
 Mineral deficiencies
4.3 Ranching
Characteristics for ranching
 Grazing carried out on the land available on the ranch without any additional
purchase of feed, or the laying on of feed reserves using hay and silage.
 Feed reserves for the dry season are created by sparing pastures or by
irrigating natural or seeded grassland.
 The stocking rate determined by taking the amount of feed grown in bad year
as the
standard.
 The intensity of exploitation of a ranch is dependent upon environmental
prerequisites, its capital base and the production target of the farm.
 The loss of calves as well as the incidence of disease in adult animals
increases rapidly with introduction of rotating pasture, fencing, increase of the
stocking rate, purchasing of breeding animals and the use of some breeds
(taurine breed).
 demand a considerable expenditure for their control
 With intensification
o The incidence of vector borne diseases increases
o The resistance of the autochthonous animals becomes lost.
o Soil‐borne diseases increasingly cause losses amongst young animals

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 o Contact diseases result from the purchase of young animals, stress
caused by
increased productivity, increase stocking rate, and failure of health
management
o Plant poisoning increases
o Parasites as well as deficiency diseases result from inadequate farm
management
 The advantage of large and financially well supplied farm is that they can put a
farm specific animal health scheme with a private veterinary service into action
independent of the government infrastructure.
 The prerequisite for an effective disease prophylaxis on a ranch is the integration
of the management of animal health into the normal running of the ranch.
 Ranch farm is in a position to be able to control animal transportation and to be
able to put an independent animal health concept into action on its own.
 The animal health scheme of a ranch which operates under various ecological
and economic conditions can be organized as follows:
o Controlling vector in the rainy season using dipping, spraying, or with
dermal application in the dry season (Pour‐on/spot‐on).
o Control tick transmitted disease in calves by premunized naturally through
a light tick
invasion in the dry season.
o Protect calves from enzootic soil‐borne and contact diseases with a
booster vaccination during and after weaning
o Protect mother cows, replacement and bulls against enzootic contact
diseases with a booster vaccination before the rainy season at the time of
weaning.
o Adult animals and replacement can be vaccinated once against soil‐borne
diseases at the beginning of the dry season.
o If it is necessary and economically tenable, the calves can be
chemoprophylactically treated against endoparasites at the time when the
mother animals are being classified, as well as when they are being
weaned.

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 The concept described integrates the ecological and operational cycles in such a
way as to be able to utilize the point in time when the animals are best disposed
towards an immune response
 Prerequisite for carrying out animal health scheme is the availability of private or
public veterinary service on the ranch which can plan, coordinate and carry out the
necessary measures.
 During a disease outbreak a precise diagnosis should be done.
 The owners should be assisted by the veterinarian (by making diagnostic
examination) when purchasing stock not to bring latently sick animals into
the farm.
 Apart from controlling vector‐borne, soil‐borne and contact diseases, the
available resources of the ranch must be utilized for removing the breeding and
hiding places of the vectors and endoparasites. This includes
o Draining swampy areas and build suitable drinking troughs.
o Introduction of appropriate pasture management
o Place weaned animals to dry, high‐lying pasture which are low in
parasites
4.4 Feedlot
4.4.1 The Feedlot Description

 The beef cattle industry comprises a range of production systems, including

breeding (cow‐calf; suckler) and fattening (feedlot) enterprises, which are
managed under
differing conditions.
 Feed‐lot is an intensive fattening operation where cattle or sheep are penned in
groups
for fattening.
 Young growing animals are fed a high‐energy diet to produce marketable beef
at the
lowest cost and in the shortest time table.
 Young animals can be removed from the grazing areas, perhaps as soon as
they have
been weaned, and can also be economically fattened using agro‐industrial by
products.

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  Depending on the starting body weight and age of cattle, the period of
confinement and
feeding varies from 60 days to 12 months.
 Fattened animals bring higher profits.
 A feed lot is usually operated in a farming area.
 The intensive production technique of a feed‐lot allows for the technical and
economical application of disease prevention schemes which are not feasible
on extensive farms
4.1.2 Epidemiology of Disease in Feedlot Cattle

 The morbidity rate, case fatality rate, and population mortality rate
associated with feedlot cattle disease vary among feedlots and depend
on several factors.
 Mortality rates are higher in beef calves 6 to 8 months old (2% to 4%)
than in yearling cattle (0.5% to 1%).
 70% of the morbidity occurs within the first 45 days in the feed lot,
whereas only 40% of deaths occur during that same period.
 The disease epidemic information is valuable in feedlots to formulate
control and treatment strategies.
 The most economically important diseases of feedlot cattle are
infectious
 Disease and diseases associated with intensive feeding of high‐energy
diets.
 There are several epidemiological determinants that are usually
associated with diseases of feedlot cattle.
 The animals are usually young (7 to 15 months old) and often
originated from several different sources and thus have unequal
acquired resistance to infectious disease, especially respiratory
disease.

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 Respiratory disease accounts for 75% of illnesses and 45% to 55% of
mortality in large feedlots.
 The incidence of fatal fibrinous pneumonia is strongly associated with
the commingling or pretransit.
 Season of the year is correlated with respiratory morbidity and
mortality rates.
 The incidence of respiratory disease is higher in auction origin cattle
than in ranch source cattle.
 Other minor diseases of the respiratory tract that occur in feedlot
include:
o atypical interstitial pneumonia, bronchiectasis, brisket disease
and embolic pulmonary aneurysms in yearling cattle
o Diphtheria and tracheal edema, or honkers.
 Bulling among steers is a common health and economic problem in
feedlot operations. The economic loss is related to physical injury,
stress and the necessity of early isolation of the affected animals.
Endemic diseases of feed‐lot stock
 Feeder calves which are brought from differing environmental regions to a
feed‐lot are subject to many challenges: Climate change, Transportation stress
and exposure to infection, Exposed to unfamiliar environment, They have
neither passive maternal protection nor they develop their own active
immunity, Intensive contact in feedlot with animals from different origin,
Intensive exposure to infection through the feed, water, floor of the pen,
Challenge to the organism through an abrupt change in feed, and being fed
with high‐energy rations
 Management measures: vaccination, tagging, weighing, separation, etc
 Endemic feedlot diseases in site specific situation corresponding to the
complexes of:
 Vector borne diseases: LSD, Trypanosomosis, babesiosis, theileriosis,
anaplasmosis, heartwater, rabies in vampire regions.
 Soil‐borne diseases: enterotoxaemia, anthrax, and botulism.

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  Contact diseases: CBPP, FMD, pasteurellosis, stomatistis, vesicularis,
IBR.
 Diseases caused by spoiled or poisoned feed: mycotoxicosis and poisoning
caused by poisonous principles from oil cakes.
 The causes for the occurrence of the aforementioned individual disease
complexes in tropical feed‐lots are particularly varied and include:
 For vector‐borne diseases
The introduction of infected animals
Insufficient vector control in the feed‐lot
 For soil borne disease
An abrupt change in feed to an high‐energy ration (molasses)
with a high percentage of dry matter
Feeding with contaminated bone, carcass, fish‐and blood meal
(anthrax and botulism)
Contamination of the soil of the pen with B. anthracis spores
 In case of contact diseases
Transportation and adaptation stress (“crowding”)
(Pasteurellosis, FMD
Inadequate selection and diagnosis (Tuberculosis, CBPP,
paratuberculosis)
Inadequate immuno‐and chemoprophylaxis
Use of contaminated feed (FMD, brucellosis)
Hazards through contaminated or toxic feed
Using oil cakes containing poisonous plant principles
(cottonseed, meal, soya cake) as feed
Mouldy concentrates straw and silage with, for example, high
aflatoxin content. Sugar cane tops can also be contaminated
with mycotoxins.
 Metabolic diseases
There are four main metabolic diseases feedlot operators need to
be aware of:
 polioencephalomalacia (polio), acidosis, rumenitis and
bloat. These are not infectious diseases and therefore

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 are not contagious. They do have one thing in common,
they occur primarily in cattle fed high grain finishing
rations.
 Feedlot Polio
Feedlot Polio is caused by a deficiency of the B vitamin,
thiamin. Thiamin is required by the animal for energy
metabolism. When it is deficient the brain essentially is starved
of energy. In normal situations, rumen microbes synthesize
enough of all the B vitamins so that they don’t have to be
provided in the feed.
The occurrence of polio is associated with high grain feeding
(greater than 85% concentrate in the diet) and usually occurs
shortly after switching cattle to their finishing diets.
At this time, the rumen microbes are adjusting to the new source
of feed
and acidosis (low rumen pH) is common.
Certain bacteria in the rumen produce thiaminase in this
situation which is
an enzyme that destroys thiamin and also results in thiamin like
compounds which block the action of the true vitamin.
Cattle that are affected by polio have normal thiamin production
but it is
being destroyed before the animal can use it.This causes rapid
problems for the animal.
Cattle with polio display symptoms of listlessness,
incoordination and
convulsions.
Death occurs rapidly if cattle are not treated. Fortunately,
treatment is simple and results in rapid recovery.
Afflicted cattle should be given an IV injection of thiamin
solution (2
grams for a 700 lb calf) two times per day for two days.
They should be pulled from the pen and fed roughage.

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 After recovery they should be slowly readjusted to their
finishing diet.
Feeding thiamin as a preventative measure is not recommended
because it may actually stimulate production of thiaminase and
interfering compounds.
Methods of reducing acidosis are beneficial in preventing polio.
 Acidosis
• as the name implies, acidosis occurs when the rumen and the blood
become
acidic. It is caused by two factors:
excess acid production in the rumen and
Decreased buffering of the rumen digesta as a result of
decreased saliva flow.
Saliva contains large amounts of sodium bicarbonate which is a
buffer that neutralizes acids.
Acids in the rumen are produced by rumen bacteria during the
fermentation of feed.
These acids are absorbed and provide the major source of
energy to cattle.
Two types of acidosis occur; acute acidosis and subacute or
chronic acidosis.
 Rumenitis
Rumenitis is an inflammation or irritation of the rumen wall.
• It is caused by long term feeding of high grain diets which
results in
continuous acidic conditions and lack of physical stimulation or
abrasion of the tissue.
Feeding some roughage provides a “scratch factor” which helps
keep the
tissue healthy. Like acidosis, a low level of rumenitis is a fact
of life when high grain diets are fed.

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 In general, the problem worsens the longer cattle are on their
finishing
diet.
When rumenitis becomes severe, the tissue lining the rumen
wall becomes
ulcerated and is no longer effective in absorbing nutrients.
 Feedlot bloat
One of the results of ruminal fermentation is gas production.
• In normal situations, cattle are able to belch and relieve this
gas that
is produced.
Feedlot bloat is not caused by increased gas production, but
rather, the inability to release gas via the belching process.
The use of finely ground feeds promote foaming or frothiness in
the
rumen.
This increases the incidence of bloat because the gasses are
trapped
in the foam and belching is prevented.
High grain diets also encourage the growth of certain rumen
bacteria which produce a slimy substance that traps gasses.
Acidic conditions in the rumen tend to stabilize the foam.
Saliva contains antifoaming agents, but saliva production is
greatly
reduced on high grain diets.
All of these factors contribute to the occurrence of feedlot bloat.
If bloating is a problem, several steps may be taken.
Feeding Rumensin, Bovatec, oxytetracycline, poloxalene (Bloat
Guard)
and/or long roughage are effective in reducing the incidence of
bloat.

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 Death from bloat is believed to be caused by asphyxiation.The
rumen becomes so distended that the animal can no longer
breathe
Infectious diseases
 Common transboundary cattle diseases in Ethiopia include:
 Foot and mouth disease (FMD)
 Lumpy skins disease (LSD)
 Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP).
 Shipping fever
Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of domesticated
and wild ungulates characterized by vesicles in the mouth and on the feet.
FMD is an extremely contagious disease, with as few as ten infectious units being
able to initiate disease in a bovine by the respiratory route.
It is endemic in Ethiopia
Shipping fever
Shipping fever of cattle is a syndrome characterized by elevated body temperature,
dyspnea, and pneumonia.
It is triggered by the stresses associated with handling and shipping cattle.
Possibly because of the added stress of the weaning procedure.
Light calves appear to be more susceptible to shipping fever than do yearling
feeder cattle.
The shipping fever syndrome is probably the greatest loss to the cattle feeding
industry of any common disease complex known, except where outbreaks of foot
and mouth disease might occur.
Some estimates for losses due to shipping fever in cattle run as high as 25 million
dollars per year.
Many factors contribute to the avoidance of the shipping fever syndrome,
including:
1. good nutrition‐especially a well‐balanced protein supplement, adequate energy
and minerals, and higher levels of vitamin A in the range of 50,000 IU per
head daily
2. proper care and management, including a comfortable, dry, draft‐free, quiet
place to recuperate and

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 3. Therapeutic levels of antibiotics and sulfa for the first 14 to 28 days on the
farm
Control and prevention of disease
 Control and prevention of disease in feedlot cattle depends on:
o purchasing healthy animals, providing a transport system that
minimizes stress, and a comfortable feedlot pen environment
o An adequate feeding system
o Establishing a good surveillance system, and
o Judiciously using vaccine, when necessary antimicrobial agents
 The first stage of the necessary animal health interventions:
o Careful selection following external inspection
o Diagnosis in the field of latent infections with the assistance of feasible
serological and allergic reactions
o Chemo prophylactic treatment against endoparasites, ticks and
haemoparasites
o Immunoprophylaxis against soil‐borne and contact diseases which are
relevant at the site of the feed‐lot
o Chemoprophylaxis before transportation:
 These prevent the introduction of vectors and carries of infection to
the site of the feedlot.
 Vaccinations against relevant diseases on the location of origin of
the animals guarantee immunity.
 The animals can relieved of the burden of endoparasites through a
target application of anthelmintics.
o The second stage of animal health scheme is carried out at the movement
of the arrival of the animals on the feed‐lot.
 Quarantine: the animal should be quarantined, when it is
found necessary.
 Chemoprophylaxis:
 Additional treatment against vectors using spray or
pour on.

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  Application of antimicrobial agents (such as
oxytetracyclin) and antiprotozoal drugs (Berenil)to
avoid the flare up of some diseases
o Third stage of the animal health scheme:
 Accompanies the fattening period
 Consists of careful vector control:
 Regular removal and destruction of the breeding places
of the vectors.
 Spray insecticides in the area of fattening pens, if it is
found necessary

4.5 The Intensive Dairy Farming

4.5.1 Description of the Production System

 The dairy industry is one of the most important components of the world
food system.
 It is a large portion of the agricultural economy of many nations.
 Keeping cattle for dairy production is an integrated part of farms of all sizes
in areas with farming, irrigation and permanent crops.
 Highly specialized and intensive operations produce milk in the tropics.
 Most dairy farms are connected to a milk‐collecting organization and/or
processing plant or an organization for AI.
 The characteristics of intensive as well as extensive dairy farms both in Tropical
and temperate regions include:
o The animals graze relatively near to the milking area or given feed
purchased from
the surrounding area
o Only female calves intend for replacement are raised with milk exchangers
o The lactating cows are subjected to individual control during daily milking
o The animals maintain contact each other
o Year round milk production guaranteed
 Only the calves on dairy ranches and small‐holders operations can be
allowed to feed on milk remains after milking.

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  On a dairy ranch, cows are given feed concentrate according to the
amount of milk they produce.
 The genetic quality of the animals corresponds to the level of intensity of the
farm.
 Native animals are seldom still used for milk production, even by
small‐holders.
 High‐productivity breeds are usually crossed with native breeds

4.5.2 Trends in dairy farming

 Consumption of dairy products increased.

 Holsteins are the predominant breed of dairy cow.
 Jerseys are the next most popular breed followed by Guensey.
 Another trend is the increased centralization of dairy farming in specific
geographic locations.
 As dairy farms increase in size, the ability to attract, train, and manage
labor becomes increasingly important.
 On small dairy farms, much of a dairy producer’s time is spent performing
actual physical tasks, such as milking, growing crops, and handling animals.
 As farms increase in size, the farmer’s attention must be directed towards
managing people and processes.
 It becomes necessary to delegate many tasks to others
 Continued advances in the sciences of genetics, nutrition, reproduction, milk
quality, and health management encourage farmers to learn to depend on
others more for advice.
 The number of farmers using intensively managed grazing systems to provide
forage for their cattle has also increased.
 Intensive grazing systems are promoted to reduce labor and purchased feed
costs on smaller dairy farms.
 Large dairy farms have advantage in fixed production costs and tend to adopt
production enhancing management techniques at a higher rate

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4.5.3 Health and production

 A dairy farm is a complex interrelated system that requires a great deal of

coordination to achieve optimum productivity.
 Multiple and seemingly unrelated decisions on dairy farms can produce a cascade
of effects that affect farm productivity and ultimately farm profitability.
 The dairy health and production management program is one mechanism that
allows for consistent assessment and discussion of the farm situation.
 Increasing stocking density has the effect of increasing the risk of spread of
infectious diseases and parasites.
 More intensive production using increased stocking rates and more productive
pastures has the effect of increasing pasture contamination with faecal matter and
shorter grazing intervals
 The incidence of disease on dairy farms is dependent on:
o The genetic quality of the animals
o The environmental condition and
o The overall farm management, the geographical, political and economic
conditions
A. Diseases of intensification
 The intensification of animal agriculture has created complex animal health and
production problems.
 Intensification of husbandry in all species is recognized as a factor contributing
significantly to an increase in the new infection rate.
 There are relatively few available data that can be used to quantify the effects of
increased intensification of milk production on the health of cattle.
 There is evidence that increased production increases the risk of mastitis and
culling for udder health.
 Larger herds with greater stocking density should increase the risk for infectious
disease, but evidence to support this contention is sparse.
 Very intensive grazing patterns associated with higher grass yields achieved using
better cultivars and greater use of fertilizers favor nematode parasites.
 Acidosis is a condition with high point prevalence in pasture‐based dairy systems
where cows are fed supplements.

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 Laminitis and acidosis are different conditions with a similar pathogenesis,
specifically highly fermentable diets
 While epidemics of clinical syndromes still are seen, the nature of disease has
changed on many dairy farms.
 The trend to larger dairy herd and shrinking profit margins encouraged a shift
toward optimizing herd productivity through reduction of subclinical disease.
o Subclinical diseases such as mastitis, acidosis, and laminitis have emerged
as
major limitations to productivity on many farms
B. Mastitis
Mastitis is inflammation of the parenchyma of the mammary gland.
It is characterized by a range of physical and chemical changes in the
milk and pathological changes in the glandular tissue.
The most important changes in the milk include discoloration, the presence of
clots and the presence of large numbers of leukocytes.
Swelling, heat, pain and edema in the mammary glands.
Caused by invasion of pathogenic microorganism through the teat canal.
Mastitis can occur with a wide range of clinical signs, from subclinical to
severe.
Subclinical mastitis is defined as the presence of pathogenic organisms in the
milk, and an inflammatory response that only be detected by screening test.
The causative agent (s) can only be identified reliably from bacteriologic
culture of milk.
Somatic cell counts of milk are the most frequently employed method to detect
inflammation.
Clinical mastitis results when the cow’s immune system responds with enough
intensity to an intramammary infection (IMI) to elicit signs of inflammation
that is physically observable.
Clinical mastitis is manifested by abnormal color or texture of milk.
In sever clinical mastitis, systemic involvement is apparent.
In this form, milk production can be decreased profoundly.
IMIs can be described as chronic if the duration of infection, with or without
clinical signs, is greater than 2 months.

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 Acute mastitis generally refers to clinical mastitis cases, and more properly
described the rapid onset of clinical signs rather than severity.
More than 140 microbial species are identified as causes of mastitis.
Mastitis causing pathogens can be classified as contagious, teat skin
opportunistic
or environmental based on their epidemiology and pathophysiology.
Contagious mastitis pathogens:
o S. aureus and Str. Agalactiae ‐ the most common
o Mycoplasma bovis, corynebacterium‐ less common.
o Source of infection: Infected cow and hands of milkers
o Transmission: from cow to cow by contaminated udder wash cloths,
residual milk in teat cups and inadequate milking equipments.
Teat skin opportunistic mastitis pathogens:
o Coagulase‐negative staphylococci‐ common cause.
o Create intramammary infections via ascending infection through the
streak canal.
Environmental pathogens:
 Environmental Streptococcus SPP. Including Str. ubris and
Str.dysgalactiae‐most prevalent.
 Str. equinus‐ less prevalent
 Environmental coliforms include the gram negative bacteria E. coli, Klebsiella
spp., Enterobacter spp., and Arcanobacterium pyogenes.
 Source: the environment.
 Transmission: from environment to the cow by the inadequate management
(wet bedding, dirty lots, milking wet udders, inadequate premilking udder and
teat
preparation, housing system that predispose for teat injury, and poor fly
control) of the environment.
Uncommon Pathogens:
o Nocardia spp., Pasteurella spp., Mycobacterium bovis, Bacillus cereus.
Pseudomonas spp., Serratia marcescens, Citrobacter spp., anaerobic
bacterial spp, fungi and yeasts.
 Epidemiology

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 Incidence of clinical mastitis ranges from 10‐12% per 100 cows at risk per
year.
Prevalence of intramammary infection is about 50% of cows and 10‐25% of
quarters.
Contagious pathogens are transmitted at time of milking.
Teat skin opportunistic pathogens take any opportunity to induce mastitis.
Environmental pathogens are from the environment and induce mastitis
between milking.
Environmental pathogens are the most common cause of clinical mastitis in
herds that have controlled contagious pathogens.
Prevalence of infection with contagious pathogens ranges from 7‐40% of cows
and 6‐35% of quarters.
Prevalence of infection with environmental pathogens:
o Coliforms 1‐2% of quarters
o Streptococci less than 5%
The cause of mastitis involves a complex relationship of three major factors:
o Host resistance
o Microbial agent
o The environment.
Risk factors

Animal risk factors:

 Host characteristics are important risk determinants in the pathogenesis of
mastitis.
 These factors are associated with development of specific immunity and with
nonspecific host defence mechanism (General resistance).
 The general resistance related to genetic predisposition, anatomical
characteristics of the
teat and udder, teat end lesion, nutritional status, stage of lactation, parity, and
use of
management procedures to enhance resistance.
 Most new infections occur in dry period and in early lactation.
 Highest rate of clinical disease occurs in herds with low somatic cell counts.
 Morphology and physical condition of teat are risk factors.

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 Selenium and vitamin E status influence clinical mastitis incidence.
 High producing cows are more susceptible.

Environmental risk factors:

 Poor quality management of housing and bedding increases infection rate and
incidence of clinical mastitis due to environmental pathogens.

Pathogenic risk factors:

 Ability to survive in environment,
 Virulence factors (colonizing ability, toxin production), and
 Susceptibility to antimicrobial agents.
 Economics: subclinical mastitis is a major cause of economic loss due
to loss of milk production, costs of treatment and early culling.
Screening test for detecting mastitis
 Appropriate implementation of a mastitis screening test into an udder health
management program depends on an understanding of the characteristics of
the test.
 Tests that commonly employed for mastitis screening purpose includes:
 Milk bacteriology: Milk culture is an important means to determine udder
health status.
 Somatic cell count (SCC): The counting of somatic cell excreted in the milk
has become a widely used indirect measure of mastitis.
o The SCC has been used as a screening test for subclinical mastitis.
o Intramammary infection has a greater effect on SCC.
o The practical use of SCC data to determine cow infection status requires
the selection of a threshold level. Eg 200, 000 cells/ml of milk.
o California mastitis test (CMT): it is a useful mastitis screening test.
o Because the vast majority of mastitis is subclinical, there is a great need
for the
diagnostic screening tests to monitor the prevalence and incidence of
IMI in an udder health management program.

Mastitis control

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 The production of high quality milk is a goal of the dairy industry and a
motivator for a mastitis control program in a dairy herd.
The control effort can be successful by using management techniques that
limit the
spread of major mastitis pathogens, thereby reducing the quarter infection rate.
Herds that have successfully implemented a mastitis control program also
need to develop strategies to control infection with the environmental
organisms
Mastitis causes greater economic loss:
o Milk production loss
o Low milk quality and low price
o Rarely death of a cow
o Discarded milk following treatment with antimicrobials,
o Treatment cost
o Premature culling of cows
Principles of control:
Eliminate existing infections
Prevent new infections
Monitor udder health status

Components of mastitis control program:

 Establish goals for udder health.
 Use proper milking procedures.
 Maintain a clean and comfortable environment for cows.
 Proper installation, function, and maintenance of milking equipment.
 Appropriate therapy of mastitis during lactation
 Provide effective dry cow management.
 Maintain biosecurity for contagious pathogens and cull chronically
infected cows.
 Keep good records.
 Regularly monitor udder health status.
 Review periodically the mastitis control program.
 Contagious mastitis control programs

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 o The contagious pathogens of primary concern in most dairies are Str.
Agalactiae andS. aureus.
o They are the predominant intramammary pathogens in herds with
identified subclinical mastitis problem.
o For both Str. Agalactiae and S. aureus, prevention of new infections
must focus on milking procedures.
o To reduce the prevalence of infection in a herd we need to achieve three
fundamental goals:
 Prevent new infections
 Eliminate existing infections, and
 Monitor progress after implementation
 Elimination of contagious intramammary infections
 Elimination of IMI during lactation
 All the culture positive cows in a herd should be treated with
antimicrobials.
 Elimination of IMI during the dry period:
o The objective of udder health management during the dry period
is to have as few infected quarters as possible at calving.
o Dry cow therapy is the most effective and widely used mastitis
control methods for dry cows.
o The major benefits of dry cow therapy are prevention of new
IMI during the dry period and elimination of existing IMI.
o Elimination of infections by culling:
o Culling may be the most effective method of decreasing the
prevalence of chronically infected cows.
 Environmental mastitis control
 Environmental pathogens are ubiquitous but are particularly numerous in
bedding
and manure.
 Reduced exposure: the goal of every dairy farm should be to expose the teat
of a cow to as few bacteria as possible.
 Enhanced resistance: Increased incidence of diseases such as hypocalcaemia,
ketosis, anddisplaced abomasum are associated with increased incidence of
clinical mastitis.

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  Core antigen vaccination might help in enhancing mammary resistance for
coliform IMI.
 Therapy of clinical mastitis:
o Many mild mastitis cases are coliform IMI that are resolved before
treatment is necessary.
o Antimicrobial treatment lead to better clinical cure rates for cases caused
by pathogens other than streptococci and coliforms.
o It is rarely efficacious or profitable to administer therapy to milder
clinical cases that are chronic and recur repeatedly.
o Therapeutic intervention in coliform mastitis cases should be targeted at
reducing the effects of inflammation rather than antimicrobial action.
o Administration of fluids and effective anti‐inflammatory agents are more
important than antibiotic therapy.
o Occasionally, coliform infections do cause severe chronic mastitis; in
this case systemic antimicrobial therapy is important.
o Mastitis cannot be eradicated from a dairy farm, but it can be reduced to
an acceptable level of economic losses.

5. DAIRY FARMING IN THE TROPICS

5.1 Brief Introduction to Tropical Dairy Farming

 Tropical dairy small holdings take many forms ranging from very small farms
with less than 5 milking cows to larger operations with say 30 milking cows.
 These could be all owned by the one farmer or constitute a colony farm with many
farmers owning small herds.
 The dairy industries in many tropical countries do not produce enough milk for
the countries to be self‐ sufficient in raw milk.
 Many such countries have government supported programs to increase domestic
milk production.
 The average herd sizes of these farms is often less than 10 milking cows and the
poorly resourced farmers have great difficulty providing sufficient feed for their
dairy stock.

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 Other constraints to farm production include:
Adverse weather conditions (high ambient temperatures and humidity),
The many livestock diseases and
The farmers’ poor understanding of the high management requirements of
dairy stock.
 The milk yield of tropical dairy farms can be increased by improving feeding and
other management practices.
 There are many features of dairy farms in the tropics that influence productivity
and profitability as well as sustainability of a dairy farming enterprise.
 Type 1: mixed farms
 Milk production only makes up small part of farm income.
 Farms evolve from cropping to livestock
 Herd sizes are small, say <5 to 20 cows
 Type 2: small holder dairy farms
o Milk production is a major contributor to farm income
o Dairy facilities have evolved but not sufficient for future development.
o Herd sizes are generally smaller than 5 cows.
 Type 3: large scale dairy farming
o These have been established primarily to produce milk
o They often need sufficient land or forage supplies.
o Herd size: 20 to 100+ cows
o Most countries have mainly type 1 and type 2 farms

5.2 Problems for Smallholder Dairy Farms

 Smallholder dairy farms face many problems. The problem can be categorized
into three types:
 Resource problems:
o Limited capital and government support
o Limited availability of quality fodder seeds
o Limited land to grow forages
o Lack of “ weather‐proof” facilities to house dairy stock
o Inability to source quality dairy stock
o Limited supplies of quality supplements
o Suboptimal infrastructure

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  Problems with skill:
o A general lack of comprehension and knowledge.
o Misunderstandings that dairy farming is very different to other livestock
enterprises.
o Limited understanding of the high nutrient requirements of milking
cows.
o Limited understanding of farm business management.
 Miscellaneous problems
There are a wide variety of miscellaneous problems:
o Farms are small size hence only generate small cash flow.
o Feeding imbalances due to too much concern for genetic merit.
o Lack of quality forage production during dry season.
o There are poor quality assurance schemes for by products and
concentrate formulations.
o Milk harvesting system always limits milk quality.
o Dairy advisers often not available and understand little of economics of
balanced feeding.
5.3 Animal Health Scheme and Production

 The coordination of a health programme is important to provide/get the animal

health services effectively, for example for vaccination.
 To simplify the organization on a farm, groups of cows at similar stage of
gestation
can be formed.
 The same thing can be done at the village level with small‐holder operations.
 The required vaccination can be carried out in the 5th/6th month of pregnancy
(as
indicate in the next figure).
 In the 6th/7th month, a booster vaccination can be administered when drying
of
the cows.
 The prerequisite for this is that all the necessary vaccines are applied at once.
 Animals are far less stressed with individual or group treatment and abortion
caused by mistreatment during blanket vaccination are prevented.

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  Vaccinating the mother cows at the end of the lactation period has two
advantage:
o It provides maximum protection for the organism of the cow.
o It also provides maximum protection for the calf by optimizing the
antibody
level in the colostrum.
 Infectious diseases must always be controlled.
o In the case of young animals through the immunization of the mother.
o The calves may only be actively immunized when the passive immunity
has subsided.
o This does not take place as a rule until the calves are 6 months of age
 The health management program: The goal of health management programs
is to:
 ensure the optimal care and well‐being of the dairy animals and
 reduce losses in productivity caused by disease and management errors.
 The health management program is usually developed based on comparison of
herd performance with the pre‐set performance goals.
 The structure of health management programs is generally unique to each
farm.
 The structure of health management programs is minimally composed of:
o Scheduled herd visits,
o Herd performance records review, and
o Decisions and actions related to specific herd management issues
5.4 Animal Health Schemes Health and Production Management of Dairy Calves
 The successful raring of dairy calves from birth to weaning depends on a
well-managed combination of:
o A healthy dam that calves without difficulty,
o A clean calving area,
o The early ingestion of good quality colostrum,
o Clean, dry and draft free housing, and
o Adequate nutrition following colostrial feeding period up to the time of
weaning.
 Calf morbidity and mortality are potential problems in all cattle productions.

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  Most illness and death occur in the first few weeks of life due to:
 Effects of infectious pressure,
 Lack of sufficient colostrial immunity,
 Inadequate housing, health care, and nutrition or
 The effect of adverse environmental conditions.
 Digestive and respiratory tract infectious diseases are the most important
disease for calves.
 About 75% of calf mortality occurs during the first months of life.
 Therefore this indicate the necessity of giving high priority to health
management during the first month of calves
5.5 Common causes of calf morbidity and Mortality
Calf Morbidity and Mortality
 Dairy calves morbidity data is not reliable because of the owners tendency not
to record every illness event and it depends on the owners clinical diagnosis.
o The best data available for morbidity are based on treatment rates.
o Before weaning up to 20% of live‐born calves can be treated for diarrhea
and 15% for pneumonia.
o Calf mortality rates from birth to weaning vary from about 1% to 30%
and even higher.
o Disease is the largest cause of mortality in calves, and diarrhea and
pneumonia are the major causes.
o A study in Canada, Alberta, indicate that 60 % of all calf deaths occurred
at birth, 16% with in the first week of life, 21% after one week but
before weaning, and 3.3% after weaning.
o In USA, Minnesota, enteritis and pneumonia are the most cause of death
in calves.
o In Kenya, gastroenteritis, pneumonia, and tick‐born disease are the major
causes of dairy cattle mortality.
 In Ethiopia:
o An overall crude morbidity of 62% and crude mortality of 22% were
reported in Ada’a Liben (Wudu et al., 2007).
o The most frequent disease syndrome reported in this study include calf
diarrhea with the incidence of 39% followed by joint ill 6%.

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 o The other disease conditions/syndromes diagnosed include navel ill,
pneumonia, septicemic conditions, congenital problems and
miscellaneous cases.
o Age at first colostrum ingestion and cleanness of the calf barns
significantly influence morbidity and mortality.
o Higher crude morbidity and mortality were observed in calves that
ingested their first colostrum meal later than 6 hours of age.
o Calves housed in unclean barns were at higher risk of morbidity than
calves housed in clean barns.
Acute infectious diarrhea
 Diarrhoea in newborn farm animals, particularly calves under 30 days of
age is one of the most common diseases complexes that frequently
encountered.
o It is a significant cause of economic loss in cattle herds.
o The causes of calf diarrhoea are complex and usually involve an
interaction between enteropathogenic bacteria, viruses, and
protozoa, the colostral immunity of the animal and the effects of
the environment
o Acute diarrhea accounts about 75% of the mortality of dairy calves
under 3 weeks of age.
o The most important pathogens associated with acute diarrhea are:
 Enterotoxigenic eschericia coli under 3‐5 days of age,
 Rotavirus, in calves 7 to 10 days of age,
 Coronavirus in calves 7 to 15 days of age,
 Cryptosporidia sp. In calves 15 to 35 days of age,
 Salmonella sp., usually in calves several weeks of age, and
 Cocicidiosis (Eimeria sp.) in calves older than 3 weeks of
age.
 It is characterized clinically by acute profuse watery
diarrhoea, progressive dehydration and acidosis and death
in few days
 The disease is considered to be a complex syndrome
because of the
involvement of one or more causative agent

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5.6 Management of newborn dairy calves
 The nonspecific resistance of newborn calf is markedly influenced by the
type of housing, the temperature of the calving facilities, the temperature
of the calf barn, the person caring for the calves, and whether attendance
assistance are provided at birth.
 Calves should be retained on the home farm for 2 to 3 weeks before being
transported/moved.
 The management system must consider that, during the first 10 days to 2
weeks of life, the calf is extremely susceptible to:
o The effect of stress,
o Irregular feeding practices, and
o Rough handling
Colostrum
 Many infectious diseases of the newborn calf can be controlled by
management interventions to decrease the percentage of
hypogammaglobulinemia in calves.
 Adequate provision of immunoglobulin mass in the colostral meal and
efficient absorption of the colostral immunoglobulin are the two major
requirements to protect calves from the risk of infection.
 Ingestion of liberal quantities of colostrum by the newborn calf within 6 hrs
after birth is the first and most important nutritional requirement of the
newborn calf.
 Control of the amount of colostrum ingested can only be achieved by artificial
feeding methods, such as nipple bottle feeders or esophageal tube feeders.
 Time from birth to feeding is a critical factor affecting absorption of colostral
immunoglobulin by calves.
 Calves should be assisted to suck their dam within an hour after birth.
 Absorption of colostral immunoglobulin ceases by 24 hrs after birth.
 Effectiveness of passive transfer of colostral immunoglobulin depends on the
volume of colostrum ingested, the concentration of immunoglobulin in the
colostrum, and the time after birth ingested.

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  Only the first milking of colostrum after calving should be considered for
feeding
to calves for immunoglobulin transfer.
Increasing specific resistance of the newborn calf by vaccination of pregnant
dam
The pregnant cow is vaccinated at 6 and 3 weeks before parturition to
stimulate the
production of specific antibodies against the common enteropathogens.
These antibodies then transferred to the colostrum.
An adjuvant vaccine containing inactivated rotavirus and corona virus and
K99 + E. coli significantly increased the serum antibody level at the time
of parturition.
Vaccination of pregnant cattle with infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR),
Salamonella and others is also a successful method of protecting the calves
from
these diseases.
A quadrivalent vaccine containing the killed antigens of Bovine respiratory syncytia
virus (BRSV), parainfluenza‐3 virus, mycoplasma bovis, and M. dispar may provide
some protection against respiratory disease associated with these pathogens

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 Animal Health Extension & Pastoralism
Comiled by Ashenafi Damtew (DVM, MVSc, Assistant Professor)

DESCRIPTION OF THE ETHIOPIAN LIVESTOCK SECTOR

Livestock is important in Ethiopian’s agricultural economy as almost all farmers own

some livestock. Livestock assets are valued at 720 USD per farm on average. Overall
livestock output has grown rapidly over the last decade, estimated at almost 6% per
year, but about 80% of that growth came from increases in the number of livestock.

The stock of different livestock species was about 50% higher in 2015 than a decade
earlier, while modern input use and improvements in production methods contributed
little to growth in the livestock sector. Linked to improved access to extension and
markets, adoption of improved breeds and improved feeding practices increased, but
such adoption patterns started from a very low base.

Within the livestock sector, cattle are dominant, making up an estimated

three-quarters of the value of livestock stock. However, the share of cattle in total
livestock output is declining, and small ruminants are on the rise, especially in
pastoralist areas. Given the rapid growth in livestock numbers and the increasing
livestock density per unit of land, we find that feeding practices are changing. Grazing
land is declining in availability, so reliance on commercial feed markets is increasing.
Access to vaccinations and veterinary service provision have improved, and livestock
death rates declined slightly over the last decade. However, the number of livestock
lost to deaths is still more than twice the number sold for meat production, indicating
important challenges remaining for the development of the livestock sector in
Ethiopia.

Due to growth in animal and human population, there will be increased risk of spread
of zoonotic diseases (EIDs), including infectious emerging and re-merging diseases.
Increased interaction with wildlife will further exacerbate this risk. Even in the
best-case scenario, EID outbreaks have devastating consequences within and outside
the livestock sector. Besides resulting in animal loss, production loss and human
infections, outbreaks of emerging and re-emerging diseases can result in restriction of

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people’s movements, closure of businesses and public offices, trade bans, decrease in
tourism, social unrest, and political instability.

Stakeholders should adopt a One Health approach to appreciate the relevance and
efficiency of current policies dealing with priority zoonotic diseases, emerging
infectious diseases, antimicrobial use and farming systems in urban and peri-urban
areas. Making the current policy framework resilient to these anticipated changes is a
pre-condition to ensure an expansion of the Ethiopian cattle sector that provides
affordable and healthy milk and meat to the population while having minimal
negative impact on the environment and public health.

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN ETHIOPIA

Ethiopia is endowed with diverse agro-ecology. A country of plant and animal

diversity. Habitat to different species and breeds of animal.

Production systems in Ethiopia were mixed crop livestock production system; pastoral
production system and specialized urban and peri-urban.

Livestock serves as a livelihood base, job creation, draft power, source of income,
manure, etc. Production system is subsistence and production and productivity is low
due to:

 Dependent on indigenous breeds

 Low input and low output
 Dependent on natural resources (free grazing)
 Not market oriented

Demand for livestock products is increasing due to:

 Population growth and increase

 Urbanization
 Increase per capita income

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Prospect of the livestock sector

Livestock is considered as a second economic driver (16-19% GDP, 35-40% GDP of

Agriculture).

Livestock serves and support the country as:

 Job creation
 Livestock for food and nutrition security
 Livestock and livestock products for export and import substitution

Thus, requires transformation from subsistence to market oriented, clustered based

production

OBJECTIVES AND PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

The objectives of extension education are the expression of the ends forwards which
our efforts are directed. In other words, an objective means a direction of movement
before, starting any programme, its objectives must be clearly stated, so that one
knows where to go and what is to be achieved. The objectives should be such which
provide night direction to the large number of people to set a direction and travel the
distance between theory and practice.
The fundamental objective of extension education is to raise the standard of lining of
the rural people by helping them in wing their natural resources in the night way. It
should also help in providing minimum health, recreational, educational and haring
facilities for improving family living conditions in the village.

Extension education in our country is primarily concerned with the following main
objectives:

1) The basic objectives of the extension education are the overall development of
the rural people.
2) To bring about desirable changes in the human behavior, which includes
change in knowledge, skill and attitude?

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 3) The dissemination of useful and practical information relating to agriculture,
including improved seeds, fertilizers, implements, pesticides, improved
cultural practices, dairying, poultry nutrition etc.
4) To make the people aware that agriculture is a profit table profession.
5) To create an environment for rural people so that they can show their talent,
leadership and efficiency.
6) To provide appropriate solution of the farmer’s problems.
7) To bring the scientist closer to the farmers.

Meaning of extension education

The word ‘Extension’ is derived from the Latin roots, ‘tensio’ meaning stretching and
'ex' meaning out. Extension education means that type of education which is stretched
out into the villages and fields beyond the limits of the schools and colleges to which
the formal type of education is normally confined. That the word extension came to
be used in this sense originally in USA during 1914.

Extension education is defined as an educational process to provide knowledge to the

rural people about the improved practices in a convincing manner and help them to
take decision within their specific local conditions. Extension is a two-way channel; it
brings scientific information to the village people and also takes the problems of the
village people to the scientific institutions for solution, it is a continuous educational
process, in which both learner and teacher contribute and receive.

Scope and importance of extension education

Extension service: An organization and or a programme for agricultural development

and rural welfare which employs the extension process as a means of programme
implementation.

Extension process: The extension process is that of working with rural people
through out of school education, along those lines of their current interests and needs
which are closely related to gaining a livelihood, improving the physical level of
living of rural families, and fostering rural community welfare.

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Extension job: The job of extension in agriculture and home economics is to assist
people engaged in farming and home making to utilize more fully their own resources
and those available to them, in solving current problems and in meeting changing
economic and social conditions.

1) Increasing the efficiency in agricultural production.

2) Increasing the efficiency in marketing, distribution and utilization of
agricultural inputs and outputs.
3) Conservation, development and use of natural resources.
4) Proper management on the farm and at home.
5) Better family living.
6) Youth development
7) Leadership development
8) Community development.
9) Improving Public affairs for all round development.
10) Extension is teaching through ‘learning by doing’ and ‘seeing is believing’

Education: It is the production of desirable changes in knowledge (things known),

attitude (things felt) and skills (things done), either in all (or) one or more of human
behavior.

Types of education

a) Informal Education - Is the life long process by which every person acquires
knowledge, skills, attitudes and insights from daily experiences and exposure to
the environment at home, at work, at play etc.

b) Non-formal Education - Is an organized, systematic educational activity carried

on outside the frame work of the formal system to provide selected types of
learning to particular subgroups in the population, including adults and children.
E.g.: adult education, vocational education, functional literacy, continuing
education, extension education etc.

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 c) Formal Education - Is highly institutionalized, chronologically graded and
hierarchically structured, education starting from primary school and reaching up
to university education.

Differences between Formal Education and Extension Education

Formal Education Extension Education

Teaching is largely confined to the It is largely outside the four walls of the
premises of the institution institution
Learners are homogeneous with common Learners are heterogeneous and have
goals diverse goals
There is a fixed curriculum, students are No fixed curriculum, it is flexible
examined and degrees are awarded depending on the needs of the learners.
No examinations are conducted and no
degrees are awarded
Knowledge flows from teacher to the The extension worker also learns from
learners (Vertical) those who he teaches (Horizontal). He
teaches through local leaders
Approach is from principles to problems Approach is from problem to principles

2. Extension Education- meaning, definition, scope and process

Extension education is an applied social science consisting of relevant content

derived from physical, biological and social sciences and in its own process
synthesized into a body of knowledge, concepts, principles and procedures oriented to
provide non-credit out of school education largely for adults.

Scope of extension education

Extension appears to have unlimited scope in situations where there is need for
creating awareness amongst the people and changing their behavior by informing and
educating them. Kelsey and Hearne (1967) identified nine areas of programme
emphasis, which indicate the scope of agricultural extension.

Scope:

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  Increasing efficiency in agricultural production.
 Increasing efficiency in marketing, distribution and utilization of agricultural
inputs and outputs.
 Conservation, development and use of natural resources.
 Proper farm and home management.
 Better family living.
 Youth development.
 Leadership development.
 Community and rural development.
 Improving public affairs for all round development.

Objectives:

 To raise the standard of living of the rural people by helping them in right use
of their resources.
 To help in planning and implementing the family and village plans for
increasing production in various occupations.
 To provide facilities for better family living.

Specific Objectives

 To provide knowledge and help for better management of farms and increase
incomes.
 To encourage the farmers to grow his own food, eat well and live well.
 To promote better social, natural recreational intellectual and spiritual file
among the people.
 To help rural families in better appreciation of SWOT in the village.
 To open new opportunities for developing talents and leadership of rural
people.

Research------------------Extension worker-----------------------Farmer

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 PRINCIPLES, PHILOSOPHY PROCESSES AND OBJECTIVES
OF EXTENSION

According to Mildred Horton (1952), the four great principles underlying extension
services are:

1) The individual is supreme in democracy.

2) The home is a fundamental unit in a civilization.
3) The family is the first training group of the human race.
4) The foundation of any permanent civilization must rest on the partnership of
man and the land.

Extension educational process

An effective extension educational programme involves five essential and interrelated

Steps.

Concept of extension educational process

First step: The first step consists of collection of facts and analysis of the situation.
The responses obtained are to be analyzed with the local people to identify the
problems and resources available in the community. For example, after a survey in a
community and analysis of the data, the problem was identified as low income of the
farm family from their crop production enterprise.

Second step: The next step is deciding on realistic objectives which may be
accomplished by the community. A limited number of objectives should be selected
by involving the local people. The objectives should be specific and clearly stated,
and on completion should bring satisfaction to the community. Objectives should state
the behavioral changes in people as well as economic and social outcomes desired in
the example, the problem was identified as low income from the crop production
enterprise.

Third step: The third step is teaching, which involves choosing what should be taught
(the content) and how the people should be taught the methods and aids to be used. It
requires selecting research findings of economic and practical importance relevant to

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the community, and selection and combination of appropriate teaching methods and
aids. Based on the problems identified in the particular example, technologies like use
of HYV seeds, application of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals were selected
as teaching content. Result demonstration, method demonstration, farmers' training
and farm publications were chosen as teaching methods, and tape recorder and slides
were selected as teaching aids.

Fourth step: The fourth step is evaluating the teaching, i.e., determining the extent to
which the objectives have been reached. To evaluate the results of an educational
programme objectively, it is desirable to conduct a re-survey. The evidence of
changed behavior should be collected, which shall not only provide a measure of
success, but shall also indicate the deficiencies, if any.

In the example, the re-survey after the fixed period of time, indicated that the crop
yield had increased by 10 percent. It, therefore, indicated that there was a gap of 10
per cent in crop yield in comparison to the target (objective) of 20 per cent fixed
earlier. The re-survey also indicated that there had been two important deficiencies in
carrying out the extension educational program, such as, there was lack of proper
water management and the farmers could not apply the fertilizer and plant protection
chemicals as per recommendation due to lack of funds.

Fifth step: The fifth step is re-consideration of the entire extension educational
programme on the light of the results of evaluation. The problems identified in the
process of evaluation may become the starting point for the next phase of the
extension educational programme, unless new problems have developed or new
situations have arisen. After re-consideration of the results of evaluation with the
people, the following teaching objectives were again set up. For example, they were,
training the farmers on proper water.

Objectives of Extension: Objectives are expression of the ends towards which our
efforts are directed.

Fundamental objective: The fundamental objective of extension is the development

of the people or the "Destination man". In other words, it is to develop the rural

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people economically, socially and culturally by means of education. E.g.: To increase
socio-economic status and standard of living of Indian farming Community.

General objectives (Function): The general objectives of the extension are:

1. To assist people to discover and analyze their problems, their felt and unfelt
needs.
2. To develop leadership among people and help them in organizing groups to
solve their problems.
3. To disseminate information based on research and /or practical experience, in
such a manner that the people would accept it and put it into actual practice.
4. To keep the research workers informed of the peoples' problems from time to
time, so that they may offer solutions based on necessary research.
5. To assist people in mobilizing and utilizing the resources which they have and
which they need from outside. E.g.: To increase the production and
productivity of Paddy in India.

Working objectives: Is one which focuses on specific activity of a specific group

in a selected geographic area. E.g.: To increase the yield of PKM-1 of the tomato
among the tomato growers of Madhukkarai block in Coimbatore District. The
major objectives of Extension may also be categorized as follows:

i) Material - increase production, income.

ii) Educational - change the outlook of people or develop the individuals.
iii) Social and cultural - development of the community.

EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS AND ALTERNATIVE

APPROACHES

Extension is an educational process for bringing about the maximum number of

desirable changes among the people, which involves both learning & teaching &
needs some tools or methods commonly known as extension-teaching methods. It is,
therefore, necessary here to understand what is meant by learning, teaching &
extension methods.

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'Learning' is the process by which an individual, through his own activity, attains a
change in his behavior. It is an active process on the part of the learner. The essential
role of an extension worker is to create effective 'learning situations'. An effective
learning situation requires the following essential elements:

Extension teaching methods are means to use to teach the farmers and the students.
The choice and use of these methods depends upon the type of message to be
imparted or delivered, size of the audience and their attributes. Combination of
extension teaching methods experienced to be more effective.

There are several methods for extension work:

 The individual/household approach

 The group approach: meetings, field days, demonstrations, support to groups
 The school approach
 Mass extension methods.

None of these methods can be singled out as being the best one; all of them have their
advantages and disadvantages. The choice of method depends on various factors such
as:

 The tenure system in the area

 Community organization
 Resources available for extension.

A combination of extension methods is more effective than just one method. In an

area where tenure is communal, or land management is based on communal efforts, a
group approach is likely to be more effective than an individual approach. Meetings,
field days and approaches to schools may also be good options. Usually decisions
have to be made communally, and the best entry point may be through established
decision-making systems, e.g. community meetings. Knowledge of traditional
systems for making decisions is essential, particularly in pastoral areas where such
systems are often still of great importance.

Even if the tenure is individual, communal management practices often exist. An

obvious example is post-harvest grazing. Changes in behavior in this respect may be

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very desirable since uncontrolled post-harvest grazing is a constraint to tree growing
and soil conservation, and a change in this practice can best be achieved if the whole
community is addressed. It may be difficult for an individual to introduce restrictions
in this situation since the neighbors expect grazing to be free for all.

In communities where group work is common, and groups have already been
organized for various tasks, a group approach may also be more feasible than an
individual approach.

If an organization carrying out extension is rich in resources, a more costly approach

can be chosen than if the organization is resource poor. It is, however, just as
important for a resource-rich organization to carefully consider which method is best
for the area, and how the extension work should be organized in order to prevent
waste of resources. Cost-effectiveness should always be borne in mind, and past
experience indicates, for example, that issuing free seedlings is rarely a sustainable
approach since it creates dependency and discourages private commercial initiatives
in tree-seedling production. An excessive level of material support generally creates
dependence, and often proves to be counterproductive in the long run.

The individual/household approach

This approach is most effective for activities to be undertaken by or within the full
control of the individual farmer or household. Matters related to the individual farm
should, as much as possible, be discussed with the whole family. If the whole family
is involved, more problems are highlighted and more experience is brought to the
discussion.

Advantages of the individual methods are:

 Unclear messages that have not been fully understood can easily be clarified
 The extension officer is able to secure co-operation and inspire the confidence
of the family through personal contact
 It facilitates immediate feedback on the effectiveness of the measures
discussed

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  It may be the best way to ensure that everyone in the family participates in
decision making.

Disadvantages of the individual method:

 It is expensive in terms of time and transport

 Only a few farmers may be visited, and sometimes they may be mainly the
extension worker's friends
 The area covered is small since all the effort is concentrated on a few farmers.

The group approach

The group approach involves working with groups or the community at large. It is
suitable when discussing matters related to the whole community (e.g. post-harvest
grazing, protection and management of indigenous forests), and when there are
activities to be undertaken by a group, e.g. group nurseries. It is also suitable when
there is a need to address individual matters but more cheaply than can be done with
the individual approach. The direct target group may be a women's group, a church
organization, a co-operative society or the community in general.

Extension work can also be carried out at meetings, either organized specifically to
discuss agroforestry issues, or by making use of meetings that were already organized
for some other purpose but where some discussion on agroforestry can be
accommodated. Meetings are effective venues for receiving information from the
community, for discussing issues of communal or individual interest and for
spreading new ideas.

Field days and demonstrations are best organized on individual farms. There are two
kinds of demonstration: result demonstrations and method demonstrations. Result
demonstrations show farmers the results of a practice that has been in use for some
time and are intended to arouse the farmer's interest in the practice. They can also be
used to compare older practices or techniques with new ones. Method demonstrations
show farmers how a particular activity or task is carried out, e.g. how to plant a tree.
This type of demonstration is among the oldest methods of teaching. It is an effective
method since the farmers can practise, see, hear and discuss during the demonstration.

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The catchment approach is a special type of group approach that has been used since
1987 in the National Soil and Water Conservation Programme of the Ministry of
Agriculture. All farmers within a certain area, normally some 200-400 hectares, are
mobilized and trained for conservation efforts. A catchment committee consisting of,
and elected by, the local farmers assists the extension staff in awareness creation,
layout of contours, implementation and follow up. The group approach is combined
with the individual approach since each farm is subject to specific advice and layout.

Training and visit (T&V) is not an extension method but rather a management system
for extension work built on a combination of the individual and group approaches. In
this system, the extension staff are trained every fortnight on the relevant extension
issues for that time of the year and the staff then extend these messages to contact
farmers who receive special attention. Field days and other visits are arranged on the
farm of the contact farmer so that his neighbors can also benefit from the knowledge
he has gained.

Advantages of the group approach:

 It is generally cheaper than the individual approach

 More people are reached within a given period of time
 There is an exchange of ideas and experiences among the group
 It is easy to monitor.

Disadvantages of the group approach:

 It may take a long time to arrive at a decision

 Influential people in the community may dominate the discussions
 It is sometimes difficult to get people to agree on issues and to work together
 Individual problems are not well addressed in a group
 People who are not members of the group will not be reached.

The school approach

The school approach is being used by both Government ministries and NGOs.
Schools can be approached through headmasters or teachers. The extension work can
be in the form of lectures, support for 4K Clubs, or discussions held during parents'

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days. The pupils can be used as a channel for reaching the community and will also be
influenced themselves, thus changing the behavior and attitudes of the new generation.
Pupils can also be used to trigger discussions in their families.

Advantages of the school approach:

 Schools can afford to make demonstration plots available and these be seen by
many people
 It is possible to reach large numbers of people within a short time at minimal
cost
 Pupils can be reached easily and are often very receptive to new ideas.

Disadvantages of the school approach:

 Children are not decision makers in the home

 It will be a considerable time before the children become influential in their
society.

Mass extension methods

Mass extension methods involve the use of the mass media, e.g. radio, posters, drama,
television, newspapers, films, slide shows, to inform the public. Mass media are
mainly used to create awareness.

Advantages of mass extension methods:

 These methods can increase the impact of extension staff through rapid spread
of information
 Many people can be reached within a short time, even in remote areas.

Disadvantages of mass extension methods:

 The amount of information that can be transmitted is limited

 Radio and television reception is poor in some areas and the target group may
not own sets, particularly TVs
 It is difficult to evaluate the impact since there is no immediate feedback

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  Production of both programmes and printed materials is costly and requires
special skills.

LIVESTOCK TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION AND APPLICATION

Adoption defined as the degree of use of a new technology in a long run equilibrium
when a farmer has full information about the new technology and it’s potential.

The decisions farmers take about what is to be done on their farms, by whom, how
and when, are complicated. Decisions are based on information which is available,
partly from the Department of Agricultural Extension. The process which farmers
undertake in deciding whether or not to use new ideas is known as the adoption
process.

The adoption process has five generally recognized stages:

1. Awareness or Knowledge - Through the gradual accumulation of knowledge,

becoming aware of new ideas.
2. Interest or Persuasion - Seeking out more information and forming and
changing attitudes about a new idea.
3. Evaluation or Decision - Collecting detailed information and making
judgments about whether to try something or reject the idea.
4. Trial or Implementation - Testing out or trying the idea on a small scale.
5. Adoption or Confirmation - Deciding to apply the innovation comprehensively
in preference to old methods.

A sixth stage is often referred to as Reinforcement which simply means gathering

additional information after which simply means adoption to reconfirm that the right
decision has been made.

The adoption process does not always follow this sequence in practice. This is
particularly true when dealing with a package of innovations. For example, after a
farmer has decided to adopt vegetable growing, the implementation or trial of this
decision requires considerable additional learning and evaluation. Similarly, interest
may precede awareness where farmers are looking for a solution to a specific problem,
or it may not be possible to test out an idea on a small scale.

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Agricultural technology development accelerates increasing agricultural productivity,
achieving food self-sufficiency and alleviating poverty and food insecurity among
smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. In Ethiopia, farmers have been adopting and using
various agricultural technologies, the adoption of technologies has not completely
optimal yet. Different scholars summarized institutional, social and economic
challenges as root cause for low adoption of agricultural new technologies by farmers
comprised of age, land size, education level, family size, training and market access,
farm size, extension service provision and credit access.

Importance of the Adoption Process in Selecting Extension Methods

Farmers have different information requirements at each stage of the adoption process.
This means that extension staff must understand which stage farmers are at before
planning subject matter and extension methods. Questions to help understand this
process include:

 Should information be provided to make farmers aware of a new idea? If yes,

perhaps radio and posters, or folk drama and folk song might be the most
effective methods.
 Should detailed information be provided when farmers have become aware
and are interested? If yes, perhaps leaflets with detailed technical information
should be printed and circulated, or group discussion meetings arranged, or
field days held at a demonstration site, or articles published in local
newspapers.
 Should information be provided to increase specific skills in the use of a new
technique so that farmers can make a full evaluation? If yes, perhaps method
demonstrations and formal training days would be the most useful extension
method.
 Should information and support be provided to farmers when they are trying a
new idea for the first time? If yes, perhaps individual farm visits and group
discussions would be the most useful extension method. Perhaps extension
staff could also meet with the whole farm family to discuss the new idea.
 Should support be provided to farmers to reinforce the benefits of a new idea
which has been adopted? If yes, perhaps group discussion meetings should be

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 arranged, or a radio interview with the farmer, or the farmer could be invited
as a resource person to a DAE extension event.

At a group extension event, different individuals may be at different stages. Where

possible activities should be planned with groups which are at a similar stage.

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