PLATEAU STATE UNIVERSITY, BOKKOS

PROJECT

ON

SENSORY EVALUATION AND MICROORGANISMS ASSOCIATED WITH PAP

PRODUCED FROM THREE MAIZE VARIETIES (WHITE MAIZE, YELLOW MAIZE,
AND QUALITY PROTEIN MAIZE)

BY

LUCAS ABIGAIL

PLASU/2017/FNS/0366

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY,

FACULTY OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF REQUIREMENTS FOR AWARD OF BACHELOR OF

SCIENCE (BSC) DEGREE IN MICROBIOLOGY

SUPERVISED BY DR. MARY F. ISTIFANUS

SEPTEMBER, 2023

1
 DECLARATION

I declare the dissertation hereby submitted by me for the Bachelor Degree at the Plateau State
University is my own independent work and has not previously been submitted by me or anyone
else to another University/Faculty of Natural Sciences. I further code copyright of this research
report in favour of the Plateau State University.

_______________________ ________________________

Lucas Abigail Date

2
 CERTIFICATION

This Project, titled “MICRO ORGANISMS POPULATING INDOOR WATER-RELATED

ENVIRONMENTS’ submitted by Lucas Abigail with the matriculation number,
PLASU/2017/FNS/0366 has been read and certified by the undersigned as adequate in scope and
quality in partial fulfillment of the award of Bachelor of science (BSC) in Microbiology.

…………………………….. …………………………………

Lucas Abigail Date

(Student)

…………………………….. …………………………………

Dr. Mary F. Istifanus Date

(Supervisor)

………………………………….. ……………………………….

Dr. Patience Igeh Date

(Head of Department)

………………………………….. ………………………………

Prof. B. John Nvou Date

(Dean of Natural and Applied Science)

………………………………….. ……………………………….

Dr. Salamatu Machunga Date

(External Supervisor)

3
 DEDICATION

I dedicate this project work to God Almighty the Supreme Being, maker and sustainer of all, for
seeing me through this research work, to my lovely husband and my parents for their
encouragement and support to me always.

4
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My utmost Appreciation goes to God Almighty for allowing me to be among the living, for his
love and grace upon my life throughout the period of this research work. I am also grateful to the
Vice Chancellor Plateau State University, Bokkos, Prof. Bernard Malau Matur. The Dean of
Faculty of Natural and Applied Sciences, Dr. John B. Vau, the Head of Microbiology
department, Dr (Mrs.) Patience Igeh, my supervisor, Dr. Mary F. Istifanus, for her tireless efforts
and encouragement to me during this work. Also to all my lecturers who are always imparting in
me knowledge both morally and academically and being there to put us through our various
schemes of work. Also to my parents and siblings and any persons who supported me during my
studies.

5
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page …………………………………………………………………………. i

Declaration ………………………………………………………………………… ii
Certification ……………………………………………………………………….. iii
Dedication …………………………………...……………………………………… iv
Acknowledgement …………………………………………………………….……. v

Table of Contents ………………………………………………………………….…. vi

List of Tables …………………………………………………………………………. ix

List of Figures …………………………………………………………………..……. x

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………. xi

CHAPTER ONE (1)

1.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………… 1

1.1 Background of the study ………………………….…………………………… 1

1.2 Statement of problem & Justification……………………………………………. 2

1.3 Aim of study…………………………………………………………………….. 3

1.4 Specific Objectives……………………………………………………………….. 3

CHAPTER TWO (2)

2.1 Origin of Maize ………………………………………………………………... 4

2.2 Scientific Classification of Maize………………………………………………4

2.3 Common Varieties of Maize........ ……………………………………………. 4

2.4 Structures of Maize Grains........……………………………………………..… 5

2.5 Chemical Composition of Maize.................……………………………………. 6

2.6 Uses of Maize............................................... ……………………………..… 8

2.7 Chemical Changes in Pap.............................................................................9

2.8 Nutritional Value of Pap.............................................................................10

2.9 Health Benefits of Pap...............................................................................11

2.10 Microorganisms Associated with Pap........................................................12

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 CHAPTER THREE (3)

3.1 Study Area.............………………………….………………………………. 9

3.2 Materials Used……………………………………………….……………..……9

3.3 Sample Collection and Transportation...……………………………………….. 9

3.4 Sterilisation of Equipment……………………………………………………… 9

3.5 Media Preparation............. ………………………………………………..…… 9

3.6 Inoculation and Incubation ………………………………………..................... 9

3.7 Microbiological Analysis of Fermented Starch Samples..................................10

3.8 Procedures for Processing Maize Starch and Pap..........................................11

CHAPTER FOUR (4)

4.0 Result …………………………………………………………………………… 17

CHAPTER FIVE (5)

5.0 Discussion, Conclusion, Recommendation……………………………………… 26

5.1 Discussion ………………………………………………………………………… 27

5.2 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………… 28

5.3 Recommendations…………………………………………………………………222

References..................................……………………………………………………30
Appendices…………………………………………………………………………….37

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Showing the Scientific Classification of Maize....................................12

Table 2: Total bacterial Fungi Count …………………………………………… 18

Table 3: Microorganisms Isolated from Three Maize Varieties ……………….....19

Table 4: Sensory Evaluation of Pap Produced from Three Maize Varieties (white maize, yellow
maize and quality protein maize)…………………………………………… 20

Table 5: The Nutritional Value of Three Maize Varieties (white maize, yellow maize, and
quality protein maize)………………………………………..……………….… 21

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Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the sensory evaluation and microorganisms associated with pap
produced from three maize varieties white maize WM, Yellow maize YM, Quality protein maize
QPM. The maize grains were steeped for 72hrs; wet milled, sieved and allowed to ferment for
48hrs separately. The fermented starch was further used to make pap. Six (6) microorganisms
were isolated from the products. They include; Bacillus subtilis,Candida species, Trichophyton
species, Bacillus species, Coagulase negative staphylococcus and Micrococcus species. The
microbial load ranges between1.2x103 to 1.8x103 in yellow maize, 1.4x103 to 2.4x103 in white
maize and 2x102 to 5x102 cfu/g in quality protein maize. The sensory evaluation was conducted
using a panel of untrained individuals who assessed factors such as colour, taste, texture, flavour
and overall acceptability of the pap. The test revealed that the three types of pap were attractive
and likened respectively. Considering its nutritional value and the acceptability by consumers the
use of it as food supplements should be encouraged. Additionally, the microbiological analysis
showed the presence of microorganisms, including bacteria, yeast and moulds. Some of these
microorganisms are beneficial to humans while some of these microorganisms are harmful to the
health of humans. Thus, good personal hygiene practices and appropriate training of attendants
and vendors about the safety standards and good manufacturing practices are essential to
maintaining contaminants free pap and ensuring good health to the consumers.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Cereal crops provide essential nutrients and energy in the everyday human diet through direct

human consumption and also via meat production. Since they comprise a major livestock feed

(Food and Agricultural Organisation-AMIS, 2017). Cereals have been known to man from the

earliest times. Porridge prepared from cereals are eaten in different parts of the world, especially

in developing countries were they may present the basic diet. This porridge could be baked to

enhance the taste, quality and improve digestibility (Adeyemi, Osunsami & Fakorede, 2019).

The term “Cereals” refers to members of the gramineae family and determines nine (9) species:

Wheat (Triticum), Rye (Secale), Barley (Hordeum), Oat (Avena), Rice (Oryze), Millet

(Pennisetu), Corn (Zea) and Sorghum (Sorghum), (FAQ-AMIS, 2017). Corn (Zea mays) is one

of cereals which is an important raw material in human diet. In Nigeria, maize is grown mainly

in southern part of Nigeria while Sorghum (sorghum bicolor) and millet (pennisetum

typhoidieum) are grown in the northern part of the country. A fermented cereal product is known

as “Pap (Ogi)”. Corn is processed into traditional food such as pap (ogi) (Umo & Field, 2014).

Pap is a fermented non-alcoholic starchy food and is a major staple food wisely consumed in

West Africa. It is sour fine past beverage which when cooked produces a thin semi-solid

porridge. Pap (Ogi) porridge has a smooth texture and a sour taste resembling that of yoghurt. In

Nigeria, some states such as Anambra, Imo, Enugu and Abia refer to it as “Akamu” but “Ogi” is

a yoruba name but most states of Nigeria, it refers to “maize pap” (Umo & Field, 2014).

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Pap is widely used as the first native food given to babies at weaning to supplement breast milk

and is a major breakfast cereal for pre- school children and adults. It is traditional weaning foods

in West Africa are of low nutritive value and are characterized by low protein, low energy

density and high bulk. Ogi has been implicated as one of the causes of protein-energy

malnutrition in children during weaning period and if severe it can result in kwashiorkor and

maramus (Mehta, 2023 & Naismith, 2018).

Various microorganisms have been associated with the fermentation of pap as described by

(Akinrele, 2017). They include Cephlosporium, Aspergillus, Pennicillium, Corynebacterium spp,

Aerobactercloacae and Lactobacillus Plantarum among others.

The traditional preparation of maize ogi involves soaking of maize in water for 1-3 days

followed by wet milling and sieving to remove bran, hulls and germs (Akinrele, 2017;

Kosisochukwu, Ijeoma & Nkemjika, 2018; Odunfa, 2022). The pomace is retained on the sieve

and later discarded as animal feed while the filtrate is fermented (for 2-3 days) to yield ogi which

is sour, white starchy sediment (Odunfa, 2022).

Ogi is primarily prepared from maize, sorghum or millet. Cereals form a big proportion of the

food taken. The use of semi-solid food such as Ogi for nursing the sick has been encouraged by

doctors as it is light in the stomach and easily digested (National Rural Health Mission, 2013).

The traditional fermentation method employed in pap production is a wide process and

microorganisms are not controlled. Microbiological analyses have shown the presence of several

genera of bacteria, moulds and yeast in the fermented maize product (Udefuna et al, 2022).

Pap is fairly acidic (PH 4.8), which tends to inhibit the growth of some bacteria. it’s spoilage

however, is enhanced by some extrinsic factors amongst which are storage temperature,

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extension of the shelf life of pap is carried out using various techniques, which include;

refrigerating, freezing and drying (dehydration) to reduce the microbial load and consequently

spoilage (Ajobiewe, et al, 2022).

1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The production of pap from maize varieties is a popular and important activity in many region of

the world. However, there is concern about the microorganisms associated with pap production,

which can affect the quality and safety of the products. Microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi

and yeast can grow in the maize during processing and storage, causing spoilage and potentially

harmful contamination. Therefore, it is important to investigate the microorganisms associated

with pap production, their distribution and their potential impact on the safety and quality of the

final products.

1.2 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

Microorganisms are also associated with production of pap from maize. This microorganisms

can be either be beneficial or harmful to the quality and safety of the pap. For example, lactic

acid bacteria are beneficial microorganisms that are commonly used in the production of

fermented food such as pap. They help to improve the flavour, texture, and nutritional value of

the pap by fermenting the yeast and bacteria can also be present in the pap and can cause

spoilage and food borne illnesses. These microorganisms can be introduced during production

processes or can be present in raw materials used to produce the pap. Therefore, it is important to

conduct both sensory evaluation and microbiological analysis of pap produced from three maize

varieties to ensure that the product is of good quality and free from harmful microorganisms.

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This can help to ensure that the pap is safe for human consumption and meet the desired quality

standards. This forms the justification for the study.

1.3 AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the study is to isolate and characterize microorganisms associated with pap produced

from three maize varieties and their nutritional values.

1.4 OBECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The study objectives are to:

i. Isolate and characterize bacteria and fungi associated with pap produced from maize

varieties;

ii. Determine the nutritional value of the pap produced from three maize varieties;

iii. Evaluate the sensory attributes of pap produced from three maize varieties.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 ORIGIN OF MAIZE

Maize or corn (zea mays) is an important annual cereal crop of the world belonging to family

poaceae. zea is an ancient Greek word which means ‘’sustaining life’’ and mays is a word from

Taino language meaning ‘’life giver’’. Maize is considered as a staple food in many parts of the

world after rice and wheat. (Food and Agricultural Organisation Corporate Statistical Database,

2016)’Maize (zea mays referred to as corn in North America) originated in central Mexico in

around 5,000BC. The crop was introduced to Europe in the sixteenth century, from where it

spread to Africa and Asia. It is now one of the most widely grown crops around the world in both

temperate and tropical regions. It is among the ten (10) most important world crops by value.

According to (Food and Agricultural Organisation, 2012) maize production in 2012 was over

870 million tons, grown on 158 million hectares of land. Sources such as the FAO’s Agricultural

Market Information System (AIMS) and the international grains council have forecasted

production increasing to as high as 990 million tons in 2014-2015 grown on almost 200 million

hectares.Maize is grown both (as sweet corn) for human consumption and (as field corn) for

other uses such as animal feed and bio-fuels. Worldwide only around 15 percent of maize

production is used for food consumption with most production going to animal feed. however,

the proportion of maize production for food production in developing countries is higher at 25

percent and even higher in regions such as south east Asia where it on estimated 30-40 percent,

while in parts of sub-Sahara Africa it can be as high as 70-80 percent.

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Maize is the species with the highest genetic diversity among cultivated crops, with a large

number of varieties being identified. Besides, it has a great edaphoclimatic adaptation and can be

grown at different altitudes and latitudes. Maize still presents great variability for quantitative

and qualitative characteristics, such as reaction to diseases, productivity, the biochemical

composition of grains, plants and cycle architecture (Paterniani, 2000; Teixeira, 2008). This great

adaptability allowed the species to spread throughout the national territory, being present in

practically all the states of Brazil, the genetic material available, also known as germplasm is

composed of a set of different types of maize such as sweet, common, or popcorn. Among each

type of maize, there are landraces materials (local), improved populations, and exotic materials

(Araujo & Nass, 2021).

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2.2 SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION

Table 1: Showing the Scientific Classification of Maize

Kingdom Plantae

Phylum Spermatophyta

Subphylum Angiospernae

Class Monocotyledonae

Order Cyperales

Family Poaceae

Genus Zea

Species Zea mays

Source: Aminigo, et al (2004).

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2.3 COMMON VARIETIES OF MAIZE

About fifty (50) varieties of maize are identified having different colorations, textures, grain

shapes and sizes. Of these species, theones commonly found in Nigeria include white maize,

yellow maize and quality protein maize (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, 2022).

2.3.1 White Maize (WM)

White maize is a type of grain that is grown throughout the world, though it is known as ‘’white

corn’’ in some areas. The plants that produce white maize are versatile and grow successfully in

many climates. Although, most of the maize that is grown is not used for human consumption, a

large portion of it can be ground into commercial and light-colored flour. In cooking, white

maize is often turned into fine flour. This corn flour is an important ingredient in traditional

Latin America cuisine. It can be used to make a type of flat bread called a tortilla and can be

mixed into paste and steamed for dishes such as tamales. Corn flour is also used to make corn

chips (Roskelley, 2014).

2.3.1.1 Nutritional Value of White Maize (WM)

The nutritional profile of white corn is somewhat surprising, as it contains about 1.5grams of fat

in a large ear of corn, but only 115 calories. However, this corn also has a very high level of

dietary fiber at 3grams per year as well as a good amount of potassium, vitamin C, Iron,

Magnesium, various B vitamins, copper, Selenium and Phosphorus among others.

2.3.2 Yellow Maize (YM)

The term “Yellow maize” comes from the Spanish word ‘’maize’’ and is commonly referred to

as ‘’Yellow corn’’ in English speaking countries. Contrary to it improper categorisation as a

17
vegetable. It is a grain or cereal crop, although it is commonly eaten as a vegetable. Maize comes

in many colors including Yellow, white, blue, red, black, green, purple, tricolour and

multicolour, depending on the variety (Louk, 2023).

Yellow maize grows on stalk, commonly referred to as corn stalks, with each stalk producing

several ears of corn with hundreds of kernels. The kernels are commonly eaten cooked, while the

dried kernels are used for animal feed or ground into flour for baking.

2.3.2.1 Nutritional Value of Yellow Maize (YM)

Yellow corn is a good source of carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin, which are good for eye health

and help prevent the lens damage that leads to cataracts. Corn also has smaller amounts of

vitamins B, E and K, along with minerals like magnesium and potassium. Yellow corn contains

slightly more nutritional value than white corn because the pigment that makes yellow corn

yellow, beta carotene, turns into vitamin A when digested. Carotenoids are found mainly in

yellow maize, in amounts that may be genetically controlled, while white maize has little or no

carotenoid content. Yellow maize is high in carbohydrates and packed with fiber, vitamins and

minerals. It also relatively low in protein and fats.

2.3.3 Quality Protein Maize (QPM)

Quality protein maize (QPM) contains the opaque-2 gene along with numerous modifiers for

kernel hardness. Therefore, Quality protein maize has high nutritive value of endosperm protein,

with substantially higher content of two essential amino acids lysine and tryptophan, and with

good agronomical performances. Although, quality protein maize was developed primarily for

utilization in the regions where because of poverty, maize is main staple food. It has many

advantages of production and consumption in other parts of the world too. Quality protein maize

18
can be used for production of conventional and new animal feed as well as for human nurture. As

the rate of animal weight gain is doubled with quality protein maize and portion availability is

better. A part of normal maize production could be available for other purposes such as for

examples ethanol production. Thus, breeding quality protein maize is set as a challenge to

produce high quality protein maize with high yield and other important agronomical traits

especially with today’s food and feed demands and significant of energy crisis (Food and

Agricultural Orgaanisation, 2022).

2.3.3.1 Nutritional Value of Quality Protein Maize

Quality protein maize has the concentration of two amino acids lysine and tryptophan in the

grain and lesser quantity of leucine and isoleucine. Baby corn, sweet corn, popcorn, waxy corn

and high oil corn were targeted to develop quality protein maize.

Quality protein maize has more quantity of carbohydrates, fats, protein, vitamins and minerals. It

is also called as ‘’poor man’’ cereal crop. Crude protein of quality protein maize is higher than

the normal maize and the proportional contribution of the germ is lower in quality protein maize

than with normal varieties. These structural and biochemical changes that happen in the kernel

lead to the modification of the protein profile both in content and structure, and therefore, on the

functionality of the protein extracted from quality protein maize based on the chemical

component analysis. Quality protein maize whole kernel has the highest protein content

compared with normal maize.

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2.4 STRUCTURE OF MAIZE GRAIN

Maize: Botanical name of corn is Zea mays. This is important cereal crop in North America. It

apparently originated in Mexico, seed of corn much larger than other cereal. The corn is a single

fruit called the kernel. It includes an embryo, endosperm, aleurone, and pericarp. The embryo of

maize is relatively larger (10-13% of grain) than any other cereal grain. The pericarp is a thin

layer that has protection role for the endosperm and embryo. pericarp adheres tightly to the outer

surface of aleurone layer and thought to impart semi permeable properties to the corn kernel. The

pericarp is composed of dead cells that cellulosic tubes, here, pericarp and testa are fused to form

hull. Part of germ overlaying the germ is called the cap. Industrially, maize is used for

manufacture of starch, sugar syrup, glucose, beer and alcohol. The maize grain is a small one-

seeded fruit called the caryopsis. In maize grain, the seed coat (testa) is fused with the fruit wall

(pericarp). Externally, the maize grain is yellow in colour and somewhat triangular in shape with

the following structures:

 Endosperm: maize grain consists of two unequal portions divided by a layer called

epithelium. The bigger portion, the endosperm which is yellow or whitish is the food

storage tissue of the grain and is rich in starch but its outermost layer contains only

protein and is called aleurone layer.

 Seed coat: it is formed of a thin layer surrounding the whole grain. This layer is made up

of seed-coat and pericarp, i.e. fruit wall.

 Embryo: It consists of one large and shield-shape cotyledon. This is also known as

scutellum in the case of maize and other cereals. The axis of the embryo is embedded in

the scutellum. The axis consists of a plumule, the upper portion and the radicle and

20
 plumule are enclosed in sheath called coleoptile and that covering the radicle are known

as coleorhizae (Kurhade, 2023).

2.5 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAIZE

The major chemical composition of maize kernel is starch, which provide up to 72 to 73 percent

of th kernel weight. Other carbohydrates are simple sugars present as glucose, sucrose and

frutose in amounts that vary from 1 to 3% of the kernel. The starch is made up of two glucose

polymers. Amyloses an essentially linear molecule and Amylopectin, a branched form. The

composition of maize starch is genetically controlled.

In common maize, with the dent or flint type of endosperm, a mylose makes up 25 to 30% of the

starch and amylopectin makes up 70 to 75%. Waxy maize contains a starch that is 100%

amylopectin. An endosperm mutant called amylose-extender (ae) induces an increase in the

amylose proportion of the starch to 50percent and higher. Other genes, alone or in combination

may also modify the amylose-to-amylopectin ratio in maize starch (Niu, et al, 2023).

After starch, the next largest chemical component of the kernel is protein. Protein content varies

in common varieties from about 8 to 11% of the kernel weight. Most of it is found in endosperm.

The protein in maize kernels has been studied extensively; it is made up of at least five different

fractions, according to Landry (2014) and Moureaux (2015).

 OIL AND FATTY ACIDS: The oil content of the maize kernels comes mainly from the

germ. Oil content is genetically controlled with values ranging from 3 to 18%.

 DIETARY FIBRE: After carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Dietary fiber is the chemical

component found in the greatest amounts. Other carbohydrates, when mature, the maize

21
 kernel contains carbohydrates other than starch in small amounts. Total sugars in kernel

range between 1 to 3%, with sucrose the major component found mostly in the germ.

High levels of monosaccharides, disaccharides and trisaccharides are present in maturity

kernel.

 MINERALS: The concentration of ash in the maize kernel is about 1.3%, only slightly

lower than the crude fiber content.

 FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS: The maize kernel contains two fat soluble vitamins.

Provitamin A, or carotenoids and vitamin E. carotenoids are found mainly in yellow

maize in amounts that may be genetically controlled. White maize has little or no

carotenoid content.

 WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS: They are found mainly in the aleurone layer of the

maize kernel, followed by the germ and endosperm,

2.6 USES OF MAIZE

Maize contains protein, crude fiber; ether extract and carbohydrates. Maize provides a large

amount of energy in the diet of man and animal (livestock). The crop provides the body with

amino acid, although it is deficient in some essential amino acid like Lysine and Tryptophan.

Maize contains 80% of carbohydrates, 10% protein, 3.5% fiber, in addition to 2% mineral and

vitamin. Maize can be consumed in variety of ways: eaten when still fresh on the cob after

boiling or roasting, mill into flour (maize starch) which is further baked into maize-related

products. Maize starch has been utilized in various ways, including the production of noodles.

Edible oil which is obtained from maize grain has a low level of saturated fatty acids compared

to other protein sources especially animal sources. International Institute for Tropical Agriculture

22
(2022) reported high frutose content of corn syrup and sweetener, which can be added to food to

preserve its moisture content.

Dilip and Aditya (2017) findings show that maize contains selenium that stimulates the thyroid

gland and improve the immunity of humans. Maize silk has served as a source of treatment

material in herbal medicine. Corn kernel provides oil which can be used for; domestic cooking,

industrial production of corn-related products, food addictives including its Pharmaceautical

uses.

Oladejo and Adetunji (2017) reported that corn oil been used as an anti-freezing material over

the centuries, man keeps on unveiling new uses of corn. Corn is pounded or grounded into flour,

made into corn garri (mounded corn) which is mixed with processed cassava and eaten with

soup. corn provides man with raw materials for further advancement, as it multipurpose nature

provides a variety of uses, corn industrial uses include; wet milling, production of ethanol ,

production of finish goods that contains corn extracts, production of bio-fuels/bio-diesel . Maize

has been utilized extensively in livestock nutrition; the crop provides greater percentage of

calories. Apart from food, the crop is also useful as medicines; this was confirmed by the

findings of Abdulrahaman and Kolawole (2019).

Production of maize in Nigeria has enhanced both food security and economic development, as

in crop now serves as a ‘’cash crop’’. The crop has been utilized by soil scientists as an indicator

crop in determining the fertility status of the soil. Maize can be used to fight global hunger; this

was examined by Ayeni (2010); Degrande and Duguma (2012) who reported that food

production can be used to reduce hunger by cropping and utilization of corn. It is also consumed

in other processed forms such as cornflakes, custard, pap (Ogi), golden morn and more. The

23
grain of maize is used for food, feed and industrial products including biodegradable foams,

plastics and adhesives. Additionally, maize Stover, the leaves and stalk of the maize plant is used

for forage and chemical production.

2.7 CHEMICAL CHANGES IN PAP

The process of fermenting maize, sorghum, millet or rice to produce pap not only removes part

of the maize kernel such as the seed-coat and the germ, but also involves washing, sieving and

decanting. All of which induce changes in the chemical composition and nutritive value of the

final product.

Akinrele (2013) reported on specify nutrients of a number of pap samples produced in different

ways: fermented and unfermented with Aerobacter cloacae, Lactobacillus plantarum and a

mixture of the two bacteria. He compared the value found with those from the traditionally

fermented product. Judging from the ratio amino nitrogen to total nitrogen, the author reported

that protein was degraded to a very small amount by the bacterial species when compared with

the unfermented pap. Aerobacter cloacae appeared to synthesize more riboflavin and niacin that

made with maize and Aerobacter cloacae. In any case, the changes were small and smaller if

compared with whole maize, whereas in comparison with degermed maize. The ogi products

contained more riboflavin and niacin.

Akinrele (2017) and Banigo and Muller (2019) reported on the carboxylic acids in pap and found

lactic acid in greatest concentration(0.55%) followed by acetic acid(0.09%) and smaller amount

of butyric acid. changes were relatively small in major nutrients with slight increase in fiber and

a decrease in ash. These authors also reported on amino acid content; they found no differences

24
between maize flour and pap for all amino acids including the essential ones. The pap samples,

however, had about twice the amount of serine and somewhat higher values for glutamic acid.

Adeniji and Potter (2014) reported that pap processing did not decrease the protein content of the

maize but total and available Lysine was significantly reduced. On the other hand, Tryptophan

levels were more stable and in two samples increased, probably because of fermentation. These

authors also found increase in neural detergent fiber and ash but no change in Lignin. Akingbala,

Rooney and Faubion (2014) found a decrease in protein, ether extract, ash and crude fiber in pap

as compared with maize that was processed as a whole grain or dry milled.

2.8 NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF PAP

Corn pap often regarded as Akamu, Ogi, Koko or Eko, is a Nigerian fermented cereal pudding

made from maize. The superlight food has been around for decades and now it is eaten by many

people in Nigeria. Traditionally, processed Ogi, Akamu or Pap has a sour taste and would make

a perfect combination with fried plantain, pancakes, akara, fried yam, okpa, bread, puffpuff and

beans. Any of this when combined with pap, makes a great breakfast meal.

A study in 2018 on the nutritional composition of pap found that pap is rich in essential

properties, including carbohydrates, vitamins (A, B5, B3, B1, riboflavin, C), Folic acid,

Potassium, Chromium, Selenium, Zinc, Phosphorus and Magnesium. It also contained high

contents of amino acids such as Tryptophan, Phenylanine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine and

valine. The calorie in one serving of pap is 152. (Nnam, 2020)

Maize is very important because of good source of minerals, vitamins, fiber and oil present in

maize (rich in embryo). This oil is used for cooking and soap making companies. Maize starch is

famous in pharmaceutical industries as diluents and also used in cosmetics. Its seeds used to

25
make alcohol while stem used for paper manufacturing. Small scale farmers are engaged with

maize farming because of its highly nutritional values and affordable source of vitamins and

minerals for people living in rural areas.

2.9 HEALTH BENEFITS OF PAP

Sani and Adesulu (2013) give the following as health benefits of pap:

i. Pap is very rich in dietary fiber: The fiber content makes it suitable for diets that are

made to lose weight and those with the aim of lowering cholesterol levels (Sani &

Adesulu, 2013).

ii. Pap is also rich in carbohydrates; it contains starch that will slowly release energy into

the blood stream thereby providing you the needed energy all day long.

iii. Replaces lost body fluid. It is a meal that replaces the fluid lost because of its high water

content.

iv. Maize combats the symptoms of certain cancers- According to recent studies, the use of

maize helps to combat the effects of certain cancers, as it reduces the development of

cancer.

v. Reduces the risk of diabetes and heart disease-The fiber in whole grains helps to prevent

the risk of heart diseases and diabetes, and all its nutrients boost the immune system.

vi. Corn pap is 100% natural. it has no addictives or artificial content whatsoever.

26
vii. Pap has high water content and helps to supply the daily requirement of water. It is as a

result of this that it is used by nursing mothers to help the easy flow of breast milk

(lactation) after delivery.

viii. It has no sodium, and contains potassium (lowers B.P). This means that it helps to

maintain a normal blood pressure effortlessly, which makes it a perfect food for people

who do not want to develop high blood pressure.

ix. The texture of corn pap makes it easy to digest and a perfect food for convalescence

individuals who are recovering from illness.

x. Corn has an adequate protein score i.e. the protein in it is more than the 8% required in

food.

xi. Promotes healthy pregnancy and lowers the risk of neural tube defects: Folic acid is one

of the essential properties pregnant women need for healthy pregnancy. The deficiency of

this acid could results in the birth of underweight infants or might even trigger neural

tube defects in newly born babies. On the plus side, pap is rich in folic acid, making it an

ideal and beneficial food for expectant mothers.

xii. Boosts the kidney’s health: The kidneys are among the vital organs of the body, such that

any damage around this region can trigger adverse effects in the human system. Uric

acid, urea, toxins, wastes and other harmful substances are some of the things that can

damage this crucial organ. However, drinking pap is capable of getting rid of these

substances as it helps in eliminating unwanted elements in the body through urine. You

tend to urinate more when you drink pap.

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xiii. Pap is good for babies and toddlers: Pap is one of the healthy Nigerian foods for toddlers.

it is a popular weaning meal introduced to babies in Nigeria. Apart from the fact that it is

highly economical, easy to prepare and easy to digest, it also very nutritional to the

growing child.

2.10 MICROORGANISMS ASSOCIATED WITH PAP

Various microorganisms have been associated with the fermentation or are involve in the process

of production of pap as described by (Akinrele et al., 2007). They include Cephalosporium,

Aspergillus, Penicillium, Corynebacterium spp, Aerobactercloacae, Lactobacllusplantarum,

Lactobacillu brevis, Lactobacillus spp, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Fussarium spp, Pediococcuss

guniben, Candida myocoderma, Pediocyccus acidilactic, Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus

cellobiosus, Leuconostoc spp, Aspergillus flavus, Rhizopus stolonifer, Yeast, Streptococcu lactis,

Bacillus megaterium, Micrococcus reseus, Aeromonas aerogenes, Corynebacterium fermentum,

Staphyllococcus aureus, Candida stellalata, Penicillium italicum, Penicillium notatum,

Eubacterium spp, Pseudomonas spp among others.

28
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 THE STUDY AREA

The study was carried out in two selected local government areas of Plateau State; Jos South and

Bokkos Local Government Areas. Three varieties of maize were obtained in their whole form

from the producers, which were further processed to produce fermented starch use to make pap.

3.2 MATERIAL USED

Equipment

Glass wares such as petri dishes, pipette, test tubes, conical flakes, inoculation stick, wire loops,

hot oven.

Reagents/ Agars

Nutrient agar, potato dextrose agar, Mac Conkey agar, Triple sugar iron agar and peptone water

agar.

3.3 SAMPLE COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION

The samples for this study were obtained from Bokkos L.G.A and Ministry of Agriculture

located in Jos, Jos-South LGA, Plateau State. Yellow maize and white maize were obtained in

Bokkos L.G.A while quality protein maize was obtained from ministry of Agriculture located in

Jos, Jos-South, Plateau State respectively. After obtaining the different varieties of maize grains,

the pap was produced locally following these processes; the grains were sorted, washed

andsteeped for 72hrs, wet milled, sieved and fermented for 48hrs separately. The samples were

properly labelled and aseptically transferred to the laboratory for further analysis.

29
3.4 STERILIZATION OF EQUIPMENTS

All glass wares used in the course of this work such as petri dishes, pipette, test tubes and conical

flakes were thoroughly washed and sterilized in a hot air oven at 160 0-2000C. The wire loops

used were flamed red hot and allowed to cool before use, the work bench surfaces were also

cleaned with a disinfectant before and after use.

3.5 MEDIA PREPARATION

All media used were prepared according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

PREPARATION OF NUTRIENT AGAR

28g of nutrient agar was weighed into 1000ml of distilled water. it was dissolved by heating

using a Bursen burner. Sterilization of the Media was carried out using the autoclave at 121 OC

for 15minutes and allowed to cool for about 45OC before pouring aseptically into sterile petri

dishes and allowed to set.

3.6 INOCULATION AND INCUBATION

The different samples of pap were collected and with the use of inoculation stick. The samples

were inoculated in the nutrients (SDA, Blood agar and MacConkey agar) and placed into the

incubator for 24 hours and checked for growth.

3.7 MICROBIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF FERMENTED STARCH SAMPLES

Isolation and enumeration of microbial load of samples; the starch produced from the different

maize varieties were serially diluted. One ml of representative sample from the starch was

30
withdrawn aseptically into a 9ml of sterile distilled water to obtain a 1:10 dilution. The mixture

was agitated gently to ensure uniform mixing. The dilution was repeated until 10-7 dilution was

obtained. The diluents were plated out in triplicate using a sterile pipette; 1ml of 10-7 dilution

was withdrawn aseptically into petri dish. The media employed for the inoculation were the

standard plate count agar and nutrient agar for isolation and enumeration of bacteria, while for

fungi and yeast isolation sabouraud and potato dextrose agar were used. The plates were swirled

gently to ensure uniform mixing after which they were incubated at 37 OC for 24-48hrs for

bacteria and 28+ OC for 3-5 days for fungi. After 24 and 72 hours, the bacteria and fungi colonies

that appeared on the plates were counted using colony counter, the average colony counts from

the triplicate plates were obtained and were expressed as colony forming unit (CFU) per

millilitres of sample.

The species of microorganisms that are involved in the fermented starch are lactic acid bacteria

and yeast, while the presence of other microorganisms in the product could be through various

sources especially when strict hygienic practices are not adhered to, which could be attributed to

the raw materials used, processing environment, human involvement, milling machine employed,

muslin clothes used in filtering, sources of water and utensils used.

3.8 PROCEDURES FOR PROCESSING MAIZE STARCH AND PAP

Things needed: The three maize varieties (White, yellow and quality protein maize)and lots of

water.

Tools: Chiffon cloth, Blende/Grinding Machiner, Muslin bag, Big and small bowls.

Maize grain

31
Washing (sorting)

Steeping (for 1-3days)

Wet milling

Filtering (Musling cloth)

Sedimentation

Fermentation (48-72hrs)

Decanting of top water

Fermented maiz starch

Dilution of maiz starch with whater

Addition of boiled water

Wet fermented pap

(The flowchart showing the processing of maize starch and pap production, Istifanus et al., 2019)

32
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS
Table 2: Total bacterial Fungi Count

S A M P L E I D R a w c o u n t TaBC (CFU/g) R a w c o u n t TFC (CFU/g)

3 3
Yellow Maize Pap 1 8 1.8 x 10 1 2 1 . 2 x 1 0

3 3
White Maize Pap 2 4 2.4 x 10 1 4 1 . 4 x 1 0

2 2
Q P M 2 2 x 1 0 5 5 x 1 0

Key: TaBC Total aerobic Bacterial Count, TFC Total Fungal Count, CFU/g Colony
Forming Unit per gram.

33
Table 3: Microorganisms Isolated from Three Maize Varities

SAMPLE I D BACTERIAL ISOLATE F U N G A L I S O L A T E

Y M B ac i l l us subt i l i s Candida species, Trichophyton species

W W Bacillus species, CoNS, Micrococcus species C a n d i d a s p e c i e s

Q P M C o N S C a n d i d a s p e c i e s
Key: CoNS Coagulase-negative Staphylococci

34
Table 4: Sensory Evaluation of Pap Produced from Three Maize Varieties (white maize,
yellow maize and quality protein maize)

Product C o l o u r T a s t e T e x t u r e Flavour Overall acceptablility

WMP 6 . 7 8 6 . 4 5 6 . 5 0 6 . 2 3 6 . 4 0

Y M P 7 . 1 3 7 . 0 3 7 . 2 0 6 . 7 8 7 . 2 5

QPMP 7 . 7 3 7 . 7 5 7 . 1 5 7 . 1 8 7 . 4 0

Values are mean + or – SD of triple determination.

+ values with different superscript along the column are significantly different from one another

(P > or equal to 0.05).

35
Table 5: The Nutritional Value of Three Maize Varieties (white maize, yellow maize, and
quality protein maize)

P a r a m e t e r s White maize Quality protein maize Yellow maize

Moisture (%) 7 . 4 1 7 . 9 0 7 . 6 5

Crude protein (%) 8 . 8 0 9 . 8 2 9 . 8 0

Crude fat (%) 4 . 1 1 4 . 8 0 4 . 5 0

Total ash (%) 1 . 4 6 1 . 5 0 1 . 6 2

Crued fibre (%) 2 . 1 0 2 . 0 5 2 . 6 0

Carbohydrate (mg/100g) 8 3 . 8 6 8 1 . 9 6 8 4 . 7 1

Energy (kcal/100g) 3 7 0 . 0 0 3 7 8 . 5 0 3 7 5 . 0 0

Means of the same row followed by different letters are significant (P<0.05)

36
 CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATIONS
5.1 DISCUSION

Table 2 and 3 show the total plate count of bacteria and fungi and also the microorganisms

isolated from the three maize varieties. The bacteria count ranges from 1.8x10 3 in yellow maize,

2.4x103 in white maize and 2x102 in quality protein maize respectively. while the fungi count

range is 1.2x103 in yellow maize, 1.4x103 in white maize and 5x102 in quality protein maize

starch. however, the microbial loads of the three fermented pap samples were relatively low for

the three maize varieties, because all the total plate count were not above 10 5 cfu/ml. This is in

agreement with Egbere (2009); microbiological quality guide for ready to eat foods; and

microbiological guidelines for food, (2014) reported that the total plate count accepted in most

foods especially ready to eat food with minimum handling prior to consumption should not be

more than 10 cfu/ml.

Furthermore, Table 3 reveals the bacteria isolated from yellow maize,white maize and quality

protein maize were; Bacillus subtilis, Micrococcus species, Coagulase Negative Staphylococci

and Bacillus species. While the fungi isolated from the three pap samples were; Candida species

and Trichophyton. The genus Bacillus was dominant in yellow and white maize, Coagulase

negative staphylococci is dominant in white and quality protein maize. CoNS is predominatly

found on the skin and mucous membrane, contamination during production process must have

occurred to result to their appearance. This study is in agreement with Ozoh et al (2006).

37
This implies that, bacteria and fungi associated with pap were isolated and identified. Bacillus

species, Micrococcus specicies and Coagulase negative staphylococci (CoNS) were the bacteria

isolated from the different maize varieties. Fungal isolates are; Candida species and

Trichophyton species (Latunde 2000). The genus Bacillus was dominant in yellow and white

maize. CoNS is dominant in white and quality protein maize. Coagulase negative staphylococci

is predominantly found on the skin and mucous membrane. Contamination during production

process must have occurred to result to there appearance. This is also similar to the findings of

(Onyekwere et al., 2007).

Moreover, Candida spp were found in all the maize varieties (Abiosa, 2014). Yeast is commonly

associated with environment reach in carbohydrate. Based on the current studies of microbial

enumeration from pap, table 2 & 3 revealed that Bacillus species were presumptively counted as

1.8x103 and 2.4x103 from yellow maiz (YM) and white maize (WM) respectively. CoNS was

counted as 2.4x103 and 2x102 from WM and QPM respectively. However, Micrococcus species

was counted as 2.4x103from white maize. This findings were in accordance with the report of

(David et al., 2016). Similarly, Candida species were enumerate as 1.2x103, 1.4x103 and 5x102

from yellow maize, white maize and quality protein maize respectively.Trichophyton spp was

counted as 1.2x103 from yellow maize. This study has similar findings with (Adeleye, 2000),

who asserts that the most frequent and abundant microbial group detected in the three maize

varieties was Bacteria which has highert propotion than fungi.

Table 4 present the sensory attribute of pap from yellow maize, white maize and quality protein

maize. It shows significant differences (P<0.05) among the pap in colour, texture, taste while

flavour and overall acceptability are not significant. Colour parameters of the pap samples

ranged from 6.78 to 7.73 and the colour of WM pap is the most preferred.

38
Table 4 presents the sensory attributes of pap produced from three maize varieties white maize,

yellow maize and quality protein maize. Sensory evaluation was carried out on the three pap

samples, in the test 40 untrained panellists comprising of male and female who were conversant

and are frequent consumers of pap porridge were used. The sensory evaluation questions were

based on a one to 5 hedonic scale, where one represent ‘’dislike extremely’’ and 5 ‘’like

extremely’’ for all the quality attributes employed. The ogi porridge samples were evaluated for

colour, taste, texture (mouthfeel), flavour and overall acceptability. All the three pap samples

have the same taste, texture but were significantly different in colour, flavour and overall

acceptability. All the three pap samples were likened and accepted by the consumers. This agrees

with the findings of Potter et al (2015).

Statistical Analysis Used

The panelists result was statistically analysed using Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA). Details;

Table 4.

Table 5 presents the proximate analysis of the three maize varieties white maize, yellow maize

and quality protein maize. The quality protein maize has a high protein value, followed by the

yellow maize and then the white maize. All the three maize varieties are not significantly

different in moisture, crude fat, total ash, crude fibre, carbohydrate and energy. The findings

further indicate that the highest value for protein content 9.82 percent was observed in OPM

variety, followed by YM and WM which had a protein content of 9.80 percent and 8.80 percent

respectively. The minimum value for protein content was observed in WM with 8.80 percent

protein content. The results of the present study were in line with those of (Bibat et al., 2014)

who reported the protein conten of OPM and YM varieties to be 9.82 and 9.80 percent

39
respectively. However, two of the maize varieties showed higher protein content than the WM

varieties.

The value for fat content varied significantly for the selected maize varieties, it ranged from 4.11

percent (table 5). The maximum value for fat content was found in QPM developed by ICAR-

VPKAS, of M with 4.50 percent fat content while the lowest fat content was observed in WM

variety with 4.11 percent fat content. The results of the present study were in line with those of

(Panda et al., 2010) who found the fat content of normal maize and QPM to be 4.66 and 4.82%

respectively.

The data for crude fibre content was observed in YM variety with 2.60 percent followed by WM

2.10 percent. Crude fibre content of WM and QPM was at par with each other with 2.10 and 2.05

percent fibre content respectively. The result indicate that the maize varieties under study have

low crude fibre and correspond with the work of (Abiose & Victor, 2014).

No significant difference for ash content was observed between the three selected varieties and it

ranged from 1.62-1.46 percent (table 4). All the varieties at par to each other and the average ash

content was found to be 1.47 percent. Ash content indicates the amount of minerals present in the

sample and when compared to the work of (Vandana et al., 2012). Who reported ash content of

1.3 percent. The maize varieties under the study have low ash content and thus it can be

concluded that they have little mineral content.

Results reported a significant difference in carbohydrate content among the three selected maize

varieties (table 4) carbohydrates content ranged between 84.71-77.06 percent. The maximum

value 84.71 percent for carbohydrates content was observed in the YM maize variety, YMwhich

was at par with the carbohydrates content of WM and QPM 83.86 and 87.96 percent

40
carbohydrates content respectively. Maize variety QPM carbohydrates content at 81.96 percent.

The results of the present study correspond to those of (David et al., 2016).

5.2 CONCLUSION

The thrust of the study was on sensory evaluation and microorganisms associated with pap

produced from three maize variteties (white maize, yellow maize and quality protein maize).

From the findings of the study, it is concluded that the species of microorganisms that are

involved in the fermented starch are lactic acid bacteria and yeast while the presence of other

organisms in the products could stem from contamination of raw materials used or from

processing equipment. It could also be from the environment of and flora of the grain. However,

production of pap under hygienic condition will greatly reduce or prevent microbial

contamination of the products. All the grains gave good pap products which was accepted by the

consumers during the acceptability test.

5.3 RECOMENDATIONS

 Good and personal hygiene practices should be maintained at every stages of production

in other to avoid contamination.

 Appropriate training of attendants and vendors about the safety standards and goods

manufacturing practices are essential to maintaining contaminants free pap and ensuring

good health to the consumers.

 The three maize varieties studied have good nutritional values as such they are

recommended for production of pap.

41
 Pap should be preserved in the refrigerator,otherwise, it should kept at room temperature

with regular changing of water to avoid spoilage.

42
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