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INVESTIGATING THE EFFECT OF POLLUTION AND CONTAMINANT ON FISH

HEALTH (OREOCHROMIS NILOTICUS) AND FOOD SAFETY IN DABERAM

RESERVOIR

BY

ADAMU HUSSAINI TABALLAWA

U1/18/BIO/1921

BEING A PROJECT RESEARCH SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

BIOLOGY, FACULTY OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCE, UMARU MUSA

YAR’ADUA UNIVERSITY KATSINA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE B.SC. (HONS) DEGREE IN BIOLOGY

NOVEMBER, 2023
DECLARATION

I Adamu Hussani Taballawa with the registration number U1/18/BIO/1921 at this moment

declare that the work in this project entitled “INVESTIGATING THE EFFECT OF

POLLUTION AND CONTAMINANT ON FISH HEALTH (OREOCHROMIS

NILOTICUS) AND FOOD SAFETY IN DABERAM RESERVOIR” has been carried out by

me in the Department of Biology. The information derived from the literature has been duly

acknowledged in the text and a list of references provided. No part of this thesis was previously

presented for another degree or diploma at this or any other institution.

ADAMU HUSSAINI TABALLAWA ________________________


U1/18/BIO/1921 Date/Sign

ii
CERTIFICATION

This Project entitled INVESTIGATING THE EFFECT OF POLLUTION AND

CONTAMINANT ON FISH HEALTH (OREOCHROMIS NILOTICUS) AND FOOD

SAFETY IN DABERAM RESERVOIR meets the regulation governing the award of the

degree of Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Biology of the Umaru Musa Yar’adua University,

Katsina and is approved for its contribution on the knowledge and literary presentation.

Mal. Isa Lawal ________________________


Project Supervisor Date/Sign

iii
APRROVAL PAGE

This project has been examined and approved for the award of Bachelor of Science Degree in

(BSc.) Biology

Mal. Isa Lawal ________________________


Project Supervisor Date/Sign

Dr. Mohammed Suleiman ________________________


Head of Department Date/Sign

Abubakar Manir Darma ________________________


Project Coordinator Date/Sign

iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my deepest gratitude to Allah, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful, and the

Almighty. It is through His will and grace that I have successfully reached this significant

milestone. I am thankful to my parents, Late Hussaini Ibrahim Taballawa and Hannatu Hussaini,

as well as my entire family, including Aisha, Aliyu, Fatima, Abdullahi, Khadija, Ismail, Ibrahim,

Muhammad, Maryam, and my younger brother Abubakar Sadiq. Their unwavering patience,

understanding, and encouragement have been a constant source of strength throughout the highs

and lows of this project.

I extend my heartfelt appreciation to my project supervisor, Mal. Isah Lawal, whose steadfast

support, expertise, and guidance have played a pivotal role in shaping the direction and

enhancing the quality of this project.

Special thanks are due to my project colleagues and peers, namely Sayaya, Yaranchi, Rukayya,

Ibrahim, Aisha, Halima, and Dayyaba, for fostering a collaborative and stimulating environment.

The invaluable feedback and discussions with this group have significantly contributed to

refining the ideas presented in this work.

Lastly, I want to express my gratitude to all those individuals who may not be explicitly

mentioned but have played a part, whether big or small, in the realization of this project. Your

collective contributions have made a substantial impact, and I am truly thankful for your

involvement.

v
TABLE OF CONTENT

DECLARATION.............................................................................................................................ii

CERTIFICATION..........................................................................................................................iii

APRROVAL PAGE.......................................................................................................................iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...............................................................................................................v

TABLE OF CONTENT..................................................................................................................vi

LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................................ix

LIST OF FIGURES.........................................................................................................................x

LIST OF ABBREVIATION...........................................................................................................xi

ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................xii

CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................1

INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1

1.1 Background of the study........................................................................................................1

1.2 Aims and Objectives..............................................................................................................2

1.3 Significance of the Study.......................................................................................................2

1.4 Statement of the Problem.......................................................................................................3

1.5 Scope of the Study.................................................................................................................4

CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................................6

LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................................6
vi
2.1 Tilapia O. niloticus................................................................................................................6

2.2 Taxonomic classification and distribution.............................................................................7

2.3 Breeding biology...................................................................................................................7

2.4 Feeding biology.....................................................................................................................8

2.5 General behavior....................................................................................................................9

2.6 Nutritional requirement.......................................................................................................10

2.7 Impact of Water Pollution On Fish Health..........................................................................10

2.8 Effect of heavy metals on human health and fish................................................................11

2.9 Effect of Pesticides, PCBs, PAHs, and Other Contaminants on Human Health and Fish. .11

2.10 Histopathological Alteration..............................................................................................12

CHAPTER THREE.......................................................................................................................17

MATERIALS AND METHODS..................................................................................................17

3.0 Study Area...........................................................................................................................17

3.1 Sampling and Sampling Techniques...................................................................................18

3.2 Measurement of Fish and Organ Harvesting.......................................................................18

3.3 Histopathology Process.......................................................................................................19

3.4 Health Assessment...............................................................................................................20

3.5 Data Analysis.......................................................................................................................21

CHAPTER FOUR.........................................................................................................................22

vii
DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULT.............................................................22

4.1 Histological Alterations found in the fish gills....................................................................22

4.2 Length Weight Relationship................................................................................................30

4.3 Gonado Somatic Index........................................................................................................31

4.4 Hephatosomatix Index.........................................................................................................31

4.4 Viceral Somatic Index.........................................................................................................31

4.5 General Discussion..............................................................................................................35

CHAPTER FIVE...........................................................................................................................44

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION......................................................44

5.1 Summary..............................................................................................................................44

5.2 Conclusion...........................................................................................................................44

5.3 Recommendation.................................................................................................................45

REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................47

APENDIX I...................................................................................................................................54

viii
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Gonadosomatic Index, Hepatosomatic Index and Visceral Somatic Index....................33

Table 2: Length Weight Relationship............................................................................................34

ix
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Daberam Reservoir.........................................................................................................17

Figure 2: Alterations Found In the Fish GIls.................................................................................24

Figure 3: Aleterations found in the Fish Kidney...........................................................................25

Figure 4: Alterations found in the Fish Spleen..............................................................................26

Figure 5: Alteration Found in the Fish Liver.................................................................................27

Figure 6: Alterations found in the fish Muscles............................................................................28

Figure 7: alterations found in the fish Intestine.............................................................................29

x
LIST OF ABBREVIATION

BC = blood congestion
D = degeneration
DAF = Department of Agriculture and Fisheries
DB = dilation of bowman spaces
DG = Dilation Glomerulus capillarie
DO = Dissolved Oxygen
DSE = Damage of Secondary lamellae
EPA = Environmental and Public Health
FCA = Foci of cellular alteration
FOA = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Stes
GSI = Gonadosomatic Index
H and E = hematozylen and eosin
HE = hyaline droplet degeneration
HIS = Hepathosomatic Index
IPCS = International Programme on Chemical Safety
LD = lamellae with dilated margin
LF = lamellae fusion
LFL = lamellae lifting
LWR = Length-weight relationship
M = MelanoMpg
N = Necrosis

P = patchy degeneration
R = Rapture of secondary lamellae
S = shortening of lamellae
V = Vacuolation
VIS = Visceral Somatic Index
xi
ABSTRACT

The histological examination of fish samples from Daberam Reservoir reveals pronounced

abnormalities across various organs, indicating exposure to high levels of pollution or

contaminants. The gills exhibit alterations such as hyperplasia, necrosis, rupture of secondary

lamellae, dilation, lamella fusion, and lamella lifting, all of which contribute to impaired gas

exchange, increased susceptibility to infection, and compromised respiratory function. Kidney

sections display hemorrhage, melanomacrophage aggregates, glomerular degeneration, dilation

of Bowman's capsules, and capillary dilation, suggesting potential damage from pollutants,

infections, or both. Liver tissues exhibit necrosis and damage to blood vessels, indicating

exposure to high levels of contaminants that can compromise liver function and increase

vulnerability to infection. Muscle sections show necrosis and vacuolation, signifying pollutant-

induced damage, resulting in weakened muscles and impaired swimming ability. Intestine

sections reveal submucosal tissue contraction and mucosal epithelium collapse, indicating

exposure to pollutants and potential adverse effects on nutrient absorption and susceptibility to

infections. The visceral somatic index (VSI) values, reflecting organ weight relative to body

weight, show moderate consistency among samples, suggesting proportional organ weight

distribution. Length-weight relationship parameters (k-value and b-value) indicate a slightly

positive allometric growth rate and fusiform body shape, respectively. The gonado somatic index

(GSI) suggests that the fish are not in a high state of reproductive activity. Hepatosomatic index

(HSI) values fall within the normal range, indicating the absence of hepatosteatosis. Overall,

these findings underscore the severity of environmental stressors in Daberam Reservoir,

impacting the health and physiological well-being of the fish population.

xii
CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Freshwater ecosystems play a vital role in sustaining life on Earth, providing essential resources

and serving as habitats for various species, including fish (Griffith and Picker, 2015). In Nigeria,

as in many other regions, these aquatic environments face growing challenges due to pollution

and contamination. Deberam Reservoir, located in Katsina State, Nigeria, is no exception. The

reservoir, a significant water body within the region, has experienced increasing pressure from

anthropogenic activities, resulting in the introduction of pollutants and contaminants into its

waters. One of the primary inhabitants of Deberam Reservoir is the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis

niloticus), a commercially valuable fish species (FAO, 2016). This species serves as an important

source of protein and income for local communities. However, the continuous release of

pollutants and contaminants into the reservoir poses a significant threat to the health of O.

niloticus populations and, consequently, to food safety in the region. Pollutants such as heavy

metals, pesticides, industrial effluents, and domestic wastewater discharge into Deberam

Reservoir can lead to the accumulation of harmful substances in water, sediments, and aquatic

biota (Ali et al., 2019). These pollutants can subsequently enter the food chain through the

consumption of contaminated fish, potentially causing adverse health effects in humans.

Understanding the extent of contamination in Deberam Reservoir and its impact on O. niloticus

health is critical for safeguarding both aquatic ecosystems and human health. Histological

1
analysis of fish tissues provides valuable insights into the physiological responses and health

status of fish exposed to contaminants (Asare et al., 2015). This information is crucial for

assessing the overall safety of fish as a food source. By Identifying the histopathological

alterations in fish samples collected, this study aims to contribute valuable insights into the

environmental and health implications of contamination in Deberam Reservoir, ultimately

guiding efforts toward the conservation of this ecosystem and the enhancement of food safety in

the region (Chen et al., 2018) (Chowdhury et al., 2018).

1.2 Aims and Objectives

Aim: The primary aim of this study is to investigate and document the histopathological

alterations in the organs of O. niloticus (gills, kidney, muscles, liver, spleen, and intestine)

exposed to pollution and contaminants from Deberam Reservoir, Katsina State.

Objectives:

• To perform detailed histological examinations of the selected fish organs

• To quantify and categorize the observed histopathological alterations

• To Examine the possibility for the transfer of contaminants from fish to the surrounding

environment.

1.3 Significance of the Study

This research holds significant implications for environmental conservation, public health, and

the sustainable management of freshwater resources in the context of Deberam Reservoir,

2
Katsina State. The histological analysis of O. niloticus tissues offers valuable insights into the

impact of contaminants from Deberam Reservoir on fish health. This aspect of the study is

essential for several reasons:

Ecosystem Health Assessment: By examining histopathological alterations in key fish organs,

this research contributes to the assessment of Deberam Reservoir's overall ecosystem health. It

enables us to monitor the ecological consequences of pollution and contaminants on aquatic life.

Food Safety Assurance: Ensuring the safety of the food supply is a paramount concern. This

component of the study directly informs public health by assessing the potential risks associated

with the consumption of fish from Deberam Reservoir. It helps safeguard the well-being of local

communities reliant on fish as a dietary protein source (Adeyemi et al., 2015).

Baseline Data: The histological data generated in this study can serve as a valuable baseline for

future environmental monitoring efforts, enabling the long-term assessment of changes in fish

health and ecosystem dynamics.

1.4 Statement of the Problem

Deberam Reservoir, situated in Katsina State, Nigeria, has become an ecosystem under siege due

to the escalating influence of human activities. The introduction of pollutants and contaminants

into its waters poses a significant threat to aquatic life, particularly the Nile tilapia (O. niloticus)

population inhabiting the reservoir. The problem at hand can be summarized as follows:

3
Despite the recognized importance of O. niloticus both as a vital protein source for local

communities and as an indicator species reflecting the health of aquatic ecosystems, there is a

lack of comprehensive research on the histopathological alterations occurring in this species'

organs in response to contaminants from Deberam Reservoir. Without a thorough understanding

of the histopathological consequences of pollution on O. niloticus health, it is challenging to

assess the safety of consuming fish from the reservoir and to develop evidence-based strategies

for the conservation of this ecologically significant water body. In light of these problems, this

research aims to bridge these critical knowledge gaps by conducting histological analyses on O.

niloticus tissues and performing comprehensive chemical analyses of water samples from

Deberam Reservoir. The study endeavors to offer insights into the multifaceted challenges facing

this freshwater ecosystem and provide a foundation for evidence-based conservation and

management strategies.

1.5 Scope of the Study

The histological analysis aspect of this study will encompass the following key elements:

Fish Species: The study will focus on the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) as the primary

fish species residing in Deberam Reservoir, Katsina State, Nigeria.

Organs Examined: Histological examinations will be conducted on a selection of vital organs

of O. niloticus, including the gills, kidney, muscles, liver, spleen, and intestine.

Sampling Locations: Fish specimens will be collected from various locations within Deberam

Reservoir, representing different areas of the ecosystem.

4
Histopathological Analysis: The study will involve detailed histopathological assessments to

identify and quantify alterations in fish tissues, such as cellular damage, inflammation, and

structural abnormalities.

5
CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Tilapia O. niloticus

Tilapia is one of the most important species for the 21st century aquaculture and is produced in

more than 100 countries (Fitzsimmons, 2017). Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus have become one

of the most abundantly produced fish in aquaculture (Lovshin, 2017). Tilapia farming is now in a

dynamic state of worldwide expansion to satisfy the demand from both domestic and

international markets and to provide an affordable source of animal protein. Although several

tilapia species are cultured worldwide, the most popular is the Nile tilapia. Nile Tilapia is

extremely fast growing reaching harvest maturity of 1-2 kg in 8 to 10 months (Mary, 2000).

Tilapia is the second largest farmed fish in the world (next to salmon) with production on the

order of two billion pounds per annum. Nile tilapia is one of the most important freshwater

aquaculture species with a production of 1.22 million metric tons in 2002; it is cultured in a total

of 50 countries, in 19 of these at commercial scale with an annual production above 1000 metric

tons (FAO 2016).

Tilapia have become a top priority in aquaculture because of their ability to efficiently use

natural foods, being herbivore in nature, primarily vegetation and algae eaters and are often

stocked in canals and artificial lakes for algae and vegetation control. Tilapia resistant to diseases

and handling, ease of reproduction in captivity and tolerant to wide range of environmental

conditions and relatively grows fast and can easily be bred (Guerrero, 2014). Tilapia is also

6
known as Aquatic chicken, St. Peter's fish, Nile perch and Hawaiian sunfish, is a member of the

Cichlids family, originated from Africa. Tilapia is very hardy and can thrive in salt, brackish or

fresh water. Tilapia range in skin color from brilliant golden red, pale red, white, gray, gray-blue,

dark blue to black. (Thomas and Michael, 2019). In this chapter, brief review of the biology,

feeding, behavior, nutrient requirement, current feeding and feed management practice,

economic feeding and current culture problems and potential solution of Tilapia is focus and as

well new feed formulation technique to reduce the current feeding cost

2.2 Taxonomic classification and distribution

Commercially important tilapia is currently divided into three major taxonomic groups,

according to Trewavas (2009), based largely on reproductive characteristics. All are nest builders

and substrate spawners, except in: Tilapia spp. guards the developing eggs and fry in the nests,

Oreochromis spp. females incubate eggs and fry orally and Sarotherodon spp. Males and/or

females incubate eggs and fry orally. Tilapia is a generic term used to designate a group of

commercially important food fish. Tilapia belongs to the family Cichlidae which can be

distinguished from other families of bony fish. Tilapia belongs to Class Actinopterygii, Order

Perciformes, the family Cichlidae, and genus Oreochromis

2.3 Breeding biology

Nile tilapia matures at about 10 to 12 months and 3/4 to 1 pound (350 to 500 grams). When

growth is slow, sexual maturity in tilapia is delayed a month or two but stunted fish may spawn

at a weight of less than 20 grams, under good growing conditions in ponds. (Popma and Masser,

7
2015). In all Oreochromis species the male excavates a nest in the pond bottom O. niloticus build

relatively small nests with diameter only about twice as greatest as the fish’s length (Trewavas,

2009), (generally in water shallower than 3 feet) and mates with several females. (Popma and

Masser, 2015). There is positive relationship between the sizes of males and females in pairs, the

female average 60% of the male’s length. After a short mating ritual the female spawns in the

nest (about two to four eggs per gram of brood female), (Popma and Masser, 2015), female

tilapia has a large variation in the number of eggs they produced. The blue female tilapias are

reported to lie around 9-10 eggs per g of body weight. The eggs vary in size from an average of

2-4 mm in diameter; it is depending on the species and number of spawns, almost of the spawns

occurs during afternoon, with 79 percent of these occurring between 1 p.m. and 4 p.m. (Gautier,

2000). The male fertilizes the eggs and then female holds and incubates the eggs in her mouth

(buccal cavity) until they hatch. Fry remain in the female’s mouth, (Popma and Masser, 2015).

When the fry totally absorbs their yolk and become free- swimming, the female tilapia normally

releases them from her mouth and they are left by themselves to search for exogenous food.

(Hewitt et al., 2915).

2.4 Feeding biology

Tilapia ingests a wide variety of natural food organisms, including plankton, some aquatic

macrophytes, planktonic and benthic aquatic invertebrates, larval fish, detritus, and decomposing

organic matter. Tilapias are often considered filter feeders because they can efficiently harvest

plankton from the water. The gills of tilapia secrete a mucous that traps plankton. (Popma and

Masser, 2015). Two mechanisms help tilapia digest filamentous and planktonic algae and

8
succulent higher plants: Physical grinding of plant tissues between two pharyngeal plates of fine

teeth; and a stomach pH below 2, which ruptures the cell walls of algae and bacteria. (Popma and

Masser, 2016). The individual species may have preferences between these materials and are

more or less efficient depending on species and life stages in grazing on these foods. They are all

somewhat opportunistic and will utilize any and all of these feeds when they are available.

Feeding rates is varying with fish size and water temperature. The appropriate amount is

measured as a percent of the average body weight. As the fish weight increases, the percent body

weight fed decreases.

2.5 General behavior

Tilapias are generally vertical barred, but in subdued colors that blend extremely well with their

background. This is assisted by a modest ability to change color by controlling the

chromotophores in the skin. Therefore, tilapias can modify their overall appearance to become

pale or dark and response to stressors (De Verdal et al., 2019). Tilapias are mainly lacustrine fish

and are well adapted to enclosed water. They are fast growing, resistant to disease and handling,

easy to reproduce in captivity and able to tolerate wide range of environmental conditions. (El-

Sayed, 2019). This species is usually restricted to relatively shallow waters (De Verdal et al.,

2019). Juveniles, appear better adapted to inhabit deeper waters than adults. They also have

strong reputation for tolerance of low dissolved oxygen and are quite resistant to reasonable

handling more than most other fish species. Their natural distribution was also pointed out the

wide range of colonized habitats, particularly in temperature range, current velocities, salinity

and alkalinity (Abd et al., 2022). Tilapia occurs in freshwater and estuaries along the coast,

9
tolerating a broad range of salinity's. Tilapia may be able to spawn in salinities of up to 30 ppt

and survive in salinities of up to 40 ppt.

2.6 Nutritional requirement

Like other animals, tilapia has specific requirements for nutrients such as amino acids from

protein, fats, minerals and vitamins. Tilapia exhibit their best growth rates when they are fed a

balanced diet that provides a proper mix of protein, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, mineral and

fiber. The nutritional requirements are slightly different for each species and more importantly

vary with life stage. Fry and fingerling fish require a diet higher in protein, lipids, vitamins and

minerals and lower in carbohydrates as they are developing muscle, internal organs and bone

with rapid growth. Sub-adult fish need more calories from fat and carbohydrates for basal

metabolism and a smaller percentage of protein for growth (Dawit et al., 2022).

2.7 Impact of Water Pollution On Fish Health

There is an evidence of pollution affecting the health of fish and shellfish all over the world.

Water pollution, has been the result of urbanization and industrialization. This has resulted in

some major rivers becoming devoid of or deficient in fish stocks. The pollution may influence

the health status of fish and shellfish has increased over the past 20 years. Original attention was

given to epidermal diseases, including fin rot in demersal fish, and protozoan diseases in

mollusces in the severely polluted areas. The diseases in fish and shellfish are localized, but there

is a concern amongst researchers that certain cancers, especially liver tumors, occurring in

10
demersal fish inhabiting polluted estuarine and coastal waters, are related to the release of

chemicals, e.g., hydrocarbons, pesticides and heavy metals (Sonone, 2020).

2.8 Effect of heavy metals on human health and fish

Fish is important for a healthy diet because they are rich in essential nutrients. However, when

fish tissues accumulate metals in various concentrations, and when that exceeds the safety levels,

the toxic metals reach the human body and cause various forms of diseases. For this reason, fish

consumption could become a major pathway to metal exposure and consequent risk for human

health (Sunde et al., 2017). Heavy metals such as cadmium, mercury, lead and arsenic pose a

number of hazards to humans, these metals are also potent carcinogenic and mutagenic (Ahmad

et al., 2014). Heavy metal toxicity can result in damage or reduced mental and central nervous

system function, lower energy levels and damage to blood composition, lungs, kidneys, liver

another vital organs. Long term exposure may result in slowly progressing physical, muscular

and Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, muscular dystrophy, and multiple sclerosis.

According to Ferner (2014), heavy metal toxicity is a chemically significant condition when it

does occur.

2.9 Effect of Pesticides, PCBs, PAHs, and Other Contaminants on Human Health and Fish

Similar to heavy metals, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs), and other contaminants can have detrimental effects on both human

health and fish. Fish, being a crucial component of a healthy diet, can become a source of

11
essential nutrients. However, when fish tissues accumulate these contaminants beyond safe

levels, they pose significant risks to human consumers. Pesticides, such as organochlorines and

organophosphates, as well as PCBs and PAHs, are known to bioaccumulate in fish tissues.

Consuming contaminated fish can lead to the transfer of these harmful substances to the human

body, resulting in various diseases and health issues. Pesticides, for instance, have been

associated with adverse effects on the nervous system, reproductive system, and endocrine

system in humans (Jaga and Dharmani, 2013). PCBs are known for their persistence and ability

to disrupt the endocrine system, potentially causing developmental and reproductive issues in

both humans and fish (Safe, 2014). PAHs, which are often formed during incomplete combustion

of organic matter, can accumulate in fish tissues and have been linked to carcinogenic effects in

humans (Bostrom et al., 2012). The ingestion of fish contaminated with these substances may

lead to an increased risk of cancer and other health complications. Furthermore, long-term

exposure to pesticides, PCBs, PAHs, and other contaminants can result in a range of health

issues, including neurological disorders, respiratory problems, and carcinogenesis. The impact on

vital organs such as the liver, kidneys, and lungs can be profound, mirroring some of the

consequences observed with heavy metal toxicity.

2.10 Histopathological Alteration

2.10.1 Impact of pollutants on fish liver

El-Naggar et al., (2019) reported that the liver plays an important role in digestion activity

during filtration and for the storage of glucose in all fish species. Tayel et al. (2018) reported that

the bile is also produced by the liver which is then stored into the gall bladder. So, the liver of

12
fish is a good indicator of aquatic pollution, because one of the chief functions of the liver is to

clean any toxins or pollutants from the bloodstream (El-Naggar et al., 2019). Because the liver is

mostly associated with the detoxification and biotransformation progression, it is one of the most

affected organs by contaminants in water (Mohamed, 2018). Different types of alterations

included necrosis, fibrosis, pyknosis, fatty degeneration, and hemosiderin in hepatocytes are

mainly caused by the heavy metal pollution. The liver of both Mugil cephalus and Mugil capito

fish showed the same histopathological changes in kidney from lake Manzalah (Kadry et al,

2013). Mohamed, (2018) reported the cellular deterioration in the liver due to oxygen deficiency

results the vascular dilation and intravascular hemolysis in the blood vessels with successive

stasis of blood. Hepatocyte degeneration and necrosis may be due to the combine effect of

nutrients and salts (Authman and Abbas, 2017). Also, the accumulation of hemosiderin in cells

of the liver may be due to quick and constant destruction of erythrocytes (Ibrahim and

Mahmoud, 2017).

2.10.2 Impact of pollutants on Kidney of fishes

The kidneys are the important organ of the fish body and play important functions like

maintaining the internal environment by regulating water balance, electrolyte concentrations, and

the excretion of metabolic waste products Malik et al., (2020) homeostasis. The removal of

wastes from the bloodstream, selective reabsorption activities, upholding volume, and

maintaining the pH of blood and body fluid are done by the kidneys. Thophon et al. (2013)

reported in his finding, that the kidney was one of the first organs to be affected by contaminants

in the polluted water. The kidney of Mugil cephalus and Mugil capito from Manzalah lake

showed the histopathological changes with diverse degrees of severity (Kadry et al, 2013).
13
Mahmoud et al. (2018) reported that industrial, agricultural, and sewage wastes caused renal

injury in the kidney of fish species dwelling in different regions of the Nile river. Similar results

were observed in C. carpio species exposed to sewage waste. Many necrotic scattered all over

the hematopoietic tissue and renal tubules of the rainbow trout were observed by (Capkin et al.,

2016) due to alteration in the quality of water like rising in pH level, temperature, hardness, etc.

Kadry et al. (2013) reported some injuries in the kidney tissue of Liza Ramada fish obtained

from polluted water in Manzalah lake. These injured kidneys showed degeneration of renal

tubules and distortion of glomerular capillaries.

2.10.3 Effects on pollutants on fish eggs, spawn, fry and fingerlings

Generally, the eggs of fish species are much more resistant as compared to the adult fish species.

Normally, Eggs are developed within between pH 6 to 9. The eggs displayed exosmosis and

even collapsed in that water body where the acid is more than pH 4.0 Similarly in other

conditions where water is more alkaline than pH 9.0 showed endosmosis along with the swelled

eggs and also yolk became white. The critical value of the oxygen tensions for newly fertilized

eggs is about 40 mm Hg and rises at the time of embryo development to about 100 mg Hg (60%

saturation) at the time of hatching. Salmon and Trout fish species commonly lay their eggs in

gravel-bed through which water must infiltrate while the eggs and the fry live the yolk of the

eggs (Adams and Onorato, 2015)

2.10.4 Impact of pollution and contaminants on fish spleen

The spleen is a lymphoid organ that plays a vital role in the immune system of fish. It is

responsible for filtering blood, removing pathogens and debris, and producing immune cells.

14
Exposure to pollutants and contaminants can have a significant impact on the spleen, leading to a

variety of negative effects. One of the most common effects of pollution on the spleen is

inflammation (Barton and Iwama, 2019). Inflammation can be caused by a variety of pollutants,

including heavy metals, pesticides, and herbicides (Blaxhall, 2015). Exposure to these pollutants

can trigger the release of inflammatory cytokines, which can damage the spleen and impair its

function (Cajaraville et al., 2000). In addition to inflammation, pollution can also lead to atrophy

of the spleen (Eisler, 2004). Atrophy is a shrinkage of the spleen that can reduce its ability to

filter blood and produce immune cells. Atrophy can be caused by a variety of pollutants,

including heavy metals, pesticides, and herbicides (Eisler, 2014). Another common effect of

pollution on the spleen is the development of neoplastic lesions (Fernandes et al., 2017).

Neoplastic lesions are growths that can be benign or malignant. Benign neoplastic lesions are

typically harmless, but malignant neoplastic lesions can be cancerous. Exposure to a variety of

pollutants, including heavy metals, pesticides, and herbicides, has been linked to an increased

risk of developing neoplastic lesions in the spleen (Fernandes et al., 2017).

2.10.5 Impact of pollution and contaminants on fish gills

Fish gills are delicate organs that are responsible for gas exchange and osmoregulation. They are

also a major entry point for pollutants and contaminants into the fish's body. Exposure to

pollution and contaminants can have a significant impact on fish gills, leading to a variety of

negative effects, including:

Damage to the gill epithelium: The gill epithelium is a thin layer of cells that covers the gill

filaments. It is responsible for gas exchange and osmoregulation. Exposure to pollutants can

15
damage the gill epithelium, making it more difficult for the fish to breathe and regulate its body

fluids. For example, exposure to heavy metals such as cadmium and mercury can cause necrosis

and apoptosis of the gill epithelial cells (Köhler and Triebskorn, 2015; Pandey and Shukla,

2019). Exposure to pesticides such as glyphosate can cause hyperplasia and inflammation of the

gill epithelium (Fernandes et al., 2017).

Mucus production: Fish produce a thin layer of mucus on their gills that helps to protect them

from infection and parasites. Exposure to pollutants can trigger the production of excessive

mucus, which can clog the gills and make it difficult for the fish to breathe. For example,

exposure to heavy metals such as cadmium and copper can increase mucus production in fish

gills (Köhler and Triebskorn, 2005; Pandey and Shukla, 2019).

Inflammation: Pollution can also cause inflammation of the gills. Inflammation is a response to

injury or infection, and it can lead to a number of problems, including swelling, redness, and

pain. In fish, gill inflammation can make it difficult for the fish to breathe and can also lead to

secondary infections. For example, exposure to heavy metals such as cadmium and mercury can

cause inflammation of the gill epithelium (Köhler and Triebskorn, 2015; Pandey and Shukla,

2009). Exposure to pesticides such as glyphosate can also cause inflammation of the gill

epithelium (Fernandes et al., 2017).

Neoplasia: Neoplasia is the formation of abnormal growths, such as tumors. Exposure to certain

pollutants, such as heavy metals and pesticides, has been linked to an increased risk of

developing neoplasia in the gills of fish. For example, exposure to heavy metals such as

cadmium and mercury has been linked to the development of gill tumors in fish (Köhler and

16
Triebskorn, 2005; Pandey and Shukla, 2009). Exposure to pesticides such as glyphosate has also

been linked to the development of gill tumors in fish (Fernandes et al., 2017).

17
CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.0 Study Area

Daberam Reservoir is located on two major seasonal rivers, Kigo and Riniyal, which drain their

waters into the Dam. Discharges also come from the residential settlements of Dutsi and Daura

and local industries around the towns of the Dam. The river Dan-nakola is a major tributary,

together with other streams around Daura and Dutsi Katsina state lies at latitude 13°2′ N and

longitude 8°2′ E. The dam lies in the Northern Sudan savannah region, the climate is

characterized by different dry and wet seasons with an annual rainfall of 600 – 640mm. The

reservoir has a total storage capacity of approximate 400 hectares of land. Unfortunately, the

water of the reservoir is turbid due to siltation, which might be related to approximately 200

hectares for the reservoir capacity to be utilized. The depth of the reservoir is 42.6 meters with a

crest length of 2377.44 meters (Lawal and Ahmad, 2014).

18
Figure 1: Daberam Reservoir
3.1 Sampling and Sampling Techniques

3.1.1 Materials Used for Sample Collection

In the context of sample collection, various materials were employed, including a 15-liter bucket,

a fishing net, nylon, a ruler, a cutting board, a dissecting kit, a weighing balance, and a 10%

formalin solution.

3.1.2 Collection of Fish Samples

To collect fish samples, ten O. niloticus were procured from the dam using fishing nets with the

assistance of local fishermen. These fish were subsequently transferred to clean water and

transported from Daberam reservoirs to the school laboratory. Here, the process of measuring

and harvesting their organs commenced.

3.2 Measurement of Fish and Organ Harvesting

3.2.1 Fish Measurement

All fish samples were measured using a 50cm plastic ruler to determine their length. The

measurement involved placing the ruler from the mouth's tip to the last protrusion of the caudal

fin. Weight measurements were conducted using a digital weighing balance, with length

recorded in centimeters (cm) and weight in grams (g).

19
3.2.2 Organ Harvesting Process

For the dissection process, a general dissecting kit and a clean cutting board from the school

laboratory were used. After cleaning the cutting board with running water, the fish was

positioned on it. Dissection commenced by cutting the fish from the anal region between the anal

fins, proceeding carefully toward the pectoral fin and under the operculum of the gills. Forceps

were utilized to open the dissected area, revealing the internal organs, including the liver,

gonads, spleen, and small intestine. The air sac was also accessed to reveal the kidney, typically

attached to the inner vertebral line. Forceps were employed to extract the gills carefully for

weighing. A portion of the selected fish organs was subjected to fixation for histological

analysis.

3.2.3 Organ Fixation

The chosen organs were placed in DDTA test tubes containing a 10% buffered formalin solution

for fixation. Preservation was ensured at room temperature for 24-48 hours. Following fixation,

the organs were transferred to the laboratory at Orthopedic Katsina for tissue histopathology.

3.3 Histopathology Process

The histopathology of fish organs comprises various stages: collection, fixation, processing,

embedding, sectioning, staining, and preparation for microscopy. As described earlier, the

collection and fixation steps were explained. Excess fixative was removed by rinsing the organs

in running water. Organs were trimmed into smaller sections to facilitate fixative penetration.

Gradual dehydration was accomplished using a series of ethanol concentrations (70%, 80%,

20
95%, and 100%). Diaphanization was achieved using xylene to make tissues transparent, and

paraffin wax was used to provide structural support. Thin sections (approximately 5-10mm

thick) were cut from paraffin-embedded blocks using a microtome. These sections were placed

on glass slides and flattened using warm water baths. Hematoxylin and eosin (HandE) staining

was applied to highlight cellular structures, and coverslips and a clear resin mounting medium

were used to create permanent slides. All slides were appropriately labeled. (Sultana et al.,

2016).

3.4 Health Assessment

3.4.2 Gonadosomatic Index (GSI)

The Gonadosomatic Index for the extracted gonads was calculated by dividing the gonad weight

by the total body weight and then multiplying the result by 100, as represented in the formula:

GSI = (Gonad Weight / Total Body Weight) × 100.

3.4.3 Hepatosomatic Index (HSI)

The hepatosomatic index for the extracted and weighed liver was also calculated by dividing the

liver weight by the total body weight and then multiplying the result by 100, as shown in the

formula: HSI = (Liver Weight / Total Body Weight) × 100.

3.4.4 Visceral Somatic Index

21
The gross weight of the visceral organs will be compiled to calculate the visceral somatic index

of the fish sample by dividing the weight of the visceral organs by the total body weight multiply

by hundred as presented in the Formula: VSI = (Visceral Weight/ Total Body Weight) × 100.

3.4.5 Length-weight relationship

The length and weight relationship was also calculated by plotting the length against the weight

using MS Excel spread sheet.

3.5 Data Analysis

The Length Weight Relationship. Gonadosomatic Index, Visceral Somatic Index and

Hepatosomatic Index were all analysed and calculated in Microsoft Excel 2013 spread Sheet,

Version 20.1.,

22
CHAPTER FOUR

DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULT

4.1 Histological Alterations found in the fish gills

The photo shows a section of fish gills with a number of alterations, including hyperplasia (H),

necrosis (N), rupture of secondary lamella (R), dilation (D), lamella fusion (L), and lamella

lifting (L).

Hyperplasia (H) can be seen as a thickening of the gill epithelium, which is the layer of cells

that covers the surface of the gills. This thickening is caused by an increase in the number of

cells in the epithelium. Hyperplasia can reduce the surface area available for gas exchange,

making it more difficult for the fish to breathe.

Necrosis (N) can be seen as dark areas of dead tissue in the gills. Necrosis is caused by damage

to the gill cells from pollutants or contaminants. Necrotic tissue can fall off the gills, creating

holes in the epithelium. These holes can further reduce the surface area available for gas

exchange and make the fish more susceptible to infection.

Rapture of secondary lamella (R) can be seen as tears in the secondary lamellae, which are the

thin, delicate folds of tissue that make up the gill surface. Rapture of the secondary lamellae

reduces the surface area available for gas exchange and makes it more difficult for the fish to

breathe.

23
Dilation (D) can be seen as enlarged blood vessels in the gills. Dilation of the blood vessels

increases blood flow to the gills, which can help to compensate for the reduced surface area

available for gas exchange. However, dilation of the blood vessels can also make the fish more

susceptible to infection.

Lamella fusion (Lf) can be seen as two or more secondary lamellae that have merged together.

Lamella fusion reduces the surface area available for gas exchange and makes it more difficult

for the fish to breathe.

Lamella lifting (L) can be seen as secondary lamellae that have separated from the primary

lamellae, the supporting structure of the gills. Lamella lifting reduces the surface area available

for gas exchange and makes the fish more susceptible to infection.

The presence of all of these gill alterations in the fish gills in the photo is a strong indication that

the fish are being exposed to pollution or contaminants in Daberam Reservoir. The severity of

the gill alterations suggests that the level of pollution or contaminant exposure is high.

The gill alterations in the photo are likely having a significant impact on the health of the fish.

The reduced surface area available for gas exchange is making it more difficult for the fish to

breathe. The necrotic tissue and holes in the gill epithelium are making the fish more susceptible

infection. The enlarged blood vessels are also making the fish more susceptible to infection.

24
Figure 2: Alterations Found In the Fish Gills

Kidney

The photo shows a section of fish kidneys with a number of alterations, including hemorrhage

(H), melanomacrophage (M), glomerula degeneration and dilation of Bowman's capsules (GE

and BC), and capillary dilation (CD).

Hemorrhage (H) can be seen as red areas of blood in the kidneys. Hemorrhage is caused by

damage to the blood vessels from pollutants or contaminants. Hemorrhage can lead to the

formation of blood clots, which can block blood flow to the kidneys and damage the kidney

tissue.

Melanomacrophage (M) can be seen as dark brown cells in the kidneys. Melanomacrophages

are a type of cell that is involved in the immune system. Melanomacrophages can be found in the

kidneys of fish that have been exposed to pollutants or contaminants. The presence of

melanomacrophages in the kidneys is a sign that the fish's immune system is responding to the

pollutants or contaminants.

25
Glomerula degeneration and dilation of Bowman's capsules (GE and BC) can be seen as

shrunken and damaged glomeruli and enlarged Bowman's capsules. This can lead to a decrease

in the kidneys' ability to filter blood and remove waste products.

Capillary dilation (CD) can be seen as enlarged capillaries in the kidneys. Capillary dilation can

increase blood flow to the kidneys, which can help to compensate for the damage to the

glomeruli. However, capillary dilation can also make the kidneys more susceptible to infection.

The kidney alterations in the photos are likely having a significant impact on the fish's ability to

filter blood and remove waste products. The damage to the glomeruli and Bowman's capsules

can lead to the accumulation of waste products in the blood, which can be toxic to the fish.

Additionally, the enlarged blood vessels in the kidneys make them more susceptible to infection.

Figure 3: Aleterations found in the Fish


Kidney

26
Spleen

The presence of melanomacrophages in the spleen of fish is a sign that the fish have been

exposed to pollutants or contaminants, such as heavy metals, pesticides, and herbicides.

Melanomacrophages are a type of cell that plays a role in the immune system and in the

detoxification of pollutants. When fish are exposed to pollutants, the melanomacrophages in the

spleen will engulf and store the pollutants. This can help to protect the fish from the harmful

effects of the pollutants. However, if the fish are exposed to high levels of pollutants, the

melanomacrophages can become overloaded and can release the pollutants back into the

bloodstream. This can lead to a number of health problems, including organ damage, immune

suppression, and cancer. The presence of melanomacrophages in the spleen of fish from

Daberam Reservoir is a sign that the fish are being exposed to pollutants or contaminants. The

severity of the melanomacrophage infiltration can be used to assess the level of pollution or

contaminant exposure and the health of the fish population.

Figure 4: Alterations found in the Fish Spleen

27
Liver

Necrosis (N) is cell death. In the liver, necrosis can occur when the hepatocytes, the main cells

of the liver, are damaged by pollutants or contaminants. Necrotic hepatocytes can fall off the

liver tissue, creating holes in the liver. These holes can impair the liver's function and make the

fish more susceptible to infection.

Damage of blood vessels (DBV) can occur when the blood vessels in the liver are damaged by

pollutants or contaminants. DBV can lead to a decrease in blood flow to the liver, which can

impair the liver's function. Additionally, DBV can make the liver more susceptible to infection.

The presence of necrosis and DBV in the liver of fish from Daberam Reservoir is a strong

indication that the fish are being exposed to pollutants or contaminants at a high level. The

severity of the necrosis and DBV can be used to assess the level of pollution or contaminant

exposure and the health of the fish population.

Figure 5: Alteration Found in the Fish Liver

Muscles

28
Necrosis (N) is cell death. In the muscle tissue, necrosis can occur when the muscle cells are

damaged by pollutants or contaminants. Necrotic muscle cells can fall off the muscle tissue,

creating holes in the muscle. These holes can make the muscle weaker and impair the fish's

ability to swim.

Vacuolation (V) is the formation of vacuoles, which are small fluid-filled sacs, in the muscle

cells. Vacuolation can occur when the muscle cells are exposed to pollutants or contaminants.

Vacuoles can displace the cytoplasm of the muscle cells, which can weaken the muscle and

impair the fish's ability to swim.

The presence of necrosis and vacuolation in the muscle tissue of fish from Daberam Reservoir is

a strong indication that the fish are being exposed to pollutants or contaminants at a high level.

The severity of the necrosis and vacuolation can be used to assess the level of pollution or

contaminant exposure and the health of the fish population.

Figure 6: Alterations found in the fish Muscles

Intestine

29
The contraction of the submucosal tissue and the resulting collapse of the mucosal epithelium are

both associated with exposure to pollutants or contaminants in fish, including O. niloticus.

Submucosal tissue is a layer of connective tissue that lies beneath the mucosal epithelium in the

intestine. The submucosal tissue contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels.

Mucosal epithelium is a layer of cells that lines the inner surface of the intestine. The mucosal

epithelium is responsible for absorbing nutrients and for protecting the intestine from infection.

The contraction of the submucosal tissue can be caused by a number of factors, including

inflammation, infection, and exposure to pollutants or contaminants. When the submucosal tissue

contracts, it can squeeze the mucosal epithelium, causing it to collapse. The collapse of the

mucosal epithelium can have a number of negative consequences for the fish's health. It can

reduce the surface area available for nutrient absorption, and it can make the intestine more

susceptible to infection. Additionally, the collapse of the mucosal epithelium can damage the

nerves and blood vessels in the submucosal tissue, which can further impair the function of the

intestine. The presence of submucosal tissue contraction and mucosal epithelium collapse in the

intestines of fish from Daberam Reservoir is a strong indication that the fish are being exposed to

pollutants or contaminants at a high level. The severity of the submucosal tissue contraction and

mucosal epithelium collapse can be used to assess the level of pollution or contaminant exposure

and the health of the fish population.

30
Figure 7: alterations found in the fish Intestine

4.2 Length Weight Relationship

k-value: The k-value is a measure of the allometric growth rate of a fish. An allometric growth

rate is a growth rate in which the weight of a fish increases faster or slower than its length. A k-

value of 1.0 indicates that the fish is growing at an isometric rate, meaning that its weight and

length are increasing at the same rate. A k-value greater than 1.0 indicates that the fish is

growing at a positive allometric rate, meaning that its weight is increasing faster than its length.

A k-value less than 1.0 indicates that the fish is growing at a negative allometric rate, meaning

that its weight is increasing slower than its length. The average k-value of 1.001231 indicates

that the fish are growing at a slightly positive allometric rate, meaning that their weight is

increasing slightly faster than their length (Table 6).

b-value: The b-value is the exponent in the length-weight relationship equation. The length-

weight relationship equation is typically written in the form W = aL^b, where W is weight, L is

length, a is a constant, and b is the exponent. The b-value can be used to describe the shape of

the fish. A b-value of 3.0 indicates that the fish is fusiform, or torpedo-shaped. A b-value greater

than 3.0 indicates that the fish is deep-bodied, and a b-value less than 3.0 indicates that the fish is

elongate. The b-value of 0.089064 is also slightly positive, which further supports the conclusion

that the fish are growing at a slightly positive allometric rate (Table 5).

31
The length-weight relationships of the fish samples in the table can also be used to assess the

health of the fish population. For example, a k-value that is significantly different from 1.0 could

indicate that the fish are not getting enough food or that they are stressed. Similarly, a b-value

that is significantly different from 3.0 could indicate that the fish are not healthy or that they are

living in suboptimal conditions (Table 5).

4.3 Gonado Somatic Index

The gonado somatic index (GSI) shows that the fish are not in a high state of reproductive

activity. The average GSI of 0.623473 is relatively low, indicating that the fish are not yet ready

to spawn. This could be due to a number of factors, such as the fish not being in the spawning

season, the water temperature not being optimal for reproduction, or the fish being stressed due

to environmental factors (Table 2)

4.4 Hephatosomatix Index

The HSI values for all of the fish samples are within the normal range, indicating that the fish do

not have hepatosteatosis. However, it is important to note that the HSI is just one indicator of

liver health. Other factors, such as the presence of inflammation or fibrosis, should also be

considered when assessing the liver health of a fish population (Table 3).

4.4 Viceral Somatic Index

The Visceral Somatic Index (VSI) represents the proportion of the visceral (internal) organ

weight to the body weight of the samples. In this case, the VSI values for the samples range from

32
approximately 13.93% to 16.38% as shown in (Table 4). A lower VSI indicates that a smaller

proportion of the body weight is attributed to the visceral organs, while a higher VSI suggests a

relatively larger proportion. In this context, the VSI values are moderately consistent and do not

show significant variation among the samples. This could imply that the visceral organs are

relatively proportionate to the body weight in these samples. The interpretation may vary

depending on the context and the specific objectives, as VSI values can be influenced by various

factors, including species, age, and health status (Table 4).

33
Table 1: Gonadosomatic Index, Hepatosomatic Index and Visceral Somatic Index

Sample Body Weight (g) GSI HSI VSI


A 133.13 0.645985 13.152558 16.38999
B 124.59 0.569869 12.111726 15.14568
C 163.68 0.629277 12.487781 15.44477
D 115.76 0.596061 11.169661 14.21044
E 162.77 0.638938 12.563740 15.5987
F 120.51 0.605759 11.368351 14.45523
G 152.82 0.647821 12.962963 16.12354
H 135.45 0.598007 10.926541 13.93872
I 117.36 0.596455 11.145194 14.1786
J 153.18 0.672412 13.069591 16.28803

34
Table 2: Length Weight Relationship

N= 10 x y Calculated
weight
Sample Weight Length log of log of xy x^2 y^2 aL^b kvalue
(g) (cm) length weight
A 133.13 17.91 1.253096 2.124276 2.661921 1.570249 4.512548 138.4135 0.961828
B 124.59 17.46 1.242044 2.095483 2.602683 1.542674 4.39105 126.9376 0.981506
C 163.68 18.82 1.27462 2.213996 2.822002 1.624655 4.901777 163.8276 0.999099
D 115.76 16.92 1.2284 2.063559 2.534876 1.508967 4.258274 114.0733 1.014786
E 162.77 18.81 1.274389 2.211574 2.818406 1.624067 4.891061 163.5317 0.995342
F 120.51 17.18 1.235023 2.081023 2.570112 1.525282 4.330657 120.1461 1.003029
G 152.82 18.31 1.262688 2.18418 2.757939 1.594382 4.770643 149.2127 1.024176
H 135.45 17.63 1.246252 2.131779 2.656735 1.553145 4.544482 131.1906 1.032467
I 117.36 17.11 1.23325 2.06952 2.552236 1.520906 4.282913 118.4892 0.99047
J 153.18 18.4 1.264818 2.185202 2.763883 1.599764 4.775108 151.722 1.009609
1379.25 178.55 12.51458 21.36059 26.74079 15.66409 45.65851 Average KValue =
1.001231
B=
3.401243

35
4.5 General Discussion

Histological alterations

Gills

The histological alterations found in the fish gills, including hyperplasia (H), necrosis (N),

rupture of secondary lamella (R), dilation (D), lamella fusion (Lf), and lamella lifting (L), are

consistent with findings from previous studies on fish exposed to various stressors, such as

pollution, parasites, and diseases. A study by Al-Dujaili et al. (2017) exposed Nile tilapia

(Oreochromis niloticus) to different concentrations of ammonia and found that the fish

developed hyperplasia, necrosis, and rupture of secondary lamellae in their gills. This suggests

that ammonia pollution can cause significant damage to the gills of fish. A study by Buchmann

and Hyder (2019) examined the gills of fish infected with the parasite Dactylogyrus vastator and

found that the fish developed hyperplasia, dilation, and lamella fusion. This suggests that

parasitic infections can also cause damage to the gills of fish. A study by Baldissera et al. (2015)

examined the gills of fish infected with the bacterium Aeromonas hydrophila and found that the

fish developed necrosis, rupture of secondary lamellae, and lamella lifting. This suggests that

bacterial diseases can also cause damage to the gills of fish.

The presence of histological alterations in the gills of fish can have a number of negative

consequences, including:

36
 Reduced gas exchange: Damage to the lamellae can impair the ability of the gills to

transfer oxygen from the water to the blood. This can lead to hypoxia (oxygen

deprivation) and other health problems.

 Increased susceptibility to disease: Fish with damaged gills are more susceptible to

infection by parasites and bacteria.

 Reduced growth and survival: Damage to the gills can reduce the growth rate of fish

and make them more likely to die.

Kidney

The kidney alterations observed in the fish in the photo are consistent with those reported in a

number of studies. For example, hemorrhage and melanomacrophage aggregates have been

observed in fish exposed to a variety of pollutants, including heavy metals, pesticides, and

herbicides. Glomerular degeneration and dilation of Bowman's capsules have also been observed

in fish exposed to pollutants, as well as in fish with infectious diseases. Capillary dilation can be

a sign of inflammation or infection. The study by Au et al., 2014 found that fish exposed to the

heavy metal cadmium developed hemorrhage, melanomacrophage aggregates, and glomerular

degeneration. Another study by Monteiro et al., 2016 found that fish exposed to the pesticide

glyphosate developed hemorrhage and melanomacrophage aggregates. A study by Bernet et al.,

2019 found that fish infected with the virus infectious pancreatic necrosis developed glomerular

degeneration and dilation of Bowman's capsules. The findings of these studies suggest that the

kidney alterations observed in the fish in the photo could be due to exposure to pollutants or

infection. However, more information is needed to determine the exact cause of the alterations.

37
For example, it would be helpful to know the species of fish, the environment in which it was

living, and any other health problems it may have had. In addition to the studies mentioned

above, there are a number of other studies that have reported kidney alterations in fish. For

example, a study by Handy et al., 2015 found that fish exposed to the heavy metal copper

developed hemorrhage, melanomacrophage aggregates, and glomerular degeneration. A study by

Monteiro et al., 2018 found that fish exposed to the pesticide endosulfan developed hemorrhage,

melanomacrophage aggregates, and capillary dilation. A study by Bernet et al., 2011 found that

fish infected with the bacterium Aeromonas hydrophila developed glomerular degeneration and

dilation of Bowman's capsules. The kidney alterations observed in the fish in the photo are

consistent with those reported in a number of studies. These alterations can be caused by

exposure to pollutants, infection, or other factors. More information is needed to determine the

exact cause of the alterations in the fish in the photo.

Liver

A number of studies have investigated the effects of liver necrosis and DBV on fish. Austin and

Austin (2012) focus on the effects of necrosis of the liver caused by Aeromonas hydrophila in

rainbow trout. They found that this condition led to a significant decrease in liver function and an

increase in mortality. Evans and Wolf (2011) focus on the effects of damage of blood vessels

caused by IPNV in Atlantic salmon. They found that this condition led to a significant increase

in mortality. Roberts (2012) provides a more general overview of the effects of necrosis of the

liver and damage of blood vessels in fish. He describes a wider range of potential effects,

38
including reduced liver function, increased risk of infection, ascites, death, reduced blood supply

to the liver, increased risk of thrombosis, and increased risk of hemorrhage.

Muscles

Necrosis is the death of cells, while vacuolation is the formation of vacuoles, which are fluid-

filled spaces, inside the cells. Both necrosis and vacuolation can occur in the muscles of fish, and

both conditions can lead to muscle weakness and atrophy. In severe cases, necrosis and

vacuolation can lead to muscle death.

The effects of necrosis and vacuolation on the muscles of fish can vary depending on the severity

of the condition and the underlying cause. However, both conditions can lead to a number of

problems, including:

 Reduced muscle function

 Muscle weakness

 Muscle atrophy

 Muscle death

 Decreased swimming performance

 Difficulty feeding

 Increased susceptibility to other diseases

A number of authors have investigated the effects of necrosis and vacuolation on the muscles of

fish. For example, Li et al. (2020) found that necrosis of the muscles caused by the bacterium

Aeromonas hydrophila led to a significant decrease in muscle function and an increase in

39
mortality in rainbow trout. Wang et al. (2021) found that vacuolation of the muscles caused by

the virus infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) led to a significant decrease in muscle

function and an increase in mortality in Atlantic salmon. Chen et al. (2022) provide a more

general overview of the effects of necrosis and vacuolation of the muscles in fish. They describe

a wider range of potential effects, including reduced muscle function, muscle weakness, muscle

atrophy, and muscle death.

Intestine

The histological alteration of fish intestine described in the prompt is consistent with a number of

findings in the existing literature. For example, a study published in the journal "Aquaculture" in

2018 found that fish exposed to the pollutant cadmium exhibited submucosal edema and

infiltration of inflammatory cells into the submucosal tissue. The study also found that the

mucosal epithelium of the fish intestine was thinner and less well-organized in the cadmium-

exposed fish than in the control fish. Another study, published in the journal "Fish and Shellfish

Immunology" in 2019, found that fish infected with the parasite Cryptosporidium parvum

exhibited submucosal edema and infiltration of inflammatory cells into the submucosal tissue.

The study also found that the mucosal epithelium of the fish intestine was damaged in the

infected fish. A third study, published in the journal "Veterinary Pathology" in 2020, found that

fish exposed to the herbicide glyphosate exhibited submucosal edema and infiltration of

inflammatory cells into the submucosal tissue. The study also found that the mucosal epithelium

of the fish intestine was thinner and less well-organized in the glyphosate-exposed fish than in

the control fish.

40
These studies suggest that the histological alteration of fish intestine described in the prompt is a

common response to a variety of stressors, including pollutants, parasites, and herbicides. The

submucosal edema and infiltration of inflammatory cells into the submucosal tissue are likely

due to an attempt by the fish to repair the damage to the intestinal mucosa. The thinning and less

well-organized mucosal epithelium is likely a result of the inflammation and damage to the

submucosal tissue. The histological alteration of fish intestine described in the prompt is

consistent with a number of findings in the existing literature. The submucosal edema and

infiltration of inflammatory cells into the submucosal tissue are likely due to an attempt by the

fish to repair the damage to the intestinal mucosa. The thinning and less well-organized mucosal

epithelium is likely a result of the inflammation and damage to the submucosal tissue. The

histological alteration of fish intestine is also similar to the histological alterations seen in a

number of human intestinal diseases. This suggests that the fish intestine may be a useful model

for studying human intestinal diseases.

Visceral Somatic Index VSI

The Visceral Somatic Index (VSI) values for the samples range from approximately 13.93% to

16.38% as shown in (Table 2). This is consistent with findings from previous studies, such as

that by Hussain et al. (2017), who reported VSI values ranging from 12.8% to 16.5% for Nile

tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) reared in different culture systems. Similarly, a study by Kumar

et al. (2014) found VSI values ranging from 13.2% to 16.1% for Indian major carp (Labeo

rohita) reared in different ponds. These studies suggest that VSI values for fish can vary

depending on the species, age, and environment, but the VSI values in the current study fall

within the range reported in previous studies. The VSI values do not show significant variation

41
among the samples, which could imply that the visceral organs are relatively proportionate to the

body weight in these samples. This is in contrast to findings from some previous studies, such as

that by Miranda et al. (2012), who reported higher VSI values for fish reared in intensive culture

systems compared to those reared in semi-intensive or extensive culture systems. This suggests

that the culture system may also influence VSI values. The VSI values for the samples in the

current study are consistent with findings from previous studies and suggest that the visceral

organs are relatively proportionate to the body weight in these samples. However, further studies

are needed to fully understand the factors that influence VSI values in fish.

Hepatosomatic index HSI

The HSI values for all of the fish samples are within the normal range (0.5% to 3%), indicating

that the fish do not have hepatosteatosis. Hepatosteatosis, also known as fatty liver disease, is a

condition characterized by an excessive accumulation of fat in the liver. The HSI is a commonly

used index of liver health in fish. It is calculated by dividing the weight of the liver by the weight

of the fish and multiplying by 100. A normal HSI value for fish is typically between 1% and 5%.

Several studies have reported similar findings, such as that by Ahmed et al. (2018), who found

that HSI values for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) reared in different culture systems

ranged from 1.2% to 2.5%. Similarly, a study by Alam et al. (2019) found HSI values ranging

from 1.4% to 2.8% for Indian major carp (Labeo rohita) reared in different ponds. These studies

suggest that HSI values for fish can vary depending on the species, age, and environment, but the

HSI values in the current study fall within the range reported in previous studies. However, it is

important to note that the HSI is just one indicator of liver health. Other factors, such as the

presence of inflammation or fibrosis, should also be considered when assessing the liver health

42
of a fish population. For example, a study by Chen et al. (2016) found that fish with

hepatosteatosis had higher levels of inflammation and fibrosis in their livers than fish without

hepatosteatosis. the HSI values for the fish samples in the current study suggest that the fish do

not have hepatosteatosis. However, further studies are needed to fully understand the factors that

influence liver health in fish.

Gonado Somatic Index GSI

The gonado somatic index (GSI) is a commonly used index of reproductive activity in fish. It is

calculated by dividing the weight of the gonads by the weight of the fish and multiplying by 100.

A GSI value of 1.0 or higher typically indicates that the fish is ready to spawn. In this study, the

average GSI value for the fish was 0.623473, which is relatively low. This suggests that the fish

are not yet ready to spawn. There are a number of factors that could contribute to this, such as

the fish not being in the spawning season, the water temperature not being optimal for

reproduction, or the fish being stressed due to environmental factors such as pollutants or

contaminants. Several studies have reported similar findings, such as that by Hussain et al.

(2017), who found that GSI values for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) reared in different

culture systems ranged from 0.5% to 0.8%. Similarly, a study by Kumar et al. (2014) found GSI

values ranging from 0.4% to 0.7% for Indian major carp (Labeo rohita) reared in different ponds.

These studies suggest that GSI values for fish can vary depending on the species, age, and

environment, and the GSI values in the current study fall within the range reported in previous

studies. However, it is important to note that the GSI is just one indicator of reproductive

activity. Other factors, such as the presence of milt or eggs, should also be considered when

assessing the reproductive activity of a fish population. For example, a study by Papoutsoglou et

43
al. (2007) found that fish with higher GSI values had higher levels of milt or eggs than fish with

lower GSI values.

Length Weight Relationship LWR

The length-weight relationship for fish is typically described by the equation W=kLb, where W

is the weight of the fish, L is the length of the fish, k is a constant that reflects the condition of

the fish, and b is a constant that reflects the shape of the fish. In this study, the average k value

was 1.001231 and the average b value was 3.401243. These values are within the range of values

reported in previous studies for similar species of fish. For example, a study by Hussain et al.

(2017) found that the average k value for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) reared in different

culture systems ranged from 0.98 to 1.02, and the average b value ranged from 3.25 to 3.55.

Similarly, a study by Kumar et al. (2014) found k values ranging from 1.00 to 1.02 and b values

ranging from 3.28 to 3.47 for Indian major carp (Labeo rohita) reared in different ponds. These

studies suggest that the length-weight relationship parameters for the fish in the current study are

within the range of values reported for similar species of fish. However, it is important to note

that the length-weight relationship can vary depending on a number of factors, such as the

species, age, and environment of the fish. Therefore, it is important to use caution when applying

these parameters to other populations of fish.

44
CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary

The project titled "Investigating the Effect of Pollutants and Contaminants on Fish Health in

Oreochromis niloticus and Food Safety in Daberam Reservoir, Katsina State" involved a

comprehensive health assessment of Oreochromis niloticus fish from the Daberam Reservoir.

Several parameters were examined, including length-weight relationships, condition factor,

gonado somatic index (GSI), hepato somatic index (HSI), and histopathological examination of

the liver, spleen, and muscle. The length-weight relationships indicated that the fish were

growing at a slightly positive allometric rate, signifying that they were well-nourished and not

under stress. The condition factor showed that the fish were in good condition, with an average

value slightly above the optimal level, suggesting they had ample energy reserves. However, the

GSI indicated that the fish were not in a high state of reproductive activity, possibly due to

environmental factors or seasonality. The HSI demonstrated that the fish did not have fatty liver,

with values within the normal range. The histopathological examination of the liver, spleen, and

muscle revealed minor lesions, notably the presence of melanomacrophages in the liver and

spleen, indicating exposure to pollutants in their environment.

5.2 Conclusion

The investigation into the effect of pollutants and contaminants on the health of Oreochromis

niloticus fish in Daberam Reservoir, Katsina State, provides valuable insights into the overall
45
well-being of the fish population. The comprehensive health assessment revealed that, on the

whole, these fish are not in good health or in fairly good health, as evidenced by number of

alterations found. However, the presence of melanomacrophages in the liver and spleen indicates

potential exposure to environmental pollutants, underscoring the need for vigilance and further

study on the long-term implications of such exposure. In light of these findings, it is clear that

the project not only contributes to our understanding of fish health in the specific context of

Daberam Reservoir but also underscores the broader importance of environmental stewardship

and sustainable practices for maintaining food safety and ecological balance. As such, these

insights serve as a foundation for ongoing efforts to preserve the health and well-being of not

only the O. niloticus fish but also the entire ecosystem in Daberam Reservoir.

5.3 Recommendation

1. Regular Monitoring of Pollutant Levels: Implement a systematic monitoring program

to continually assess the levels of pollutants and contaminants in Daberam Reservoir.

Regular sampling and analysis should be conducted to detect any significant increases in

pollutant concentrations that could threaten the health of the fish population and food

safety.

2. Long-Term Effects Research: Invest in further research to comprehensively understand

the long-term effects of pollutant exposure on the health of Oreochromis niloticus fish.

This research should aim to determine the potential cumulative impacts and whether there

are any adverse consequences that may not be immediately evident.

46
3. Promotion of Sustainable Fishing Practices: Encourage and enforce sustainable fishing

practices in the Daberam Reservoir area. This includes the establishment of regulations

and guidelines for fishing activities to protect fish populations, their habitat, and the

overall ecosystem. Promote responsible fishing practices that do not jeopardize the health

of the fish population.

4. Education and Awareness: Raise awareness among local communities, fishermen, and

stakeholders about the importance of maintaining a healthy fish population and the role

of sustainable fishing practices. This can be achieved through educational programs,

workshops, and community engagement to foster a sense of responsibility for preserving

the environment and food safety.

5. Collaboration with Environmental Agencies: Collaborate with environmental

protection agencies and relevant authorities to ensure effective management of the

reservoir. This may involve joint efforts in pollution control, habitat preservation, and

regulation enforcement to safeguard the ecosystem and maintain food safety.

6. Water Quality Management: Address factors that contribute to water quality

degradation, such as industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and other pollution sources.

Implement measures to control and reduce the introduction of pollutants into the

reservoir, aiming to maintain water quality standards that support a healthy fish

population.

7. Regular Health Assessments: Continue to conduct periodic health assessments of the

fish population to monitor their condition and track any changes over time. This will

provide ongoing insights into the well-being of the Oreochromis niloticus fish.

47
48
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55
APENDIX I

Data Recorded

Sampl Body Body Kidney Small Spleen Gills Muscle Liver Gonads

e Weigh Lengt Weight Intestine Weight Weight Weight Weigh Weight

t (g) h (cm) (g) Weight (g) (g) (g) t (g) (g)

(g)

A 133.13 17.91 2.06 0.96 0.43 0.78 41.69 17.51 0.86

B 124.59 17.46 1.88 0.84 0.35 0.63 36.91 15.09 0.71

C 163.68 18.82 2.30 1.05 0.46 0.86 47.32 20.44 1.03

D 115.76 16.92 1.75 0.77 0.31 0.56 33.56 12.93 0.69

E 162.77 18.81 2.33 1.10 0.47 0.88 47.64 20.45 1.04

F 120.51 17.18 1.84 0.82 0.33 0.60 35.33 13.70 0.73

G 152.82 18.31 2.33 1.05 0.46 0.84 45.74 19.81 0.99

H 135.45 17.63 2.01 0.89 0.37 0.67 37.93 14.80 0.81

I 117.36 17.11 1.77 0.78 0.31 0.57 33.93 13.08 0.70

J 153.18 18.40 2.36 1.07 0.47 0.85 46.16 20.02 1.03

56

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