Taballawa Full
Taballawa Full
Taballawa Full
RESERVOIR
BY
U1/18/BIO/1921
NOVEMBER, 2023
DECLARATION
I Adamu Hussani Taballawa with the registration number U1/18/BIO/1921 at this moment
declare that the work in this project entitled “INVESTIGATING THE EFFECT OF
NILOTICUS) AND FOOD SAFETY IN DABERAM RESERVOIR” has been carried out by
me in the Department of Biology. The information derived from the literature has been duly
acknowledged in the text and a list of references provided. No part of this thesis was previously
ii
CERTIFICATION
SAFETY IN DABERAM RESERVOIR meets the regulation governing the award of the
degree of Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Biology of the Umaru Musa Yar’adua University,
Katsina and is approved for its contribution on the knowledge and literary presentation.
iii
APRROVAL PAGE
This project has been examined and approved for the award of Bachelor of Science Degree in
(BSc.) Biology
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my deepest gratitude to Allah, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful, and the
Almighty. It is through His will and grace that I have successfully reached this significant
milestone. I am thankful to my parents, Late Hussaini Ibrahim Taballawa and Hannatu Hussaini,
as well as my entire family, including Aisha, Aliyu, Fatima, Abdullahi, Khadija, Ismail, Ibrahim,
Muhammad, Maryam, and my younger brother Abubakar Sadiq. Their unwavering patience,
understanding, and encouragement have been a constant source of strength throughout the highs
I extend my heartfelt appreciation to my project supervisor, Mal. Isah Lawal, whose steadfast
support, expertise, and guidance have played a pivotal role in shaping the direction and
Special thanks are due to my project colleagues and peers, namely Sayaya, Yaranchi, Rukayya,
Ibrahim, Aisha, Halima, and Dayyaba, for fostering a collaborative and stimulating environment.
The invaluable feedback and discussions with this group have significantly contributed to
Lastly, I want to express my gratitude to all those individuals who may not be explicitly
mentioned but have played a part, whether big or small, in the realization of this project. Your
collective contributions have made a substantial impact, and I am truly thankful for your
involvement.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARATION.............................................................................................................................ii
CERTIFICATION..........................................................................................................................iii
APRROVAL PAGE.......................................................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...............................................................................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENT..................................................................................................................vi
LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................................ix
LIST OF FIGURES.........................................................................................................................x
LIST OF ABBREVIATION...........................................................................................................xi
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................xii
CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1
CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................................6
LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................................6
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2.1 Tilapia O. niloticus................................................................................................................6
2.9 Effect of Pesticides, PCBs, PAHs, and Other Contaminants on Human Health and Fish. .11
CHAPTER THREE.......................................................................................................................17
CHAPTER FOUR.........................................................................................................................22
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DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULT.............................................................22
CHAPTER FIVE...........................................................................................................................44
5.1 Summary..............................................................................................................................44
5.2 Conclusion...........................................................................................................................44
5.3 Recommendation.................................................................................................................45
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................47
APENDIX I...................................................................................................................................54
viii
LIST OF TABLES
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
x
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
BC = blood congestion
D = degeneration
DAF = Department of Agriculture and Fisheries
DB = dilation of bowman spaces
DG = Dilation Glomerulus capillarie
DO = Dissolved Oxygen
DSE = Damage of Secondary lamellae
EPA = Environmental and Public Health
FCA = Foci of cellular alteration
FOA = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Stes
GSI = Gonadosomatic Index
H and E = hematozylen and eosin
HE = hyaline droplet degeneration
HIS = Hepathosomatic Index
IPCS = International Programme on Chemical Safety
LD = lamellae with dilated margin
LF = lamellae fusion
LFL = lamellae lifting
LWR = Length-weight relationship
M = MelanoMpg
N = Necrosis
P = patchy degeneration
R = Rapture of secondary lamellae
S = shortening of lamellae
V = Vacuolation
VIS = Visceral Somatic Index
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ABSTRACT
The histological examination of fish samples from Daberam Reservoir reveals pronounced
contaminants. The gills exhibit alterations such as hyperplasia, necrosis, rupture of secondary
lamellae, dilation, lamella fusion, and lamella lifting, all of which contribute to impaired gas
of Bowman's capsules, and capillary dilation, suggesting potential damage from pollutants,
infections, or both. Liver tissues exhibit necrosis and damage to blood vessels, indicating
exposure to high levels of contaminants that can compromise liver function and increase
vulnerability to infection. Muscle sections show necrosis and vacuolation, signifying pollutant-
induced damage, resulting in weakened muscles and impaired swimming ability. Intestine
sections reveal submucosal tissue contraction and mucosal epithelium collapse, indicating
exposure to pollutants and potential adverse effects on nutrient absorption and susceptibility to
infections. The visceral somatic index (VSI) values, reflecting organ weight relative to body
weight, show moderate consistency among samples, suggesting proportional organ weight
positive allometric growth rate and fusiform body shape, respectively. The gonado somatic index
(GSI) suggests that the fish are not in a high state of reproductive activity. Hepatosomatic index
(HSI) values fall within the normal range, indicating the absence of hepatosteatosis. Overall,
xii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Freshwater ecosystems play a vital role in sustaining life on Earth, providing essential resources
and serving as habitats for various species, including fish (Griffith and Picker, 2015). In Nigeria,
as in many other regions, these aquatic environments face growing challenges due to pollution
and contamination. Deberam Reservoir, located in Katsina State, Nigeria, is no exception. The
reservoir, a significant water body within the region, has experienced increasing pressure from
anthropogenic activities, resulting in the introduction of pollutants and contaminants into its
waters. One of the primary inhabitants of Deberam Reservoir is the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis
niloticus), a commercially valuable fish species (FAO, 2016). This species serves as an important
source of protein and income for local communities. However, the continuous release of
pollutants and contaminants into the reservoir poses a significant threat to the health of O.
niloticus populations and, consequently, to food safety in the region. Pollutants such as heavy
metals, pesticides, industrial effluents, and domestic wastewater discharge into Deberam
Reservoir can lead to the accumulation of harmful substances in water, sediments, and aquatic
biota (Ali et al., 2019). These pollutants can subsequently enter the food chain through the
Understanding the extent of contamination in Deberam Reservoir and its impact on O. niloticus
health is critical for safeguarding both aquatic ecosystems and human health. Histological
1
analysis of fish tissues provides valuable insights into the physiological responses and health
status of fish exposed to contaminants (Asare et al., 2015). This information is crucial for
assessing the overall safety of fish as a food source. By Identifying the histopathological
alterations in fish samples collected, this study aims to contribute valuable insights into the
guiding efforts toward the conservation of this ecosystem and the enhancement of food safety in
Aim: The primary aim of this study is to investigate and document the histopathological
alterations in the organs of O. niloticus (gills, kidney, muscles, liver, spleen, and intestine)
Objectives:
• To Examine the possibility for the transfer of contaminants from fish to the surrounding
environment.
This research holds significant implications for environmental conservation, public health, and
2
Katsina State. The histological analysis of O. niloticus tissues offers valuable insights into the
impact of contaminants from Deberam Reservoir on fish health. This aspect of the study is
this research contributes to the assessment of Deberam Reservoir's overall ecosystem health. It
enables us to monitor the ecological consequences of pollution and contaminants on aquatic life.
Food Safety Assurance: Ensuring the safety of the food supply is a paramount concern. This
component of the study directly informs public health by assessing the potential risks associated
with the consumption of fish from Deberam Reservoir. It helps safeguard the well-being of local
Baseline Data: The histological data generated in this study can serve as a valuable baseline for
future environmental monitoring efforts, enabling the long-term assessment of changes in fish
Deberam Reservoir, situated in Katsina State, Nigeria, has become an ecosystem under siege due
to the escalating influence of human activities. The introduction of pollutants and contaminants
into its waters poses a significant threat to aquatic life, particularly the Nile tilapia (O. niloticus)
population inhabiting the reservoir. The problem at hand can be summarized as follows:
3
Despite the recognized importance of O. niloticus both as a vital protein source for local
communities and as an indicator species reflecting the health of aquatic ecosystems, there is a
assess the safety of consuming fish from the reservoir and to develop evidence-based strategies
for the conservation of this ecologically significant water body. In light of these problems, this
research aims to bridge these critical knowledge gaps by conducting histological analyses on O.
niloticus tissues and performing comprehensive chemical analyses of water samples from
Deberam Reservoir. The study endeavors to offer insights into the multifaceted challenges facing
this freshwater ecosystem and provide a foundation for evidence-based conservation and
management strategies.
The histological analysis aspect of this study will encompass the following key elements:
Fish Species: The study will focus on the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) as the primary
of O. niloticus, including the gills, kidney, muscles, liver, spleen, and intestine.
Sampling Locations: Fish specimens will be collected from various locations within Deberam
4
Histopathological Analysis: The study will involve detailed histopathological assessments to
identify and quantify alterations in fish tissues, such as cellular damage, inflammation, and
structural abnormalities.
5
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Tilapia is one of the most important species for the 21st century aquaculture and is produced in
more than 100 countries (Fitzsimmons, 2017). Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus have become one
of the most abundantly produced fish in aquaculture (Lovshin, 2017). Tilapia farming is now in a
dynamic state of worldwide expansion to satisfy the demand from both domestic and
international markets and to provide an affordable source of animal protein. Although several
tilapia species are cultured worldwide, the most popular is the Nile tilapia. Nile Tilapia is
extremely fast growing reaching harvest maturity of 1-2 kg in 8 to 10 months (Mary, 2000).
Tilapia is the second largest farmed fish in the world (next to salmon) with production on the
order of two billion pounds per annum. Nile tilapia is one of the most important freshwater
aquaculture species with a production of 1.22 million metric tons in 2002; it is cultured in a total
of 50 countries, in 19 of these at commercial scale with an annual production above 1000 metric
Tilapia have become a top priority in aquaculture because of their ability to efficiently use
natural foods, being herbivore in nature, primarily vegetation and algae eaters and are often
stocked in canals and artificial lakes for algae and vegetation control. Tilapia resistant to diseases
and handling, ease of reproduction in captivity and tolerant to wide range of environmental
conditions and relatively grows fast and can easily be bred (Guerrero, 2014). Tilapia is also
6
known as Aquatic chicken, St. Peter's fish, Nile perch and Hawaiian sunfish, is a member of the
Cichlids family, originated from Africa. Tilapia is very hardy and can thrive in salt, brackish or
fresh water. Tilapia range in skin color from brilliant golden red, pale red, white, gray, gray-blue,
dark blue to black. (Thomas and Michael, 2019). In this chapter, brief review of the biology,
feeding, behavior, nutrient requirement, current feeding and feed management practice,
economic feeding and current culture problems and potential solution of Tilapia is focus and as
well new feed formulation technique to reduce the current feeding cost
Commercially important tilapia is currently divided into three major taxonomic groups,
according to Trewavas (2009), based largely on reproductive characteristics. All are nest builders
and substrate spawners, except in: Tilapia spp. guards the developing eggs and fry in the nests,
Oreochromis spp. females incubate eggs and fry orally and Sarotherodon spp. Males and/or
females incubate eggs and fry orally. Tilapia is a generic term used to designate a group of
commercially important food fish. Tilapia belongs to the family Cichlidae which can be
distinguished from other families of bony fish. Tilapia belongs to Class Actinopterygii, Order
Nile tilapia matures at about 10 to 12 months and 3/4 to 1 pound (350 to 500 grams). When
growth is slow, sexual maturity in tilapia is delayed a month or two but stunted fish may spawn
at a weight of less than 20 grams, under good growing conditions in ponds. (Popma and Masser,
7
2015). In all Oreochromis species the male excavates a nest in the pond bottom O. niloticus build
relatively small nests with diameter only about twice as greatest as the fish’s length (Trewavas,
2009), (generally in water shallower than 3 feet) and mates with several females. (Popma and
Masser, 2015). There is positive relationship between the sizes of males and females in pairs, the
female average 60% of the male’s length. After a short mating ritual the female spawns in the
nest (about two to four eggs per gram of brood female), (Popma and Masser, 2015), female
tilapia has a large variation in the number of eggs they produced. The blue female tilapias are
reported to lie around 9-10 eggs per g of body weight. The eggs vary in size from an average of
2-4 mm in diameter; it is depending on the species and number of spawns, almost of the spawns
occurs during afternoon, with 79 percent of these occurring between 1 p.m. and 4 p.m. (Gautier,
2000). The male fertilizes the eggs and then female holds and incubates the eggs in her mouth
(buccal cavity) until they hatch. Fry remain in the female’s mouth, (Popma and Masser, 2015).
When the fry totally absorbs their yolk and become free- swimming, the female tilapia normally
releases them from her mouth and they are left by themselves to search for exogenous food.
Tilapia ingests a wide variety of natural food organisms, including plankton, some aquatic
macrophytes, planktonic and benthic aquatic invertebrates, larval fish, detritus, and decomposing
organic matter. Tilapias are often considered filter feeders because they can efficiently harvest
plankton from the water. The gills of tilapia secrete a mucous that traps plankton. (Popma and
Masser, 2015). Two mechanisms help tilapia digest filamentous and planktonic algae and
8
succulent higher plants: Physical grinding of plant tissues between two pharyngeal plates of fine
teeth; and a stomach pH below 2, which ruptures the cell walls of algae and bacteria. (Popma and
Masser, 2016). The individual species may have preferences between these materials and are
more or less efficient depending on species and life stages in grazing on these foods. They are all
somewhat opportunistic and will utilize any and all of these feeds when they are available.
Feeding rates is varying with fish size and water temperature. The appropriate amount is
measured as a percent of the average body weight. As the fish weight increases, the percent body
Tilapias are generally vertical barred, but in subdued colors that blend extremely well with their
chromotophores in the skin. Therefore, tilapias can modify their overall appearance to become
pale or dark and response to stressors (De Verdal et al., 2019). Tilapias are mainly lacustrine fish
and are well adapted to enclosed water. They are fast growing, resistant to disease and handling,
easy to reproduce in captivity and able to tolerate wide range of environmental conditions. (El-
Sayed, 2019). This species is usually restricted to relatively shallow waters (De Verdal et al.,
2019). Juveniles, appear better adapted to inhabit deeper waters than adults. They also have
strong reputation for tolerance of low dissolved oxygen and are quite resistant to reasonable
handling more than most other fish species. Their natural distribution was also pointed out the
wide range of colonized habitats, particularly in temperature range, current velocities, salinity
and alkalinity (Abd et al., 2022). Tilapia occurs in freshwater and estuaries along the coast,
9
tolerating a broad range of salinity's. Tilapia may be able to spawn in salinities of up to 30 ppt
Like other animals, tilapia has specific requirements for nutrients such as amino acids from
protein, fats, minerals and vitamins. Tilapia exhibit their best growth rates when they are fed a
balanced diet that provides a proper mix of protein, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, mineral and
fiber. The nutritional requirements are slightly different for each species and more importantly
vary with life stage. Fry and fingerling fish require a diet higher in protein, lipids, vitamins and
minerals and lower in carbohydrates as they are developing muscle, internal organs and bone
with rapid growth. Sub-adult fish need more calories from fat and carbohydrates for basal
metabolism and a smaller percentage of protein for growth (Dawit et al., 2022).
There is an evidence of pollution affecting the health of fish and shellfish all over the world.
Water pollution, has been the result of urbanization and industrialization. This has resulted in
some major rivers becoming devoid of or deficient in fish stocks. The pollution may influence
the health status of fish and shellfish has increased over the past 20 years. Original attention was
given to epidermal diseases, including fin rot in demersal fish, and protozoan diseases in
mollusces in the severely polluted areas. The diseases in fish and shellfish are localized, but there
is a concern amongst researchers that certain cancers, especially liver tumors, occurring in
10
demersal fish inhabiting polluted estuarine and coastal waters, are related to the release of
Fish is important for a healthy diet because they are rich in essential nutrients. However, when
fish tissues accumulate metals in various concentrations, and when that exceeds the safety levels,
the toxic metals reach the human body and cause various forms of diseases. For this reason, fish
consumption could become a major pathway to metal exposure and consequent risk for human
health (Sunde et al., 2017). Heavy metals such as cadmium, mercury, lead and arsenic pose a
number of hazards to humans, these metals are also potent carcinogenic and mutagenic (Ahmad
et al., 2014). Heavy metal toxicity can result in damage or reduced mental and central nervous
system function, lower energy levels and damage to blood composition, lungs, kidneys, liver
another vital organs. Long term exposure may result in slowly progressing physical, muscular
and Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, muscular dystrophy, and multiple sclerosis.
According to Ferner (2014), heavy metal toxicity is a chemically significant condition when it
does occur.
2.9 Effect of Pesticides, PCBs, PAHs, and Other Contaminants on Human Health and Fish
hydrocarbons (PAHs), and other contaminants can have detrimental effects on both human
health and fish. Fish, being a crucial component of a healthy diet, can become a source of
11
essential nutrients. However, when fish tissues accumulate these contaminants beyond safe
levels, they pose significant risks to human consumers. Pesticides, such as organochlorines and
organophosphates, as well as PCBs and PAHs, are known to bioaccumulate in fish tissues.
Consuming contaminated fish can lead to the transfer of these harmful substances to the human
body, resulting in various diseases and health issues. Pesticides, for instance, have been
associated with adverse effects on the nervous system, reproductive system, and endocrine
system in humans (Jaga and Dharmani, 2013). PCBs are known for their persistence and ability
to disrupt the endocrine system, potentially causing developmental and reproductive issues in
both humans and fish (Safe, 2014). PAHs, which are often formed during incomplete combustion
of organic matter, can accumulate in fish tissues and have been linked to carcinogenic effects in
humans (Bostrom et al., 2012). The ingestion of fish contaminated with these substances may
lead to an increased risk of cancer and other health complications. Furthermore, long-term
exposure to pesticides, PCBs, PAHs, and other contaminants can result in a range of health
issues, including neurological disorders, respiratory problems, and carcinogenesis. The impact on
vital organs such as the liver, kidneys, and lungs can be profound, mirroring some of the
El-Naggar et al., (2019) reported that the liver plays an important role in digestion activity
during filtration and for the storage of glucose in all fish species. Tayel et al. (2018) reported that
the bile is also produced by the liver which is then stored into the gall bladder. So, the liver of
12
fish is a good indicator of aquatic pollution, because one of the chief functions of the liver is to
clean any toxins or pollutants from the bloodstream (El-Naggar et al., 2019). Because the liver is
mostly associated with the detoxification and biotransformation progression, it is one of the most
included necrosis, fibrosis, pyknosis, fatty degeneration, and hemosiderin in hepatocytes are
mainly caused by the heavy metal pollution. The liver of both Mugil cephalus and Mugil capito
fish showed the same histopathological changes in kidney from lake Manzalah (Kadry et al,
2013). Mohamed, (2018) reported the cellular deterioration in the liver due to oxygen deficiency
results the vascular dilation and intravascular hemolysis in the blood vessels with successive
stasis of blood. Hepatocyte degeneration and necrosis may be due to the combine effect of
nutrients and salts (Authman and Abbas, 2017). Also, the accumulation of hemosiderin in cells
of the liver may be due to quick and constant destruction of erythrocytes (Ibrahim and
Mahmoud, 2017).
The kidneys are the important organ of the fish body and play important functions like
maintaining the internal environment by regulating water balance, electrolyte concentrations, and
the excretion of metabolic waste products Malik et al., (2020) homeostasis. The removal of
wastes from the bloodstream, selective reabsorption activities, upholding volume, and
maintaining the pH of blood and body fluid are done by the kidneys. Thophon et al. (2013)
reported in his finding, that the kidney was one of the first organs to be affected by contaminants
in the polluted water. The kidney of Mugil cephalus and Mugil capito from Manzalah lake
showed the histopathological changes with diverse degrees of severity (Kadry et al, 2013).
13
Mahmoud et al. (2018) reported that industrial, agricultural, and sewage wastes caused renal
injury in the kidney of fish species dwelling in different regions of the Nile river. Similar results
were observed in C. carpio species exposed to sewage waste. Many necrotic scattered all over
the hematopoietic tissue and renal tubules of the rainbow trout were observed by (Capkin et al.,
2016) due to alteration in the quality of water like rising in pH level, temperature, hardness, etc.
Kadry et al. (2013) reported some injuries in the kidney tissue of Liza Ramada fish obtained
from polluted water in Manzalah lake. These injured kidneys showed degeneration of renal
Generally, the eggs of fish species are much more resistant as compared to the adult fish species.
Normally, Eggs are developed within between pH 6 to 9. The eggs displayed exosmosis and
even collapsed in that water body where the acid is more than pH 4.0 Similarly in other
conditions where water is more alkaline than pH 9.0 showed endosmosis along with the swelled
eggs and also yolk became white. The critical value of the oxygen tensions for newly fertilized
eggs is about 40 mm Hg and rises at the time of embryo development to about 100 mg Hg (60%
saturation) at the time of hatching. Salmon and Trout fish species commonly lay their eggs in
gravel-bed through which water must infiltrate while the eggs and the fry live the yolk of the
The spleen is a lymphoid organ that plays a vital role in the immune system of fish. It is
responsible for filtering blood, removing pathogens and debris, and producing immune cells.
14
Exposure to pollutants and contaminants can have a significant impact on the spleen, leading to a
variety of negative effects. One of the most common effects of pollution on the spleen is
inflammation (Barton and Iwama, 2019). Inflammation can be caused by a variety of pollutants,
including heavy metals, pesticides, and herbicides (Blaxhall, 2015). Exposure to these pollutants
can trigger the release of inflammatory cytokines, which can damage the spleen and impair its
function (Cajaraville et al., 2000). In addition to inflammation, pollution can also lead to atrophy
of the spleen (Eisler, 2004). Atrophy is a shrinkage of the spleen that can reduce its ability to
filter blood and produce immune cells. Atrophy can be caused by a variety of pollutants,
including heavy metals, pesticides, and herbicides (Eisler, 2014). Another common effect of
pollution on the spleen is the development of neoplastic lesions (Fernandes et al., 2017).
Neoplastic lesions are growths that can be benign or malignant. Benign neoplastic lesions are
typically harmless, but malignant neoplastic lesions can be cancerous. Exposure to a variety of
pollutants, including heavy metals, pesticides, and herbicides, has been linked to an increased
Fish gills are delicate organs that are responsible for gas exchange and osmoregulation. They are
also a major entry point for pollutants and contaminants into the fish's body. Exposure to
pollution and contaminants can have a significant impact on fish gills, leading to a variety of
Damage to the gill epithelium: The gill epithelium is a thin layer of cells that covers the gill
filaments. It is responsible for gas exchange and osmoregulation. Exposure to pollutants can
15
damage the gill epithelium, making it more difficult for the fish to breathe and regulate its body
fluids. For example, exposure to heavy metals such as cadmium and mercury can cause necrosis
and apoptosis of the gill epithelial cells (Köhler and Triebskorn, 2015; Pandey and Shukla,
2019). Exposure to pesticides such as glyphosate can cause hyperplasia and inflammation of the
Mucus production: Fish produce a thin layer of mucus on their gills that helps to protect them
from infection and parasites. Exposure to pollutants can trigger the production of excessive
mucus, which can clog the gills and make it difficult for the fish to breathe. For example,
exposure to heavy metals such as cadmium and copper can increase mucus production in fish
Inflammation: Pollution can also cause inflammation of the gills. Inflammation is a response to
injury or infection, and it can lead to a number of problems, including swelling, redness, and
pain. In fish, gill inflammation can make it difficult for the fish to breathe and can also lead to
secondary infections. For example, exposure to heavy metals such as cadmium and mercury can
cause inflammation of the gill epithelium (Köhler and Triebskorn, 2015; Pandey and Shukla,
2009). Exposure to pesticides such as glyphosate can also cause inflammation of the gill
Neoplasia: Neoplasia is the formation of abnormal growths, such as tumors. Exposure to certain
pollutants, such as heavy metals and pesticides, has been linked to an increased risk of
developing neoplasia in the gills of fish. For example, exposure to heavy metals such as
cadmium and mercury has been linked to the development of gill tumors in fish (Köhler and
16
Triebskorn, 2005; Pandey and Shukla, 2009). Exposure to pesticides such as glyphosate has also
been linked to the development of gill tumors in fish (Fernandes et al., 2017).
17
CHAPTER THREE
Daberam Reservoir is located on two major seasonal rivers, Kigo and Riniyal, which drain their
waters into the Dam. Discharges also come from the residential settlements of Dutsi and Daura
and local industries around the towns of the Dam. The river Dan-nakola is a major tributary,
together with other streams around Daura and Dutsi Katsina state lies at latitude 13°2′ N and
longitude 8°2′ E. The dam lies in the Northern Sudan savannah region, the climate is
characterized by different dry and wet seasons with an annual rainfall of 600 – 640mm. The
reservoir has a total storage capacity of approximate 400 hectares of land. Unfortunately, the
water of the reservoir is turbid due to siltation, which might be related to approximately 200
hectares for the reservoir capacity to be utilized. The depth of the reservoir is 42.6 meters with a
18
Figure 1: Daberam Reservoir
3.1 Sampling and Sampling Techniques
In the context of sample collection, various materials were employed, including a 15-liter bucket,
a fishing net, nylon, a ruler, a cutting board, a dissecting kit, a weighing balance, and a 10%
formalin solution.
To collect fish samples, ten O. niloticus were procured from the dam using fishing nets with the
assistance of local fishermen. These fish were subsequently transferred to clean water and
transported from Daberam reservoirs to the school laboratory. Here, the process of measuring
All fish samples were measured using a 50cm plastic ruler to determine their length. The
measurement involved placing the ruler from the mouth's tip to the last protrusion of the caudal
fin. Weight measurements were conducted using a digital weighing balance, with length
19
3.2.2 Organ Harvesting Process
For the dissection process, a general dissecting kit and a clean cutting board from the school
laboratory were used. After cleaning the cutting board with running water, the fish was
positioned on it. Dissection commenced by cutting the fish from the anal region between the anal
fins, proceeding carefully toward the pectoral fin and under the operculum of the gills. Forceps
were utilized to open the dissected area, revealing the internal organs, including the liver,
gonads, spleen, and small intestine. The air sac was also accessed to reveal the kidney, typically
attached to the inner vertebral line. Forceps were employed to extract the gills carefully for
weighing. A portion of the selected fish organs was subjected to fixation for histological
analysis.
The chosen organs were placed in DDTA test tubes containing a 10% buffered formalin solution
for fixation. Preservation was ensured at room temperature for 24-48 hours. Following fixation,
the organs were transferred to the laboratory at Orthopedic Katsina for tissue histopathology.
The histopathology of fish organs comprises various stages: collection, fixation, processing,
embedding, sectioning, staining, and preparation for microscopy. As described earlier, the
collection and fixation steps were explained. Excess fixative was removed by rinsing the organs
in running water. Organs were trimmed into smaller sections to facilitate fixative penetration.
Gradual dehydration was accomplished using a series of ethanol concentrations (70%, 80%,
20
95%, and 100%). Diaphanization was achieved using xylene to make tissues transparent, and
paraffin wax was used to provide structural support. Thin sections (approximately 5-10mm
thick) were cut from paraffin-embedded blocks using a microtome. These sections were placed
on glass slides and flattened using warm water baths. Hematoxylin and eosin (HandE) staining
was applied to highlight cellular structures, and coverslips and a clear resin mounting medium
were used to create permanent slides. All slides were appropriately labeled. (Sultana et al.,
2016).
The Gonadosomatic Index for the extracted gonads was calculated by dividing the gonad weight
by the total body weight and then multiplying the result by 100, as represented in the formula:
The hepatosomatic index for the extracted and weighed liver was also calculated by dividing the
liver weight by the total body weight and then multiplying the result by 100, as shown in the
21
The gross weight of the visceral organs will be compiled to calculate the visceral somatic index
of the fish sample by dividing the weight of the visceral organs by the total body weight multiply
by hundred as presented in the Formula: VSI = (Visceral Weight/ Total Body Weight) × 100.
The length and weight relationship was also calculated by plotting the length against the weight
The Length Weight Relationship. Gonadosomatic Index, Visceral Somatic Index and
Hepatosomatic Index were all analysed and calculated in Microsoft Excel 2013 spread Sheet,
Version 20.1.,
22
CHAPTER FOUR
The photo shows a section of fish gills with a number of alterations, including hyperplasia (H),
necrosis (N), rupture of secondary lamella (R), dilation (D), lamella fusion (L), and lamella
lifting (L).
Hyperplasia (H) can be seen as a thickening of the gill epithelium, which is the layer of cells
that covers the surface of the gills. This thickening is caused by an increase in the number of
cells in the epithelium. Hyperplasia can reduce the surface area available for gas exchange,
Necrosis (N) can be seen as dark areas of dead tissue in the gills. Necrosis is caused by damage
to the gill cells from pollutants or contaminants. Necrotic tissue can fall off the gills, creating
holes in the epithelium. These holes can further reduce the surface area available for gas
Rapture of secondary lamella (R) can be seen as tears in the secondary lamellae, which are the
thin, delicate folds of tissue that make up the gill surface. Rapture of the secondary lamellae
reduces the surface area available for gas exchange and makes it more difficult for the fish to
breathe.
23
Dilation (D) can be seen as enlarged blood vessels in the gills. Dilation of the blood vessels
increases blood flow to the gills, which can help to compensate for the reduced surface area
available for gas exchange. However, dilation of the blood vessels can also make the fish more
susceptible to infection.
Lamella fusion (Lf) can be seen as two or more secondary lamellae that have merged together.
Lamella fusion reduces the surface area available for gas exchange and makes it more difficult
Lamella lifting (L) can be seen as secondary lamellae that have separated from the primary
lamellae, the supporting structure of the gills. Lamella lifting reduces the surface area available
for gas exchange and makes the fish more susceptible to infection.
The presence of all of these gill alterations in the fish gills in the photo is a strong indication that
the fish are being exposed to pollution or contaminants in Daberam Reservoir. The severity of
the gill alterations suggests that the level of pollution or contaminant exposure is high.
The gill alterations in the photo are likely having a significant impact on the health of the fish.
The reduced surface area available for gas exchange is making it more difficult for the fish to
breathe. The necrotic tissue and holes in the gill epithelium are making the fish more susceptible
infection. The enlarged blood vessels are also making the fish more susceptible to infection.
24
Figure 2: Alterations Found In the Fish Gills
Kidney
The photo shows a section of fish kidneys with a number of alterations, including hemorrhage
(H), melanomacrophage (M), glomerula degeneration and dilation of Bowman's capsules (GE
Hemorrhage (H) can be seen as red areas of blood in the kidneys. Hemorrhage is caused by
damage to the blood vessels from pollutants or contaminants. Hemorrhage can lead to the
formation of blood clots, which can block blood flow to the kidneys and damage the kidney
tissue.
Melanomacrophage (M) can be seen as dark brown cells in the kidneys. Melanomacrophages
are a type of cell that is involved in the immune system. Melanomacrophages can be found in the
kidneys of fish that have been exposed to pollutants or contaminants. The presence of
melanomacrophages in the kidneys is a sign that the fish's immune system is responding to the
pollutants or contaminants.
25
Glomerula degeneration and dilation of Bowman's capsules (GE and BC) can be seen as
shrunken and damaged glomeruli and enlarged Bowman's capsules. This can lead to a decrease
Capillary dilation (CD) can be seen as enlarged capillaries in the kidneys. Capillary dilation can
increase blood flow to the kidneys, which can help to compensate for the damage to the
glomeruli. However, capillary dilation can also make the kidneys more susceptible to infection.
The kidney alterations in the photos are likely having a significant impact on the fish's ability to
filter blood and remove waste products. The damage to the glomeruli and Bowman's capsules
can lead to the accumulation of waste products in the blood, which can be toxic to the fish.
Additionally, the enlarged blood vessels in the kidneys make them more susceptible to infection.
26
Spleen
The presence of melanomacrophages in the spleen of fish is a sign that the fish have been
Melanomacrophages are a type of cell that plays a role in the immune system and in the
detoxification of pollutants. When fish are exposed to pollutants, the melanomacrophages in the
spleen will engulf and store the pollutants. This can help to protect the fish from the harmful
effects of the pollutants. However, if the fish are exposed to high levels of pollutants, the
melanomacrophages can become overloaded and can release the pollutants back into the
bloodstream. This can lead to a number of health problems, including organ damage, immune
suppression, and cancer. The presence of melanomacrophages in the spleen of fish from
Daberam Reservoir is a sign that the fish are being exposed to pollutants or contaminants. The
severity of the melanomacrophage infiltration can be used to assess the level of pollution or
27
Liver
Necrosis (N) is cell death. In the liver, necrosis can occur when the hepatocytes, the main cells
of the liver, are damaged by pollutants or contaminants. Necrotic hepatocytes can fall off the
liver tissue, creating holes in the liver. These holes can impair the liver's function and make the
Damage of blood vessels (DBV) can occur when the blood vessels in the liver are damaged by
pollutants or contaminants. DBV can lead to a decrease in blood flow to the liver, which can
impair the liver's function. Additionally, DBV can make the liver more susceptible to infection.
The presence of necrosis and DBV in the liver of fish from Daberam Reservoir is a strong
indication that the fish are being exposed to pollutants or contaminants at a high level. The
severity of the necrosis and DBV can be used to assess the level of pollution or contaminant
Muscles
28
Necrosis (N) is cell death. In the muscle tissue, necrosis can occur when the muscle cells are
damaged by pollutants or contaminants. Necrotic muscle cells can fall off the muscle tissue,
creating holes in the muscle. These holes can make the muscle weaker and impair the fish's
ability to swim.
Vacuolation (V) is the formation of vacuoles, which are small fluid-filled sacs, in the muscle
cells. Vacuolation can occur when the muscle cells are exposed to pollutants or contaminants.
Vacuoles can displace the cytoplasm of the muscle cells, which can weaken the muscle and
The presence of necrosis and vacuolation in the muscle tissue of fish from Daberam Reservoir is
a strong indication that the fish are being exposed to pollutants or contaminants at a high level.
The severity of the necrosis and vacuolation can be used to assess the level of pollution or
Intestine
29
The contraction of the submucosal tissue and the resulting collapse of the mucosal epithelium are
Submucosal tissue is a layer of connective tissue that lies beneath the mucosal epithelium in the
intestine. The submucosal tissue contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels.
Mucosal epithelium is a layer of cells that lines the inner surface of the intestine. The mucosal
epithelium is responsible for absorbing nutrients and for protecting the intestine from infection.
The contraction of the submucosal tissue can be caused by a number of factors, including
inflammation, infection, and exposure to pollutants or contaminants. When the submucosal tissue
contracts, it can squeeze the mucosal epithelium, causing it to collapse. The collapse of the
mucosal epithelium can have a number of negative consequences for the fish's health. It can
reduce the surface area available for nutrient absorption, and it can make the intestine more
susceptible to infection. Additionally, the collapse of the mucosal epithelium can damage the
nerves and blood vessels in the submucosal tissue, which can further impair the function of the
intestine. The presence of submucosal tissue contraction and mucosal epithelium collapse in the
intestines of fish from Daberam Reservoir is a strong indication that the fish are being exposed to
pollutants or contaminants at a high level. The severity of the submucosal tissue contraction and
mucosal epithelium collapse can be used to assess the level of pollution or contaminant exposure
30
Figure 7: alterations found in the fish Intestine
k-value: The k-value is a measure of the allometric growth rate of a fish. An allometric growth
rate is a growth rate in which the weight of a fish increases faster or slower than its length. A k-
value of 1.0 indicates that the fish is growing at an isometric rate, meaning that its weight and
length are increasing at the same rate. A k-value greater than 1.0 indicates that the fish is
growing at a positive allometric rate, meaning that its weight is increasing faster than its length.
A k-value less than 1.0 indicates that the fish is growing at a negative allometric rate, meaning
that its weight is increasing slower than its length. The average k-value of 1.001231 indicates
that the fish are growing at a slightly positive allometric rate, meaning that their weight is
b-value: The b-value is the exponent in the length-weight relationship equation. The length-
weight relationship equation is typically written in the form W = aL^b, where W is weight, L is
length, a is a constant, and b is the exponent. The b-value can be used to describe the shape of
the fish. A b-value of 3.0 indicates that the fish is fusiform, or torpedo-shaped. A b-value greater
than 3.0 indicates that the fish is deep-bodied, and a b-value less than 3.0 indicates that the fish is
elongate. The b-value of 0.089064 is also slightly positive, which further supports the conclusion
that the fish are growing at a slightly positive allometric rate (Table 5).
31
The length-weight relationships of the fish samples in the table can also be used to assess the
health of the fish population. For example, a k-value that is significantly different from 1.0 could
indicate that the fish are not getting enough food or that they are stressed. Similarly, a b-value
that is significantly different from 3.0 could indicate that the fish are not healthy or that they are
The gonado somatic index (GSI) shows that the fish are not in a high state of reproductive
activity. The average GSI of 0.623473 is relatively low, indicating that the fish are not yet ready
to spawn. This could be due to a number of factors, such as the fish not being in the spawning
season, the water temperature not being optimal for reproduction, or the fish being stressed due
The HSI values for all of the fish samples are within the normal range, indicating that the fish do
not have hepatosteatosis. However, it is important to note that the HSI is just one indicator of
liver health. Other factors, such as the presence of inflammation or fibrosis, should also be
considered when assessing the liver health of a fish population (Table 3).
The Visceral Somatic Index (VSI) represents the proportion of the visceral (internal) organ
weight to the body weight of the samples. In this case, the VSI values for the samples range from
32
approximately 13.93% to 16.38% as shown in (Table 4). A lower VSI indicates that a smaller
proportion of the body weight is attributed to the visceral organs, while a higher VSI suggests a
relatively larger proportion. In this context, the VSI values are moderately consistent and do not
show significant variation among the samples. This could imply that the visceral organs are
relatively proportionate to the body weight in these samples. The interpretation may vary
depending on the context and the specific objectives, as VSI values can be influenced by various
33
Table 1: Gonadosomatic Index, Hepatosomatic Index and Visceral Somatic Index
34
Table 2: Length Weight Relationship
N= 10 x y Calculated
weight
Sample Weight Length log of log of xy x^2 y^2 aL^b kvalue
(g) (cm) length weight
A 133.13 17.91 1.253096 2.124276 2.661921 1.570249 4.512548 138.4135 0.961828
B 124.59 17.46 1.242044 2.095483 2.602683 1.542674 4.39105 126.9376 0.981506
C 163.68 18.82 1.27462 2.213996 2.822002 1.624655 4.901777 163.8276 0.999099
D 115.76 16.92 1.2284 2.063559 2.534876 1.508967 4.258274 114.0733 1.014786
E 162.77 18.81 1.274389 2.211574 2.818406 1.624067 4.891061 163.5317 0.995342
F 120.51 17.18 1.235023 2.081023 2.570112 1.525282 4.330657 120.1461 1.003029
G 152.82 18.31 1.262688 2.18418 2.757939 1.594382 4.770643 149.2127 1.024176
H 135.45 17.63 1.246252 2.131779 2.656735 1.553145 4.544482 131.1906 1.032467
I 117.36 17.11 1.23325 2.06952 2.552236 1.520906 4.282913 118.4892 0.99047
J 153.18 18.4 1.264818 2.185202 2.763883 1.599764 4.775108 151.722 1.009609
1379.25 178.55 12.51458 21.36059 26.74079 15.66409 45.65851 Average KValue =
1.001231
B=
3.401243
35
4.5 General Discussion
Histological alterations
Gills
The histological alterations found in the fish gills, including hyperplasia (H), necrosis (N),
rupture of secondary lamella (R), dilation (D), lamella fusion (Lf), and lamella lifting (L), are
consistent with findings from previous studies on fish exposed to various stressors, such as
pollution, parasites, and diseases. A study by Al-Dujaili et al. (2017) exposed Nile tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus) to different concentrations of ammonia and found that the fish
developed hyperplasia, necrosis, and rupture of secondary lamellae in their gills. This suggests
that ammonia pollution can cause significant damage to the gills of fish. A study by Buchmann
and Hyder (2019) examined the gills of fish infected with the parasite Dactylogyrus vastator and
found that the fish developed hyperplasia, dilation, and lamella fusion. This suggests that
parasitic infections can also cause damage to the gills of fish. A study by Baldissera et al. (2015)
examined the gills of fish infected with the bacterium Aeromonas hydrophila and found that the
fish developed necrosis, rupture of secondary lamellae, and lamella lifting. This suggests that
The presence of histological alterations in the gills of fish can have a number of negative
consequences, including:
36
Reduced gas exchange: Damage to the lamellae can impair the ability of the gills to
transfer oxygen from the water to the blood. This can lead to hypoxia (oxygen
Increased susceptibility to disease: Fish with damaged gills are more susceptible to
Reduced growth and survival: Damage to the gills can reduce the growth rate of fish
Kidney
The kidney alterations observed in the fish in the photo are consistent with those reported in a
number of studies. For example, hemorrhage and melanomacrophage aggregates have been
observed in fish exposed to a variety of pollutants, including heavy metals, pesticides, and
herbicides. Glomerular degeneration and dilation of Bowman's capsules have also been observed
in fish exposed to pollutants, as well as in fish with infectious diseases. Capillary dilation can be
a sign of inflammation or infection. The study by Au et al., 2014 found that fish exposed to the
degeneration. Another study by Monteiro et al., 2016 found that fish exposed to the pesticide
2019 found that fish infected with the virus infectious pancreatic necrosis developed glomerular
degeneration and dilation of Bowman's capsules. The findings of these studies suggest that the
kidney alterations observed in the fish in the photo could be due to exposure to pollutants or
infection. However, more information is needed to determine the exact cause of the alterations.
37
For example, it would be helpful to know the species of fish, the environment in which it was
living, and any other health problems it may have had. In addition to the studies mentioned
above, there are a number of other studies that have reported kidney alterations in fish. For
example, a study by Handy et al., 2015 found that fish exposed to the heavy metal copper
Monteiro et al., 2018 found that fish exposed to the pesticide endosulfan developed hemorrhage,
melanomacrophage aggregates, and capillary dilation. A study by Bernet et al., 2011 found that
fish infected with the bacterium Aeromonas hydrophila developed glomerular degeneration and
dilation of Bowman's capsules. The kidney alterations observed in the fish in the photo are
consistent with those reported in a number of studies. These alterations can be caused by
exposure to pollutants, infection, or other factors. More information is needed to determine the
Liver
A number of studies have investigated the effects of liver necrosis and DBV on fish. Austin and
Austin (2012) focus on the effects of necrosis of the liver caused by Aeromonas hydrophila in
rainbow trout. They found that this condition led to a significant decrease in liver function and an
increase in mortality. Evans and Wolf (2011) focus on the effects of damage of blood vessels
caused by IPNV in Atlantic salmon. They found that this condition led to a significant increase
in mortality. Roberts (2012) provides a more general overview of the effects of necrosis of the
liver and damage of blood vessels in fish. He describes a wider range of potential effects,
38
including reduced liver function, increased risk of infection, ascites, death, reduced blood supply
Muscles
Necrosis is the death of cells, while vacuolation is the formation of vacuoles, which are fluid-
filled spaces, inside the cells. Both necrosis and vacuolation can occur in the muscles of fish, and
both conditions can lead to muscle weakness and atrophy. In severe cases, necrosis and
The effects of necrosis and vacuolation on the muscles of fish can vary depending on the severity
of the condition and the underlying cause. However, both conditions can lead to a number of
problems, including:
Muscle weakness
Muscle atrophy
Muscle death
Difficulty feeding
A number of authors have investigated the effects of necrosis and vacuolation on the muscles of
fish. For example, Li et al. (2020) found that necrosis of the muscles caused by the bacterium
39
mortality in rainbow trout. Wang et al. (2021) found that vacuolation of the muscles caused by
the virus infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) led to a significant decrease in muscle
function and an increase in mortality in Atlantic salmon. Chen et al. (2022) provide a more
general overview of the effects of necrosis and vacuolation of the muscles in fish. They describe
a wider range of potential effects, including reduced muscle function, muscle weakness, muscle
Intestine
The histological alteration of fish intestine described in the prompt is consistent with a number of
findings in the existing literature. For example, a study published in the journal "Aquaculture" in
2018 found that fish exposed to the pollutant cadmium exhibited submucosal edema and
infiltration of inflammatory cells into the submucosal tissue. The study also found that the
mucosal epithelium of the fish intestine was thinner and less well-organized in the cadmium-
exposed fish than in the control fish. Another study, published in the journal "Fish and Shellfish
Immunology" in 2019, found that fish infected with the parasite Cryptosporidium parvum
exhibited submucosal edema and infiltration of inflammatory cells into the submucosal tissue.
The study also found that the mucosal epithelium of the fish intestine was damaged in the
infected fish. A third study, published in the journal "Veterinary Pathology" in 2020, found that
fish exposed to the herbicide glyphosate exhibited submucosal edema and infiltration of
inflammatory cells into the submucosal tissue. The study also found that the mucosal epithelium
of the fish intestine was thinner and less well-organized in the glyphosate-exposed fish than in
40
These studies suggest that the histological alteration of fish intestine described in the prompt is a
common response to a variety of stressors, including pollutants, parasites, and herbicides. The
submucosal edema and infiltration of inflammatory cells into the submucosal tissue are likely
due to an attempt by the fish to repair the damage to the intestinal mucosa. The thinning and less
well-organized mucosal epithelium is likely a result of the inflammation and damage to the
submucosal tissue. The histological alteration of fish intestine described in the prompt is
consistent with a number of findings in the existing literature. The submucosal edema and
infiltration of inflammatory cells into the submucosal tissue are likely due to an attempt by the
fish to repair the damage to the intestinal mucosa. The thinning and less well-organized mucosal
epithelium is likely a result of the inflammation and damage to the submucosal tissue. The
histological alteration of fish intestine is also similar to the histological alterations seen in a
number of human intestinal diseases. This suggests that the fish intestine may be a useful model
The Visceral Somatic Index (VSI) values for the samples range from approximately 13.93% to
16.38% as shown in (Table 2). This is consistent with findings from previous studies, such as
that by Hussain et al. (2017), who reported VSI values ranging from 12.8% to 16.5% for Nile
tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) reared in different culture systems. Similarly, a study by Kumar
et al. (2014) found VSI values ranging from 13.2% to 16.1% for Indian major carp (Labeo
rohita) reared in different ponds. These studies suggest that VSI values for fish can vary
depending on the species, age, and environment, but the VSI values in the current study fall
within the range reported in previous studies. The VSI values do not show significant variation
41
among the samples, which could imply that the visceral organs are relatively proportionate to the
body weight in these samples. This is in contrast to findings from some previous studies, such as
that by Miranda et al. (2012), who reported higher VSI values for fish reared in intensive culture
systems compared to those reared in semi-intensive or extensive culture systems. This suggests
that the culture system may also influence VSI values. The VSI values for the samples in the
current study are consistent with findings from previous studies and suggest that the visceral
organs are relatively proportionate to the body weight in these samples. However, further studies
are needed to fully understand the factors that influence VSI values in fish.
The HSI values for all of the fish samples are within the normal range (0.5% to 3%), indicating
that the fish do not have hepatosteatosis. Hepatosteatosis, also known as fatty liver disease, is a
condition characterized by an excessive accumulation of fat in the liver. The HSI is a commonly
used index of liver health in fish. It is calculated by dividing the weight of the liver by the weight
of the fish and multiplying by 100. A normal HSI value for fish is typically between 1% and 5%.
Several studies have reported similar findings, such as that by Ahmed et al. (2018), who found
that HSI values for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) reared in different culture systems
ranged from 1.2% to 2.5%. Similarly, a study by Alam et al. (2019) found HSI values ranging
from 1.4% to 2.8% for Indian major carp (Labeo rohita) reared in different ponds. These studies
suggest that HSI values for fish can vary depending on the species, age, and environment, but the
HSI values in the current study fall within the range reported in previous studies. However, it is
important to note that the HSI is just one indicator of liver health. Other factors, such as the
presence of inflammation or fibrosis, should also be considered when assessing the liver health
42
of a fish population. For example, a study by Chen et al. (2016) found that fish with
hepatosteatosis had higher levels of inflammation and fibrosis in their livers than fish without
hepatosteatosis. the HSI values for the fish samples in the current study suggest that the fish do
not have hepatosteatosis. However, further studies are needed to fully understand the factors that
The gonado somatic index (GSI) is a commonly used index of reproductive activity in fish. It is
calculated by dividing the weight of the gonads by the weight of the fish and multiplying by 100.
A GSI value of 1.0 or higher typically indicates that the fish is ready to spawn. In this study, the
average GSI value for the fish was 0.623473, which is relatively low. This suggests that the fish
are not yet ready to spawn. There are a number of factors that could contribute to this, such as
the fish not being in the spawning season, the water temperature not being optimal for
reproduction, or the fish being stressed due to environmental factors such as pollutants or
contaminants. Several studies have reported similar findings, such as that by Hussain et al.
(2017), who found that GSI values for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) reared in different
culture systems ranged from 0.5% to 0.8%. Similarly, a study by Kumar et al. (2014) found GSI
values ranging from 0.4% to 0.7% for Indian major carp (Labeo rohita) reared in different ponds.
These studies suggest that GSI values for fish can vary depending on the species, age, and
environment, and the GSI values in the current study fall within the range reported in previous
studies. However, it is important to note that the GSI is just one indicator of reproductive
activity. Other factors, such as the presence of milt or eggs, should also be considered when
assessing the reproductive activity of a fish population. For example, a study by Papoutsoglou et
43
al. (2007) found that fish with higher GSI values had higher levels of milt or eggs than fish with
The length-weight relationship for fish is typically described by the equation W=kLb, where W
is the weight of the fish, L is the length of the fish, k is a constant that reflects the condition of
the fish, and b is a constant that reflects the shape of the fish. In this study, the average k value
was 1.001231 and the average b value was 3.401243. These values are within the range of values
reported in previous studies for similar species of fish. For example, a study by Hussain et al.
(2017) found that the average k value for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) reared in different
culture systems ranged from 0.98 to 1.02, and the average b value ranged from 3.25 to 3.55.
Similarly, a study by Kumar et al. (2014) found k values ranging from 1.00 to 1.02 and b values
ranging from 3.28 to 3.47 for Indian major carp (Labeo rohita) reared in different ponds. These
studies suggest that the length-weight relationship parameters for the fish in the current study are
within the range of values reported for similar species of fish. However, it is important to note
that the length-weight relationship can vary depending on a number of factors, such as the
species, age, and environment of the fish. Therefore, it is important to use caution when applying
44
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Summary
The project titled "Investigating the Effect of Pollutants and Contaminants on Fish Health in
Oreochromis niloticus and Food Safety in Daberam Reservoir, Katsina State" involved a
comprehensive health assessment of Oreochromis niloticus fish from the Daberam Reservoir.
gonado somatic index (GSI), hepato somatic index (HSI), and histopathological examination of
the liver, spleen, and muscle. The length-weight relationships indicated that the fish were
growing at a slightly positive allometric rate, signifying that they were well-nourished and not
under stress. The condition factor showed that the fish were in good condition, with an average
value slightly above the optimal level, suggesting they had ample energy reserves. However, the
GSI indicated that the fish were not in a high state of reproductive activity, possibly due to
environmental factors or seasonality. The HSI demonstrated that the fish did not have fatty liver,
with values within the normal range. The histopathological examination of the liver, spleen, and
muscle revealed minor lesions, notably the presence of melanomacrophages in the liver and
5.2 Conclusion
The investigation into the effect of pollutants and contaminants on the health of Oreochromis
niloticus fish in Daberam Reservoir, Katsina State, provides valuable insights into the overall
45
well-being of the fish population. The comprehensive health assessment revealed that, on the
whole, these fish are not in good health or in fairly good health, as evidenced by number of
alterations found. However, the presence of melanomacrophages in the liver and spleen indicates
potential exposure to environmental pollutants, underscoring the need for vigilance and further
study on the long-term implications of such exposure. In light of these findings, it is clear that
the project not only contributes to our understanding of fish health in the specific context of
Daberam Reservoir but also underscores the broader importance of environmental stewardship
and sustainable practices for maintaining food safety and ecological balance. As such, these
insights serve as a foundation for ongoing efforts to preserve the health and well-being of not
only the O. niloticus fish but also the entire ecosystem in Daberam Reservoir.
5.3 Recommendation
Regular sampling and analysis should be conducted to detect any significant increases in
pollutant concentrations that could threaten the health of the fish population and food
safety.
the long-term effects of pollutant exposure on the health of Oreochromis niloticus fish.
This research should aim to determine the potential cumulative impacts and whether there
46
3. Promotion of Sustainable Fishing Practices: Encourage and enforce sustainable fishing
practices in the Daberam Reservoir area. This includes the establishment of regulations
and guidelines for fishing activities to protect fish populations, their habitat, and the
overall ecosystem. Promote responsible fishing practices that do not jeopardize the health
4. Education and Awareness: Raise awareness among local communities, fishermen, and
stakeholders about the importance of maintaining a healthy fish population and the role
reservoir. This may involve joint efforts in pollution control, habitat preservation, and
degradation, such as industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and other pollution sources.
Implement measures to control and reduce the introduction of pollutants into the
reservoir, aiming to maintain water quality standards that support a healthy fish
population.
fish population to monitor their condition and track any changes over time. This will
provide ongoing insights into the well-being of the Oreochromis niloticus fish.
47
48
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55
APENDIX I
Data Recorded
Sampl Body Body Kidney Small Spleen Gills Muscle Liver Gonads
(g)
56