01

NOTE
B I O L O G Y

CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

MITOSIS

Key Takeaways

• Mitosis
→ Karyokinesis
◆ Prophase ◆ Metaphase ◆ Anaphase ◆ Telophase
→ Cytokinesis
◆ Cell furrow formation ◆ Cell plate formation
• Significance of mitosis
• Cell cycle checkpoints
• Cancer

Prerequisites

• G1 phase
→ The cell grows in size. Mitosis phase
→P  roteins and nutrients for the S phase are
produced.
• S phase
G2
→D  NA replication takes place. phase G1
→C  entrioles in the centrosome undergo phase
duplication.
S
• G2 phase phase
→ It is the phase after DNA replication.
→ Overall cell growth occurs and proteins
required for M phase are produced. Interphase

Cell cycle and its phases

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Mitosis

• It is a type of cell division that produces two similar daughter cells.

→T  he daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
→T  he chromosome number remains unaltered, and it is conserved in parents and progeny.

Mother cell

Parent
cell
Identical
daughter cells
Daughter cells Mitotic cell division

Mitosis

Karyokinesis Cytokinesis

• Karyon = Nucleus, Kinesis = Movement • Cytos = Cell, Kinesis = Movement

• It is the division of the nucleus. • It is the division of the cytoplasm.

Prophase Anaphase Cell furrow Cell plate

formation formation
(in animals) (in plants)
Metaphase Telophase

• Karyokinesis involves four specific and highly coordinated stages that occur progressively.
• PMAT (Pass Me Another Tray) is a mnemonic for stages of mitosis - Prophase, Metaphase,
Anaphase, and Telophase.

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Karyokinesis

Prophase

• It is the first phase of karyokinesis.

• It is the longest phase in terms of the time taken for completion.
•T  he chromatin fibres start condensing into a mass during the early prophase.
• Since it resembles a condensed ball of wool, early prophase is also known as the spireme stage
(tangle or coil of filament).
• They further condense as prophase continues to form the chromosomes.

S phase

Duplication

Chromatin Condensation
(Spireme stage)

Sister chromatids

Chromatin fibres condense to form chromosomes

• Prophase also includes nuclear membrane degeneration and disappearance of the nucleolus.
• Disintegration of endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus takes place.
• The centrosomes with replicated centrioles start moving towards the opposite poles.
•E ach centrosome radiates microtubules known as asters. Aster rays help the centrioles to hold
their place in the cytoplasm.
• The centrioles form spindle fibres.

Condensed chromosomes
Nuclear membrane

Centrioles
Spindle fibres

Centrioles on opposite sides and the disappearing nuclear membrane

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Aster rays Spindle fibres

•T he aster rays are made of microtubules •T

 he spindle fibres are made of microtubules
and radiate out in all directions in a star-like and radiate from the centrioles towards the
fashion from the centrioles. chromosomes.
•T hey are generally shorter when compared •T
 hese fibres assume a spindle-shaped
to spindle fibres. circular body with tapering ends.
• They do not join with the chromosome. •T
 hey join with the kinetochores of the
chromosomes.

Astral Rays Centriole Chromosomes Centriole

Spindle fibres Astral rays

Astral rays and spindle fibres attaching to centrioles and chromosomes

Microtubule-organising centre (MTOC)

• The plant cells are devoid of centrioles.

• Aster formation is also not seen in plants.
•P lant cells have an area present just near the nuclear membrane is known as a
m
 icrotubule-organising centre (MTOC). It serves to organise and assemble the microtubules
required for spindle fibre formation.
•M icrotubules gather at opposite poles and begin to form the spindle apparatus at locations
also known as foci.

Astral rays Spindle fibres

MTOC

Kinetochore

MTOC

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Metaphase

• The complete degradation of the nuclear membrane marks the start of metaphase.
•T he chromosomes come to lie in the equatorial plane (equidistant from the two poles). This
process is known as congression.
•C ongression occurs with the assembly of the mitotic spindle that mediates the
microtubule-chromosome interactions required for the movement of chromosomes.
•T he spindle fibres attach to the kinetochore of the chromosomes.
Equatorial plane/ Metaphase plate

Chromosomes align at the equatorial plane during metaphase

• Chromosomes are observed to be the thickest and the shortest at this stage.
• This is the best time to do the following:
→ Study the morphology of each chromosome
→ Count their numbers

Shapes of chromosomes

Metacentric Submetacentric Acrocentric Telocentric

V-shaped J-shaped L-shaped I-shaped

Karyogram

• It is the arrangement of chromosomes of an individual, usually in decreasing order of the size.

• The image of the chromosomes for karyogram are generally taken at the metaphase stage.

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The image shows the karyogram of human male (23rd pair is XY). Characteristics such as arms
(either long, short, or equi-length), centromere (its location, either the centre, the tip, or slightly
above the centre), and structure of the chromosomes can be clearly seen here. This study also
helps in detecting any abnormalities in the chromosomes such as duplication or deletion of the
whole or a part of the chromosomes.

Anaphase

• The centromere splits.

• The sister chromatids separate into two identical and independent chromosomes.
• Each chromatid now has its own centromere.
• The spindle fibres pull the chromatids along with the centromere towards their respective poles.
•T he chromatids move to opposite poles (Half of them reach one pole and the other half reach
the other).
•D uring migration, the centromere of chromosomes face towards the poles. The chromatids or
arms of chromosomes trail behind.
Sister chromatids move
Chromosomes at the equatorial plane towards opposite poles

Chromatids moving to opposite poles

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Telophase

• Chromosomes cluster at opposite poles.

• They start decondensing into chromatin fibres and their individuality is lost as discrete elements.
• The nucleolus, ER, and Golgi apparatus reappear.
• The nuclear envelope develops around the chromatin at each pole, forming two daughter nuclei.

Daughter nuclei

Formation of two daughter nuclei during telophase

Cytokinesis

• Cell furrow formation

→ In animal cells, cytokinesis is achieved by the
formation of a furrow. Cleavage furrow
→F  urrow appears in the plasma membrane and
deepens towards the centre in a centripetal
fashion.
→F  urrows from both the sides join at the centre,
dividing the cytoplasm into two.
→T  he formation of cell furrow is aided by
microfilaments and microtubules. Cleavage furrow formation

• Cell plate formation

→ In plant cells, wall formation starts at the centre of the cell and grows outwards.
→T  he formation of the new cell wall begins with the formation of a cell plate.
→F  ragments from the Golgi complex, which are known as vesicles, fuse together to form cell
plates.
→T  he cell plate is laid in a centrifugal manner.
→T  he cell plate represents the middle lamella between the walls of two adjacent cells.
→M  itochondria and plastids get distributed between the two daughter cells.

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Cell plate Cell plate formation in plant cells

→S
 yncytium: It refers to a multinucleate condition resulting from the absence of cytokinesis
after karyokinesis.
◆T  he coconut water that we drink is an example of syncytium.
◆ It is the liquid endosperm that was formed due to free nuclear divisions without cell divisions.

Syncytium of coconut

Significance of Mitosis

(a) G
 rowth: Mitosis causes growth and
development in multicellular organisms.
→P lants can grow from a tiny zygote to
huge lengths due to mitosis.

Growth of a plant from a zygote to a big tree

(b) S
 urface area to volume ratio:Maintenance of proper surface area to volume ratio of a cell.
(c) R
 epair: The old and worn-out cells are replaced by new cells.
(d) R
 eproduction: Unicellular organisms reproduce (multiply) through mitosis.
→ In unicellular organisms, reproduction is synonymous with growth.
(e) R
 egeneration: Mitosis causes cell growth that causes the revival of the lost body parts in
animals such as starfish, Planaria, the tail of a lizard, etc.

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Cell Cycle Checkpoints

•T  he process of cell division needs unmatched accuracy.

•T  his is achieved by periodic checks before proceeding to next phase.
•T  he decision of a cell to divide occurs in the G1 phase.
• If a cell does not want to divide, then it will enter into the quiescent phase or G0 phase.
•T  he cell checks for the conditions in each phase.
•T  he regulation of the cell cycle takes place by certain protein molecules known as cyclins and
kinases.

Metaphase checkpoint G1 checkpoint

Check for Check for

•C
 hromosome spindle attachment •N
 utrients •G
 rowth factors
•D
 NA damage

G2 checkpoint

Check for M
•C
 ell size •D
 NA replication
G2
G1

S
DNA synthesis
G0

Cyclins and CDK

• Cyclins are proteins that bind to and activate the cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs).
• Cyclin-CDK complexes control the progression of a cell from one phase to the next phase of the
cell cycle.
•A  stage-specific cyclin binds to a CDK and takes the cell through a checkpoint. To move to the
next phase, the previous cyclin is degraded and a new cyclin specific for the next stage binds to
CDK, and the cell progresses into the next phase.

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Start of M phase

G2/M phase cyclin Degradation of

G2 /M phase cyclin

CDK M CDK
Degradation of
S phase cyclin G2 G1 G1 /S phase cyclin

Start of S phase
S phase progression CDK
Degradation of
S phase cyclin G1 /S phase cyclin

Cancer

•T  he abnormal and uncontrolled division of

cells is known as cancer.
•T  he uncontrolled division gives rise to a mass
of cells known as tumors.
• As the tumor grows, new blood vessels are
formed around it to supply blood. This process
is known as angiogenesis.
•C  ancer cells compete with normal cells for
Division of cancer cells
food, oxygen, and space.
•T  hey may replace cells of a vital organ and evade immune cells, produce chemicals that can kill
normal cells, etc.

Angiogenesis

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•G
 enetic mutations that may occur during the
replication of DNA can cause cancer.
 hese mutations cause irreversible changes
•T
in the sequence of nucleotides in DNA. Uncontrolled
cell
 hese mutations can cause malfunctioning
•T Normal proliferation
of the regulatory processes or check points cell
resulting in the following: division
→ ‘Molecular switch’ for mitosis being turned
permanently on
→P  ermitting uncontrolled multiplication of the
cell
→L  eads to carcinogenesis or tumor
development.
 hemical, physical, and biological agents that cause cancer are known as carcinogens.
•C
→E  xamples: Radiation (ultraviolet), smoking, pesticides, viruses (for example, human
papilloma virus), alcohol, and other chemicals such as soot, cadmium oxide, vinyl chloride, etc.
 ome cancer drugs control cell division by inhibiting the spindle fibre formation.
•S

NORMAL CELLS

CANCEROUS CELLS

Abnormal
Nucleus that number of
Many cells that Variation in Cluster of cells
is larger and chromosomes
continue to grow shapes and sizes without a
darker than arranged in a
and divide of the cells boundary
normal disorganized
fashion

Normal cells vs cancerous cells

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Summary Sheet

Significance
Metaphase checkpoint Cancer • Growth
G1 checkpoint • Uncontrolled cell division • Maintenance of surface area
G2 checkpoint to volume ratio
•C hemical and physical agents
known as carcinogens and • Repair
mutations are for cancer
• Reproduction
Checkpoint • Regeneration

Mitosis

Karyokinesis Cytokinesis

Karyon = Nucleus Cytos = Cell

Kinesis = Movement Kinesis = Movement
It is the division of the nucleus. It is the division of the cytoplasm.

Prophase Cell furrow formation

•C
 ondensation of chromatin Observed in animals
fibres
•N
 uclear membrane degenerates
Cell plate formation
Observed in plants
Metaphase
•C
 hromosomes are attached to
spindle fibres.
•C
 hromosomes are arranged in
the equatorial plane.

Anaphase
•C
 entromere splits and
chromatids separate.
•C
 hromatids move to opposite
poles.

Telophase
•C hromosome reach the poles
• Disappearance of spindle fibres
• Decondensation of chromosomes

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