FOOD IN RELATION TO DISEASES

ABSTRACT

The prevalence of foodborne diseases in Nigeria is alarming despite efforts by

Government and Non-governmental Organizations to prevent the spread of foodborne

pathogens. Health and socioeconomic implications of foodborne diseases are

enormous, including loss of productivity and low quality of life. In Nigeria, most people

eat food at least once outside their homes every day. Food is an indispensable basic

need of all humans and animals to sustain a healthy, reproductive and productive life.

Humans are very active and highly productive when they consume safe food and are in

a state of good health; however, consuming food already contaminated with microbial

pathogens or its products such as Escherichia coli 0157:H7, Salmonella spp., Shigella

spp., Clostridium spp., Campylobacter spp., and Staphylococcus aureus-toxin to a

harmful level can cause severe illnesses and even progress to death. Therefore, it is

essential for food handlers and vendors to maintain proper personal hygiene, undergo

regular health checks, constantly improve environmental sanitation and adequately

prepare food to prevent the spread of foodborne diseases. Consumers of ready-to-eat

foods and food products should consider the overall safety of the food; environment

where the food was prepared, where and how the food is distributed in order to

mitigate likely foodborne infections and diseases. Water used in preparing food and

watering animals should be clean and safe.

 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The need for food consumption by man has been since the origin of creation

when man made to depend on other creatures for its food.Food, a provision from God is

made to supply the need for growth, and development, energy replacement and worn

out tissues in the body, and for the improvement of the body’s immune system.

According to Dorland, 1985, food is defined as anything which when taken into the

body, serves to nourish or build up the tissues or to supply body heat, nutriment.

Bonder, 1979, states that foods are ‘substances taken in by mouth which maintains life

and growth, i.e supply energy, build and repair tissue’. The essence of these definitions

is that unless what we eat fulfils the functions stated, it should not be classed as a food.

The distortion in the smooth flow of body activity can be adversely affected or

otherwise by the body in general. However, the distortion in the normal body activities

can be called disease. When food supply to the body is withheld, the body suffers from

a state called hunger. But when the body accumulate much nutrient then it is needed, it

can destabilize the storage capacity of an organ responsible for that and the body

suffers from over accumulation.

Food disease can be caused by microorganisms; bacteria, mould, yeast, which

may not be noticed before consuming it.Hence food is relation to disease can either be

food intolerance, food allergy, celiac disease, anorexia nervosa and obesity.
The quality of food available and ready for consumption directly impacts the quality of

life obtainable in any given society. Improved health and higher productivity is

achievable in the absence of disease including foodborne illnesses. Food is one of the

most essential and indispensable basic needs of humans required for nourishment and

sustainability of life. Safe food is important and foundational for a healthy, productive

and reproductive life. Lack of access to safe food causes a destructive cycle of disease

precisely affecting people with ill-health, children, and the elderly [1]. Since the

existence of man, foodborne diseases have been a critical challenge for all nations and

people of the world [2]. According to the World Health Organization

(WHO) report, 550 million people become ill and 230 000 die yearly due to diarrhoeal

diseases associated with the ingestion of foods already contaminated by microbial

pathogens [1]. In another report by World Bank [3], the overall productivity loss linked

to foodborne diseases in developing countries is estimated to cost $95.2 billion annually,

and the amount spent in treating foodborne illnesses per year is estimated at $15 billion.

According to the report, the highest occurrence of foodborne diseases is in Asia and

sub-Saharan Africa when compared to the rest of the world.

Nigeria, being the most populated country in subSaharan Africa is currently faced with

foodborne disease problem usually not reported except in cases of outbreaks. In January,

2018, the Nigerian Centre for Disease Control (NCDC), was alerted of a botulism

outbreak linked to food consumption in Abuja [4]. Foodborne pathogens of public

health importance such as Escherichia coli 0157:H7, Salmonella, Shigella,

Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium spp. have been isolated from fresh-cut ready to

eat fruits, vegetables and ready-to-eat foods sold on the streets, markets, schools, major

cities and fast-food restaurants in Nigeria [5,6,7,8,9]. Food handlers and or peddlers

have been implicated as sources of pathogens' contamination of foods by [10]. Moreso,

Campylobacter spp. has been detected in water used in poultry in Abia State and on the

body of healthy goats reared in Sokoto State [11,12]. Due to poverty endemic in this

region, scarcity and ignorance, many people ingest any available food that satisfy their

hunger and or quench their thirst. Safer food is paramount for general well-being and

socioeconomic growth.

The aim of this current review was to evaluate what has been published in literature; the

prevalence of foodborne pathogens, routes of transmission and contamination of foods.

Articles downloaded and evaluated were sourced from Google Scholar and few from

Research Gate using phrases like foodborne diseases and Nigeria, foodborne pathogens

and Nigeria etc. High preference was given to more recent articles and articles without

detailed research methods as well as clear result discussion were not considered for

evaluation. The main objective remains to help prevent the contamination of foods by

microbial pathogens and the subsequent diseases. Table 1, shows microorganisms

isolated from ready-to-eat foods and other food products in Nigeria.

1.1 FUNCTIONS OF FOOD

 The functions of food are to supplies energy, growth and repair tissues, and

control of body processes. The chemical components of food which performs these

functions are called nutrients and it follows that no substance can be called a food

unless it contains at least one nutrient. Some particularly valuable foods, such as milk

contains such a variety of nutrient that can fulfill all the functions of food mentioned

above, while others, such as glucose are composed entirely of a single nutrient and have

only a single function. The study of the effect upon the human body is called nutrition.

Types of Nutrients

The six types of nutrients are:- fat, carbohydrate, protein, water, mineral elements

of vitamins.

The two basic functions of nutrients are to provide materials for growth and repair of

tissues, that is to provide and maintain the basic structure of our bodies and to supply

the body with the energy required to perform external activities as well as carrying on

its own internal activities.

Nutrients may also be considered according to their chemical composition.

Though different oils and fats, such as olive oil and palm oil, do not have identical

compositions, they are chemically similar. In the same way different proteins and

carbohydrates are constructed according to the same chemical pattern and are therefore

conveniently grouped together.

 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD

Acccording to Whitney, E..et al (2014) Food can be classified into various categories

based on their nutrient composition, source, and role in the diet.

2.1.1 Macronutrients:

Carbohydrates: Includes sugars, starches, and fibers. Major sources include grains,

fruits, vegetables, and legumes.

Proteins: Comprised of essential and non-essential amino acids. Found in meat, fish,

dairy products, legumes, and nuts.

Fats: Consists of saturated, unsaturated, and trans fats. Found in oils, butter, avocados,

and fatty meats.

2.1.2 Micronutrients:

Vitamins: Essential organic compounds required in small amounts. Sources include

fruits, vegetables, and animal products.

Minerals: Inorganic elements necessary for various physiological functions. Found in

foods like leafy greens, nuts, and dairy products.

2.1.3 Fruits and Vegetables:

Fruits: Includes a wide variety of edible fruits like apples, oranges, bananas, and

berries.

Vegetables: Comprises leafy greens, cruciferous vegetables, root vegetables, and more.
2.1.4 Grains and Cereals:

Whole Grains: Includes foods like brown rice, quinoa, oats, and whole wheat bread.

Refined Grains: Processed grains like white rice, white bread, and pasta.

2.1.5 Meat and Alternatives:

Meat: Includes poultry, beef, pork, and lamb.

Alternatives: Plant-based protein sources like tofu, tempeh, legumes, and nuts.

2.1.6 Dairy and Dairy Alternatives:

Dairy: Milk, cheese, yogurt, and other milk-derived products.

Dairy Alternatives: Plant-based milk substitutes like almond milk, soy milk, and

coconut milk.

2.1.7 Fats and Oils:

Healthy Fats: Olive oil, avocados, nuts, and seeds.

Unhealthy Fats: Trans fats found in processed foods and some baked goods.

2.1.8 Sweets and Snacks

Desserts: Cakes, cookies, ice cream, and candies.

Snacks: Chips, crackers, and other processed snack foods.

2.2 Balance diet

A balanced diet is one that provides all the essential nutrients in the right proportions to

meet the body's needs for growth, repair, and maintenance. It typically includes a

variety of foods from different food groups, such as fruits, vegetables, grains, proteins,

and fats (USDA and HHS, 2020)

Fruits and Vegetables: These provide essential vitamins, minerals, and fiber.

Recommended servings: 2 cups of fruits and 2.5 cups of vegetables per day.

Example sources: Apples, oranges, broccoli, spinach, carrots, and bell peppers.

Grains: Whole grains are rich in fiber and other nutrients.

Recommended servings: 6 ounces of grains per day, with at least half as whole grains.

Example sources: Brown rice, quinoa, whole wheat bread, and oats.

Proteins: Essential for muscle repair and various body functions.

Recommended servings: 5.5 ounces of protein per day.

Example sources: Lean meat, poultry, fish, beans, lentils, tofu, and nuts.

Dairy or Dairy Alternatives: Rich in calcium and other nutrients for bone health.

Recommended servings: 3 cups of dairy or fortified dairy alternatives per day.

Example sources: Milk, yogurt, cheese, almond milk, and soy yogurt.

Fats and Oils: Provide essential fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins.

Recommended servings: Consume healthy fats in moderation.

Example sources: Olive oil, avocados, nuts, seeds, and fatty fish like salmon.

Sweets and Snacks: Limit added sugars and processed snacks for optimal health.
Recommended servings: Consume in moderation, as they provide empty calories.

Example choices: Fresh fruit for natural sweetness and healthier snack options.

2.3 Food hygiene

Food hygiene refers to the practices and measures taken to ensure the safety and

cleanliness of food from the point of production to consumption. It involves proper

handling, storage, preparation, and cooking of food to prevent contamination and the

spread of foodborne illnesses (WHO, 2020).

Personal Hygiene: Proper handwashing, wearing clean and appropriate clothing, and

maintaining personal cleanliness are essential to prevent the transmission of harmful

microorganisms to food.

Food Storage: Storing food at the correct temperature, in appropriate containers, and

away from potential contaminants helps to maintain its safety and quality.

Food Preparation: Properly washing, peeling, and cooking food to the recommended

temperatures can kill harmful bacteria and parasites.

Cross-Contamination: Preventing the transfer of harmful microorganisms from one

surface or food to another, especially between raw and cooked foods, is crucial to food

safety.

Cleaning and Sanitizing: Regularly cleaning and sanitizing food preparation areas,

equipment, and utensils can eliminate bacteria and other pathogens.

Pest Control: Keeping pests away from food storage and preparation areas is essential

to prevent contamination.

Allergen Management: Properly labeling allergens in food products and preventing

cross-contact can help individuals with allergies avoid harmful reactions.

2.4 PREVALENCE OF SELECTED FOODBORNE PATHOGENS

2.4.1 Escherichia coli 0157:H7

E. coli 0157:H7 is a pathogenic strain of Escherichia coli. E. coli is a Gram-negative

bacterium, non-spore-forming, facultatively anaerobic rods of family

Enterobacteriaceae[28]. Most E. coli strains live in the gut of humans and other warm-

blooded animals without causing any harm; however, some strains such as

enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC), enteroinvasive E. coli

(EIEC) and enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) or verocytotoxin-producing E. coli

(VTEC) may cause disease [2]. Ingesting contaminated foods and water are the major

modes of transmission of the organism. Excretion of the pathogen can lead to person-to-

person transmission. Symptoms of infection include vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal

pain, fever, haemorrhagic colitis, dehydration and shock [2]. E. coli infections,

particularly enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), of which the most commonly

recognized is E. coli 0157, can result in life-threatening complications such as

haemolytic uraemic syndrome characterized by acute renal failure, thrombocytopenia

and haemolytic anaemia

[28,2]. Several studies in Nigeria have isolated E. coli 0157:H7 and other E. coli strains

from fresh foods, ready-to-eat foods, locally fermented drinks, and many food products.

A study by [29] on the incidence and antibiotics susceptibility of E. coli 0157:H7 from

beef in Ibadan municipal,

Table 1. Microorganisms isolated from Ready-To-Eat foods and other food

products in Nigeria

S/ Food Microorganisms Isolated References

N
1 Beef, fish, soup Escherichia coli 0157:H7, [13,14,15]

and chicken. Staphylococcus aureus,

Salmonella spp., E. coli.

2 Healthy goats Campylobacter spp. [12]
3 Edible land Salmonella spp., Vibrio [16,17,18,19]

snail, seafood, spp., E. coli,

eggs and Staphyloc- occus aureus,

vegetables. Streptococcus,

Cryptosporidium oocysts,

Shigella spp.,

Corynebacteria.
4 Rice, beans, E. coli, Staphylococcus [7,20,21,22,23,24]

fufu, masa, aureus, Bacillus cereus,

 agidi, fresh and Shigella spp., Mucor spp.,

frozen Campylobacter, Klebsiella

shrimps, moin spp., Enterobacter

moin, yam, aerogens, Proteus spp.,

meat, epiti, and Micrococcus spp.,

shawarma. Clostridium perfringens,

Aspergillus spp.,

Pseudomonas spp.
5 Watermelon, E. coli, Mucor spp., [5,25,26,27]

kununzaki and Staphylococcus aureus,

zobo drinks, Proteus mirabilis, Yeast,

fermented Salmonella spp.,

milk, okpa, Enterobacter spp.,

pealed orange, Pseudomonas, Klebsiella

egg roll, apple, pneumonia, Penicillium

plantain chips, spp., Acinetobacter spp.,

aki-na-ukwa, Streptococci.

doughnut,

meat pie,

cashew nut.
isolated 116 non-sorbitol fermenting E. coli, 71 were confirmed as E. coli 0157:H7. The

meat samples were cultured on sorbitol MacConkey agar and confirmation was done by

serological agglutination kits. They reported that all the isolates were found to resist

one or multiple antibiotics, giving rise to 8 distinct resistance patterns. In another study

by [13] on the multidrug resistant E. coli 0157:H7 contamination of beef and chicken in

abattoirs of Southwest Nigeria, out of the 800 meat samples obtained for experimental

analyses, the overall prevalence of E. coli 0157:H7 was reported to be 17.1%(19.8%

and 14.5% of beef and chicken). Comparing the levels of contamination of the samples

obtained from different locations, the prevalence of E. coli 0157:H7 in beef from

Ibadan-Lagos were 28.5% and 11.0%, that of chicken from Ibadan-Lagos markets were

13.0% and 14% while those from Ibadan and Lagos farms were 18.0% and 13.0%

respectively. In their study, [26] reported the presence of E. coli 0157:H7 in Nigerian

fermented milk samples collected in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. From the 420 locally

made milk samples examined, 19 which represents 4.5% were unsafe due to the

contamination with Escherichia coli 0157:H7; highest incidence rate(5.7%) was

recorded in samples collected from Wamba, Akwanga, and Doma Local Government

Areas while 2.9% was from Lafia and Keffi areas. The authors employed cultural

techniques, biochemical and serological assays in carrying out the investigation. Oxoid

diagnostic kit; latex(R30959601) was used in the confirmation of the presence of E. coli

0157:H7. Water used in preparing food, herding and irrigation may be contaminated

with this organism. According to [30], E. coli 0157:H7 was isolated from River Kaduna,
Nigeria, which was a main source of water used for drinking, irrigation and herd

watering. Of the 204 water samples taken and analyzed, a total of 59 E. coli isolates

were found, out of which 15 isolates representing 25.4% were of serotype 0157:H7.

They stated that the occurrence of E. coli 0157:H7 in all the screened water samples was

calculated to be 7.4%. In examining raw bovine meat in households across Cross River

State, Nigeria, [31] recorded 76 E. coli 0157:H7 isolates from 360 tested samples;

representing 21.11% prevalence rate. The authors used standard cultural and serological

methods to identify and confirm the presence of the organisms. In an extensive research

by [32] on the occurrence of E. coli 0157:H7 in selected food samples sold in local

markets in Nigeria, it is of a huge concern that 36(60%) E. coli 0157:H7 were isolated

from 60 different food samples examined; 3 each of meat pie, yoghurt, watermelon,

groundnuts, cabbage, cucumber, garden egg, bread, chicken, apple, salad, unpasteurized

milk and pawpaw. This result indicates that public health is not secure in consuming

these contaminated foods.

In a separate study, [33] reported the prevalence and antibiotics resistance of E. coli

0157:H7 serotype from chicken droppings in Cross River State, Nigeria. Of the 360

cloacal swap samples

(360 from free-ranged chicken and poultry birds), 24(6.6%) E. coli 0157:H7 were

isolated from free ranged chicken while 7(1.94%) were isolated from poultry. All the

isolates were found to be resistant to at least one antibiotic tested for antimicrobial

susceptibility. In Lagos, Nigeria, [34] isolated microbial pathogens including E. coli

from vended foods. 12 food samples were randomly collected from 10 locations within

Lagos environments. The food samples aseptically obtained were Amala, Eba, Jollof

rice, Fried rice, Beans, Dodo, Moi moi, Fried fish,

Ewedu and Salad. In assessing the bacteriological content of the samples, the authors

blended the food samples separately and 10 gram of each sample was introduced into

90ml of sterilized physiological saline, homogenized and serially diluted. It was then

inoculated into MacConkey agar, Nutrient agar, and Salmonella-Shigella agar. The

viable colonies were enumerated after 18-36 hours incubation at 37°C. Subcultures

were made on Eosin methylene blue agar and MacConkey agar for the isolation of E.

coli and Enterobacter aerogenes. Morphological and biochemical characteristics were

employed for the identification of E. coli and other isolates. In Port Harcourt City,

Nigeria, [24] examined the microbiological composition of ready-to-

eatfood(Shawarma) purchased in the city. The 12 samples collected were serially

diluted and plated out on Nutrient agar, MacConkey agar, Salmonella-Shigella agar,

Sabouraud 4% Dextrose agar, Mannitol Salt agar, Buffered Peptone water, Triple

Sugar Iron(TSI) agar and Kovac's Indole reagent using the spread plate method. The

inoculated plates were incubated for 24 hours at 37°C in the incubator. The authors

reported a predominant presence of bacterial pathogens(84.6%), out of which E. coli

(13.6%) was the second most occuring genera of the pathogenic bacteria isolated after

Proteus spp(22.7%). Another research work, [15] determined the bacteriological

quality and safety of street vended foods in Delta State, Nigeria using scientific
experimental procedures. A total of 106 street peddled food samples were screened for

bacterial contamination. The food samples were fried meat, fried fish, bean porridge,

banga soup, owho soup, egusi soup, fufu, starch, eba, stew, jollof rice and plain rice.

The towns where the samples were collected were Agbor, Asaba, Obiaruku, Abraka,

Sapele, Ugheli, Warri, Oleh and Patani; all in Delta State. The samples were

bacteriologically screened using standard laboratory and microbiological methods. The

researcher found that 69% of the food samples contain bacteria count beyond the

recommended limits, while 67% of the sampled foods had total coliform count above

the recommended safe level(<100 coliform/g). E. coli was among the 9 bacterial

species found in the food samples. Retail fresh-cut ready-to-eat fruits in Southwestern

Nigeria as well as fruits and vegetables sold in Kaduna metropolis have been found to

be contaminated with E. coli [9,35]. Bacteriological and mycological quality of some

ready-to-eat foods available for sale in Kaduna State University market, Kaduna,

Nigeria, were assessed by [36]. The authors assembled a total of 160 ready-to-eat food

samples which include yam, rice, beans, and waina(rice cake). The samples were

collected from 12 food vending sites which served as the major food centres to the

student community. Pour plate method was used for the isolation of bacteria on

different media and the fungi on Potato Dextrose Agar. The authors characterized and

identified the isolates using standard techniques. Although, some of the food samples

were found to meet up the proposed microbiological limits in relation to the

specifications by International Commission for Microbiological Specification for

Foods(ICMSF), waina had microbial contamination (30%) of the isolates of which E.

coli was predominant.

2.4.2 Salmonella spp.

This is a Gram-negative bacterium, mesophilic, facultatively anaerobic, non-spore-

forming rod and motile. Salmonella can survive for long times in the environment [28].

The principal symptoms include fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and

diarrhoea. Transmission is often by ingestion of the organisms in food gotten from

infected food animals [2]. Food can be contaminated by infected food handlers,

crosscontamination can occur as a result of poor hygiene and person-to-person

transmission may also occur during the course of the infection. Sequelae caused include

reactive arthritis, septicaemia, colitis, meningitis, osteomyelitis, pancreatitis and

rheumatoid syndrome [2]. Poultry, cattle, pigs, pets such as tortoise, dogs and cats are

major reservoirs or sources. Humans are carriers as well. Salmonellosis is the disease

condition caused by Salmonella. They often contaminate eggs and poultry. Research

results have shown the isolation of Salmonella spp from food samples in Nigeria; frozen

seafoods, edible land snails, locally fermented drinks, and ready-to-eat foods such as

eba, amala, moi moi, fried rice, beans, jollof rice, fried fish and salad purchased from

food vendors across the country [16,25,15,22,34]. Mobile food vendors are common in

Nigeria and they usually push their ready-to-eat foods along the streets, homes, schools,

industrial sites and round the markets. People especially the young population highly
patronize them without questioning the hygiene of the food peddlers and the overall

safety of the food. Eateries or fast-food restaurants are prevalent and people go there to

eat at will; many do not believe or know that served food can be a potential source of

pathogen's infection and subsequent diseases. In their study on the occurrence of multi-

drug resistant Salmonella in carcass and contact surfaces in Kwata slaughterhouse,

Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria, [37] isolated 67 Salmonella spp from 200 swab samples

examined. The prevalence of Salmonella was calculated to be 33.5% and out of the 67

isolates, 25.4% was resistant to Ciprofloxacin; 27% to ofloxacin; 35.8% to ceftriaxone;

88.1% to amoxicillin/claxulanic acid; 59.7% to chloramphenicol; 34.3% to gentamicin;

49.3% to streptomycin and nalidixic acid; 76% to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole;

89.6% to nitrofurantoim and 100% to ampicillin. The study performed by [10] on the

microbiological safety of food peddlers in Wudil LGA of Kano State, isolated 200 non-

duplicate bacteria from 200 hand-swab samples screened. Out of the 200 bacterial

isolates, 60(30%) were Salmonella typhi and 52(26%) were Salmonella choleraesuis.

The food handlers examined were 100(50%) male food handlers and 100(50%) female

food vendors, most of which were children (33.3%) within the age range of 8-12 years.

96.5% of the food peddlers that were assessed exhibited poor levels of personal hygiene

and lack the knowledge of safe food handling practices. The authors were of the opinion

that the prevalence of these pathogens can be associated with the low literacy levels and

lack of safe food handling culture among the peddlers. They further suggested that food

handlers should be trained on how to hygienically handle food, practice adequate hand
hygiene, and periodically undergo health checks. A detailed study by [11] examined the

prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility profile of bacterial pathogens isolated in

selected poultry farms in Umuahia, Abia State Nigeria. The authors isolated a total of 92

bacterial pathogens, out of which were 26 Salmonella spp. The Salmonella isolates

showed 100% resistance to cefuroxime, ceftazidime, cefixime, erythromycin,

cotrimoxazole, streptomycin and tetracycline. 50% of the 26 isolates were susceptible to

gentamycin, 76.9% to ofloxacin, 76.9% to ciprofloxacin and 73.1% to nitrofurantoin.

Their result finding showed that poultry products can be potential vehicle for the

transmission of antibiotic-resistant foodborne pathogens to humans and can possibly

lead to diseases or outbreaks. Another recently published research paper by [38)

investigated the prevalence of Salmonella in commercial poultry farms in Nigeria and

further identified the serotypes based on whole genome sequence. The researchers

examined 558 pooled socks and dust samples from 165 poultry farms in Northwest

Nigeria established for commercial purposes. The required information on farm

management practices to ascertain risk factors for Salmonella prevalence were gotten

through questionnaires. Culture, biotyping, serology, and polymerase chain reaction

(PCR) were employed to identify Salmonella. This study reported 47.9% farm

prevalence for Salmonella and 15.9% sample level prevalence. A total of 23 different

serotypes were identified; Salmonella Kentucky, and Salmonella Isangi been the most

prevalent (32.9% and 11%). The occurrence of Salmonella in edible frogs

(Hoplobatrachus spp) obtained from Hanwa frog market Zaria, Nigeria, was
investigated by [39]. A large percentage of Nigerians in all the geopolitical zones

consider frog a rich delicacy because it is rich in protein. [39] Examined the presence of

Salmonella in the intestinal contents of the 202 frogs collected for testing. Of the 202

samples, 22(10.9%) Salmonella spp were isolated and the prevalence was high in frogs

obtained from Tudun Wada (20%) and least in Katsina(8.5%). In an outbreak of

Salmonellosis in Southwestern Nigeria, [40] isolated Salmonella serotypes from visceral

organs of post-mortem chickens. The researchers examined the tissue samples of the

heart, liver, lungs, kidneys, spleen, small intestine, proventriculus, caecum and bile of

the chickens submitted for postmortem examination. The Salmonella spp isolated and

confirmed using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) were serotyped using the White-

Kauffmann-Le Minor Scheme; disc diffusion method was used to assess susceptibility

profiles of the isolates. Of the 324 samples examined(270 from 30 commercial poultry

farms, and 54 from 6 backyard farms), the Salmonella serotypes identified were

Salmonella Zega, S. Kentucky, S. Nima, S. Tshiongwe, S. Telelkebir, S. Herston, and

S. Colindale. They were 100% sensitive to ciprofloxacin, gentamycin, enrolfloxacin,

ofloxacin, and pefloxacin. They showed 100% resistance to ampicillin, penicillin,

erythromycin, and co-trimoxazol. Considering the findings of the researchers, the

emerging bacterial pathogens are fast becoming resistant to multidrugs and can become

potential danger to public health. Analyses of the microbiological content of ready-to-

eat(RTE) foods in Nigeria have revealed the presence of Salmonella spp in those foods.

According to [41], Salmonella spp were found in ready-to-eat foods(meat pie, roasted
groundnut, doughnut, fried fish) bought from food vendors in mobile outlet catering

units in Nigeria. Similarly, [42] reported the contamination of fish with Salmonella spp

in 64 samples of smoked fish sold in Ibadan which were screened by the authors. The

authors asserted that fish species which were been sold in Ibadan markets are not fit for

human use. Moreso, 200 food samples were examined by [43] for the presence of

Salmonella spp. The food samples examined include 50 cooked meat, 50 raw meat, 50

meat products and 50 cooked spoilt meat. The authors used REVEAL serology kit,

culture methods and PCR method for detection of Salmonella spp from the sampled

foods. 74% of the food samples were positive for Salmonella spp using REVEAL

serology kit, 19% for culture methods and 62% and 54% for PCR methods (primer set

salm¾ and STII/ STI5).

2.4.3 Staphylococcus aureus

S. aureus is one of the important foodborne pathogens well-known to cause foodborne

intoxication. S. aureus is a Gram-positive bacterium, non-spore-forming, non-motile,

and facultatively anaerobic coccus. Heat-stable toxin is often produced by some S.

aureus strains when they infect food and the ingestion of such toxin-contaminated food

is a major cause of intoxication; often of abrupt and violent onset [2]. Severe nausea,

cramps, vomiting and prostration follow. Diarrhoea may also occur. The major disease

condition is toxin-mediated gastroenteritis. Humans are the major reservoirs and source

of contamination of food [2]. In a well researched work by [44] to detect the presence of
enteric viruses of gastroenteritis and bacterial species from Eidolon helvum bat species

in Ondo State, Nigeria, two species of

Staphylococcus; S. aureus and S. epidermidis were isolated from 25 samples of faecal

droppings of the bats examined. Bats are hunted and eating by some communities in

Nigeria. The authors isolated the bacterial species by pour plate method, and used

standard microbiological methods and API kits to identify the isolates. In assessing

food handlers in Kano State(Wudil LGA), Nigeria, [10] isolated 40(20%) S. aureus

from 200 hand-swab samples collected from 200(100 male and 100 female) food

peddlers in the sample location. The finding clearly indicates that some of the food

vendors are carriers and potential agents of S. aureus transmission and contamination of

foods. It further indicates that the food sold may have been contaminated with S. aureus

or its toxin. In assessing the microbial composition of ready-to-eat food and food

contact surfaces in restaurants in Okada, SouthSouth Nigeria, [8] isolated species of

Enterobacter, Streptococcus, Micrococcus, Bacillus, Saccharomyces and S. aureus.

The composition of S. aureus was found to be unacceptable in the tested food samples

consumed in the restaurants. The authors opined that the food served to consumers at

the restaurants assessed were not of acceptable microbiological quality. Hence, food

consumed in those restaurants can lead to intoxication and or foodborne disease.

Estimating the bacterial load of fried rice prepared in some restaurants in Abraka, Delta

State, [45] found the presence of S. aureus in the food samples screened which were

obtained from 5 different restaurants in the study area. The author used the cultural and
morphological characteristics and biochemical tests to identify the bacterial isolates.

Study by [46] evaluated the bacteriological composition of smoked rabbit meat sold

along Lagos-Benin Expressway and found that S. aureus had the highest percentage

occurrence of 30.3%; however, the authors suggested that the rabbit meats were of

satisfactory bacteriological quality. Branded retail ice cream products in Lagos

metropolis, Southwest Nigeria, were assessed by [47] for its microbiological quality.

The researchers examined 6 different ice cream brands purchased from vendors in

Lagos metropolis; they isolated 5 prominent bacteria species which include Klebsiella,

Bacillus, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter and S. aureus. Surprisingly, S. aureus had the

highest percentage prevalence of 100% followed by Klebsiella spp., 66%, Bacillus spp.,

66%, and E. coli 50%. The findings suggest that the ice cream products are already

contaminated and consumption will lead to infection with foodborne pathogens or its

products. The authors suggested proper education of the hawkers and adoption of

standard hygiene cultures.

Processed garri has been implicated as a source of bacterial hazards to students by

preliminary studies carried out by [48]. According to results from questionnaires

administered to the students, 54% of the University students agreed that they had

experienced symptoms of ill health after eating garri that was soaked in water; they

reported stomach upset, malaise, fever, nausea, and vomiting. The researchers

aseptically collected 50 samples of processed garri ready to be sold in Agbani; a suburb

in Enugu State, for bacteriological analysis. The outcome of the analysis indicates that
60% of the samples obtained were contaminated with S. aureus. Further tests carried out

by the authors confirmed that the isolates were positive for haemolysin and biofilm

formation which points to its pathogenic abilities. Meat pie sold in a Nigerian North

Central town (Markudi) had been screened for contamination with E. coli and S. aureus

by [49]. The antibiotics susceptibility patterns of the isolates were determined; result

showed that the occurrence of S. aureus was 38.9% from 180 samples. The isolates

showed 87.1% resistance to cloxacillin and 88.6% susceptibility to ofloxacin. The

scholars advocated a regulation of meat pie production in order to reduce contamination

and prevent the transmission of antibiotic-resistant researchers were surprised to record

30.2% occurrence of Staphylococcus spp., from 3 live catfish collected for 6 months for

assessment. The Staphylococcus spp., isolates were highly susceptible to antibiotics

tested. Lack of proper environmental sanitation and unhygienic culture of food

handling are possible channels of pathogen transmission [50]. Locally produced non-

alcoholic beverage drinks particularly kunun-zaki and sobo have been identified for its

microbiological safety by [25]. They reported a higher prevalence of Staphylococci spp.,

in 150 kunun-zaki samples and 100 sobo samples analyzed for for microbial

contamination. Amazingly, these beverage drinks are highly consumed in Nigeria daily

by all class of citizens. A scholarly research by [21], on the incidence of antibiotic

resistant S. aureus in some street vended foods in Ogun State, reported a prevalence of

0-40% in the 140 street-vended food samples screened. The S. aureus isolates displayed

45.8% resistance to gentamycin and lowest to contrimoxazole(4.2%) and another 4.2%

to erythromycin. Food handlers should always practice proper personal hygiene during

bacterial pathogens to consumers. Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) harvested from river

Lavun, Bida Niger State, had been examined by [51]. The preparation and distribution

of foods to protect public health.

2.4.4 Shigella spp.

Shigella is a non-motile, non-spore-forming, Gram-negative bacterium and facultatively

anaerobic rods. Shigellosis is a public health challenge of importance. The mode of

transmission is usually faecal-contaminated food and water. An important route also

includes person-to-person transmission through faecal-oral route [2]. Food handlers with

poor personal hygiene have been proven to be essential vehicles of transmission and

food contamination. Shigella infects animals especially poultry birds and chickens.

Diseases of livestock leading to high morbidity and mortality have been associated with

Shigella infection [28]. Major symptoms include abdominal pain, vomiting, fever,

diarrhoea, mucus and pus. Disease conditions caused include haemolytic uraemic

syndrome, erythema nodosum and splenic abscesses [2]. Some food poisoning and

bloody diarrhoea in humans have been linked to Shigella infection [52]. Investigating

the occurrence and antibiogram of Shigella spp in free range and intensivey reared

chickens in Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria [53] screened 300 cloacal swabs obtained

from 150 free range and 150 intensively reared chickens in the area. The authors using

standard microbiological and biochemical methods isolated 10(3.3%) shigellae from the

300 samples experimentally analyzed. The prevalence in free range was 6.7% while that
of intensively reared chicken was 0%. The Shigella spp were found to be sensitive to

ciprofloxacin(100%), gentamicin(70%), ofloxacin(70%), tetracycline (70%) and 60% to

nalidixic acid and cotrimoxazole. They were completely resistant to amoxicillin (100%)

and augmentin (100%). Determining the bacteriological and mycological quality of

some ready-to-eat foods in Kaduna State University market, [36] isolated Shigella spp.,

from the samples that were collected. Although, the occurrence was least compared to

other microorganisms isolated, it is possible to constitute a health problem to individuals

with compromised immunity. In a full length research paper, [11] found that some

poultry farms in Umuahia metropolis, Abia State, were contaminated with Shigella spp.

The scholars isolated 92 bacterial pathogens of which 13 were Shigella spp. Also, [54]

isolated Shigella spp from fermented indigenous food condiments collected from

middle-belt and Southwestern Nigeria. Shigella dysenteriae was found to be 168(4.7%),

Shigella flexneri was 60(1.7%) and Shigella sonnei (39[1.1%]). Food and water

consumed by humans and those served to livestock should be properly handled to

prevent Shigella contamination and prevent disease and possible outbreak.

 CHAPTER THREE

PREVENTION AND CONTROL

One of the proactive steps and valuable measures in mitigating the spread of foodborne

illnesses is by starting to addressing the major contributing factors to the wide

occurrence of foodborne pathogens in food. The factors actively promoting the

prevalence of foodborne pathogens in Nigeria include low literacy levels of some of the

food handlers or vendors, lack of personal and general hygiene, poor environmental

sanitation, use of contaminated water in food preparation and preservation, and

ineffective surveillance and monitoring on the side of agencies and or policy makers

saddled with the responsibility of ensuring food security and safety. Public health is

threatened when what is consumed is not adequately screened and regulated. Food

industries and handlers should implement Hazard Analysis Critical Control

Point(HACCP) during food preparation, packaging and distribution [28]. This helps to
identify the potential sources of food contaminants and how to prevent it. Everyone is

actively involved in the fight against foodborne diseases. The contamination of food by

foodborne pathogens and the subsequent metabolic activities should be prevented to

preserve the quality of food and secure public health safety. Stringent preventive

measures such as handwashing, proper personal and general hygiene [55] and

environmental sanitation should be observed and regularly practiced to stop the

transmission of foodborne pathogens and subsequent diseases. Sanitary measures and

surveillance of food handlers and water supplies are control strategies to mitigate the

spread of foodborne pathogens [28]. Food should be adequately prepared before

consumption to ensure the presence of no pathogen. Water used for cooking food as

well as wash utensils, knives, cutting boards, tables used in sampling food substances

and watering animals should be clean and safe. Cooked food should not be exposed for

long and fresh foods require washing well with clean and safe water before ingestion.
 CHAPTER FOUR

CONCLUSION

The consumption of food contaminated with pathogens is the major cause of foodborne

diseases in Nigeria. The presence of two or more pathogenic organisms in one ready-to-

eat food sample calls for urgent public health awareness on the health risks or hazards

associated with the consumption of pathogen-contaminated food. The prevalence of

foodborne pathogens in Nigerian ready-to-eat foods and fresh-cut ready to eat fruits

indicate poor levels of personal hygiene and environmental sanitation on the side of the

food handlers and fruit vendors. Hygiene practices should not be neglected during and

after food preparation. Infected poultry products such as eggs, farm animals and

contaminated water used in preparing food and watering farm animals can be potential

sources of pathogens' transmission and contamination of food. It is essential to practice

adequate hand-hygiene during and after contact with domestic or farm animals
including its products. Undercooked food may still contain foodborne pathogens and

consumption can cause illnesses or lead to outbreaks. Moreso, some of the research

papers evaluated were not able to identify the specific serotypes or strains of pathogenic

organisms isolated from the examined food samples; it is hoped that future research

works would solve the problem.

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