Chapter 5 - chromosomes

They were called chromosomes

Chromosomes are made of one long, because "chromo" means colored and
condensed DNA molecule associated "somes" means bodies.
with proteins (in eukaryotes).

. The main proteins are globular

proteins called histones, their roles is to
organize and Condense the DNA tightly
so that it fits into the nucleus.

. The tightly coiled combination of DNA

and histones is called nucleosome.
→ The nucleosome folds and coils to
form chromatin fibers. The two identical chromatids of one
chromosome are known as sister
The chromatin fiber further coils to chromatids.
make chromatin.
Centromere is the length of DNA
that doesn't code for anything, it
only holds the sister chromatids
together.

Loci is the location of a gene on a

chromosome; Every gene has a
specific locus on a specific
chromosome
Telomere: prevents the shortening of
the coding sequence in the
chromosome, as chromosomes
shorten every division.
DNA is coiled around histone proteins They do this by coiling and creating a
to make chromatin. cap at the tips of chromosomes
The tightly coiled combination of DNA preventing the ends from sticking
and proteins is called chromatin – this with neighboring molecules.
is what chromatids, and therefore Telomeres are very rich in (G & C)
chromosomes, are made of. pairs.
 The mitotic cell cycle
• Interphase ①
→ G1: cell growth and protein synthesis
→ S: DNA replication ( duplication of
centrioles ). ②
→ G2: cell growth, protein synthesis

• M phase (mitosis) ③
① prophase
② metaphase ④
③ anaphase
④ telophase
• Cytokinesis

① - chromatin coils up, becoming shorter

and thicker; visible as two sister chromatids.
- centrosomes move to the opposite poles of
the cell.
- nuclear envelope breaks down into small
vesicles.
- nucleolus breaks down “disappear".
② - chromosomes line up across the
equator of the cell; they are aached by
their centromeres to the spindle.
③ - each chromosome splits (in half) at
the centromere; the chromatids start to
be pulled apart by microtubules.
- the microtubules shorten by geing
hydrolyzed. ( removing tubulin ).

* Immediately aer cytokinesis the two ④ - chromatids reach of the spindle;

resulting cells are genetically identical, - chromosomes uncoil again
but are not equal. - nucleolus re appears and nuclear
envelope re-formes.
- the spindle breaks down.
- cytokinesis (the division of the cytoplasm).
 Centrosome, Centriole, Centromere The role of telomeres
•Kinetochore: protein structure found on * Telomeres are the repetitive DNA sequence;
the centromere of chromatids to which The repetitive part is (TTAGGG).
microtubules aach. Two kinetochores at * Telomerase is an enzyme that lengthens the
the centromere on each chromatid telomeres (adds sequence to the telomere)
during metaphase.
* In stem cells and cancer cells telomeres do
not shorten.
•Microtubules extend from the kinetochore
to the poles of the spindle. The role of stem cells
Stem cells are unspecialised cells that divide
by mitosis an unlimited number of times;
each cell has the potential to remain as a
stem cell or to develop into a specialized
cell(e.g. Red blood cell or a muscle cell) by a
process known as dierentiation.
Tax

This ability of stem cells to dierentiate into

more specialized cell types is known as potency.

There are four levels of potency:

The importance of mitosis ◦Totipotent stem cells - are stem cells
that can dierentiate into any cell type,
→ Growth of multicellular organisms eg. The zygote formed when a sperm cell
•The two daughter cells produced are genetically fertilises an egg cell is totipotent, as are
identical to one another and have the same the embryonic cells up to the 16-cell stage
number of chromosomes as the parent cell. of human embryo development.
•This enables unicellular zygotes to grow into
multicellular organisms. ◦Pluripotent stem cells - are embryonic
stem cells that can dierentiate into any
→ Replacement of cells & repair of tissues cell type found in an embryo but are not
•Damaged tissues can be repaired by mitosis able to dierentiate into extra-embryonic
followed by cell division. cells (cells that make up the placenta).
•As cells are constantly dying they need to be ◦Multipotent stem cells - are adult stem
continually replaced by genetically identical cells.
cells that have lost some of the potency
→ Asexual reproduction associated with embryonic stem cells and
•is the production of new individuals of a species are no longer pluripotent; they can
by a single parent organism – the ospring are dierentiate into a limited range of cell
genetically identical to the parent.
types.
→Immune response ◦ Unipotency - unipotent stem cells are
•The cloning of B- and T-lymphocytes during the cells that can only produce one type of
immune response is dependent on mitosis. specialized cell (e.g. The stem cell that
makes the red blood cells).
 Cancer It is only tumours that spread through the
body, invading and destroying other tissues
Cancers illustrate the importance of that cause cancer. These are known as
controlling cell division precisely, because malignant tumour.
cancers are A result of uncontrolled
mitosis. Malignant tumor cells can break of the
Cancerous cells divide repeatedly and tumor and travel through the blood and/or
form a tumour, which is an irregular mass lymphatic system to form secondary
of cells. growths in other parts of the body.
The spreading of cancer in this way is
Cancers start when changes occur in the known as metastasis.
genes that control cell division. A change in
any gene is known as a mutation. If the Metastasis is very dangerous as it can be
mutated gene is one that causes cancer it very diicult to detect, locate and remove
is referred to as an oncogene. secondary cancers.

◦Mutations are common events and don’t

lead to cancer most of the time
◦Most mutations either result in early cell
death or result in the cell being destroyed
by the body’s immune system
◦As most cells can be easily replaced,
these events usually have no harmful
eect on the body

Cancer cells manage to escape both cell

No programmed
death and destruction so, although the cell death.
mutation may originally occur in only one
cell, it is passed on to all that cell's
descendants.
Angeogensis: is the process when a tumor
draws a blood vessel and lymph vessel to
provide it with blood and get access to the
blood/nutrients.
Carcinogens are any agents that may
cause cancer (eg. UV light, tar in tobacco
smoke and X-rays). If the agent causes
cancer it is described as carcinogenic.
Some tumours (such as warts) do not
spread from their original site- these
are known as benign tumours and do
not cause cancer.
Chapter 6 - nucleic acid and
protein synthesis The structure of ATP
Nucleic acids such as DNA ATP it consists of a nitrogenous
( deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA base, 3 phosphates, adenosine and
(ribonucheic acid) are macromolecules. ribose sugar.
Polymer= poly nucleotide (Condensation
Adenosine triphosphate is the energy-
reaction). carrying molecule that provides the
Monomer= nucleotide energy to drive many processes inside
Bonds= 1. Between two adjacent cells.
nucleotides: phosphodiester bond.
2. Between complimentary base pairs: It is a phosphorylated nucleotide,
hydrogen bonds. adenosine triphosphate can be combined
with more than one phosphate group:
A nucleotide consists of: . Adenosine monophosphate
1. Phosphate Group . Adenosine diphosphate
2. Pentose sugar ( 5 carbons ) . Adenosine triphosphate
3. Nitrogenous base

In DNA: In RNA:
Deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar
• Adenine • Adenine Purines & Pyramidines
• cytosine • cytosine
• guanine • guanine The nitrogenous base molecules that are
• thymine • uracil found in the nucleotides of DNA (A, T, C, G)
and RNA (A, U, C, G) occur in two structural
Double-stranded Single-stranded forms: purines and pyrimidines.
(Double helix)
The bases adenine and guanine are
* A phosphodiester bond lies between purines – they have a double ring
the carbon number 3 of the sugar in structure.
one nucleotide and carbon number 5 The bases cytosine, thymine and uracil
the of next sugar of the next are pyrimidines – they have a single ring
nucleotide. structure.
 The structure of DNA
. made of two polynucleotide chains.
. chains coil around to form a double
helix.
. The chains run in opposite directions -
they are antiparallel.
. Each strand is made of a phosphate
sugar backbone and bases.
. Adenine (A) always pairs with thymine (T).
. Guanine (G) always pairs with cytosine (C).
(The complementary base pairs)
. A links with T by 2 hydrogen bonds; G
links with C by 3 hydrogen bonds.
. The distance between the two backbones
① DNA double helix unwinds, the hydrogen
is constant and three rings wide.
bond is broken, and the two strands are
. The phosphate group and deoxyribose
separate.
sugar are arranged alternatively.
② Activated deoxyribonucleotides will form
The structure of RNA hydrogen bonds with complementary base
• Made of single polynucleotide strand. pairs.
. Adenine (A) always pairs with uracil (U). -Every strand will act as a template and a
. Guanine (G) always pairs with cytosine (C). new strand forms accordingly.
. The phosphate group and ribose sugar ③ DNA polymerase will catalyse the
are arranged alternatively. formation of phosphordieter bonds
between adjacent deoxyribonucleotides.
DNA replication -A new complementary strand is formed.
Occurs in the nucleus during S phase of
interphase; requires ATP.

Enzymes needed
• Helicase: to break H bonds to separate 2
DNA strands.
• DNA polymerase: to synthesise a new
strand of DNA, to catalyst the formation
of phosphodiester bond (inserts
nucleotides).
• DNA ligase: to join DNA fragments
together, to catalyse the formation of
phosphodiester bonds.
* DNA polymerase only works in the 5' to The genetic code
3' direction, this means that DNA
• it is a three-leer code, each sequence of
polymerase is only able to add
three bases codes for one amino acid.
nucleotides starting from the 3' end of
•These triplets are known as codons.
the new strand.
• some of these triplets of bases code for
. The leading is strand replicated
start and stop signals.
continuously in the 3' to 5' direction.
• the code is universal; each triplet codes
. The second strand which is called the
for the same amino acid in all living things.
lagging strand is replicated
• There are four bases so there are 64
discontinuously in the 5' to 3' direction.
dierent triplets possible yet there are
→ this means it is replicated in short only 20 amino acids that commonly occur
sections forming Okazaki fragments. in biological proteins. This results in multiple
• the Okazaki fragments are joined codons coding for the same amino acids
together with DNA ligase. thus the code is said to be degenerate.

Protein Synthesis
Protein synthesis is the process in which
polypeptide chains are synthesised from
DNA in the ribosomes.
 Transcription Translation
① DNA molecule unwinds( the hydrogen ① RNA binds to the ribosome
bonds between the complementary base ② tRNA carries a specific amino acid to
pairs break); when the 2 strands are the ribosome, tRNA binds to the large
separate, free activated ribonucleotides subunit of the ribosome, this tRNA has
bases will form hydrogen bonds with specific anti codon for a specific amino
complementary bases on the DNA acid. The anti codon of tRNA is
strand. (Only one strand acts as a complementary to the codon on mRNA;
template; it can be called a template they will form temporary hydrogen bonds
strand or a transcribed strand). with their complementary bases.
② RNA polymerase will catalyse the ③ A second tRNA molecule with a specific
formation of phosphodiester bonds amino acid binds to the next codon on
between the activated ribonucleotides; it mRNA, those 2 tRNA's will hold the amino
catalyses the formation of primary RNA acids in place side by side for peptide
from DNA. bond to form.
③ the RNA molecule leaves the DNA and ④ Peptidyl transferase in the ribosome
the DNA rewinds and form hydrogen catalyses the formation of peptide bonds.
bonds again. ⑤ the ribosome moves along mRNA one
→ the RNA formed is primary RNA and codon at a time, the direction of this
contains non-coding sequence that must movement is from 5' to 3’.
be removed before it leaves the nucleus.
④ In RNA splicing the non-coding
sequence called introns are going to be
removed and the coding sequence called
exons are going to be joined together to
form matured messenger RNA.
⑤ the mRNA leaves the nucleus through
nuclear pores to the ribosomes.
 From triplets to codons to Missene:
anticodons to polypeptide • the base pair changes, and introduces
a new amino acid to the polypeptide
• Triplets are 3 bases on the DNA; each chain.
triplet codes for a specific amino acid.
• (T,A,C) is the start codon on the DNA. -

't b
G
• (A,T,C) (A,T,T) (A,C,T) are the 3 stop triplets (G,T,G) codes for (His) and
G T T
(G,T,T) codes for (Gln).
on the DNA. -
→ when the RNA reaches the stop codon,
it will transcribe it and leave.
• the start codon on the RNA is (A,U,G). Nonsense:
• The stop codons on the RNA can be: • the base pair changes, and it introduces
(U,A,G) (U,A,A) (U,G,A). an early stop codon in mRNA; this results in
pre mature ending, creating a short
DNA polypeptide chain.

Accgc
at
-

I
A C G
.

(A,C,G) codes for cytosine and

AUG A C T
(A,C,T) codes for a STOP codon.

....
31 -

Gene mutations Deletion:

A gene mutation is a change in the • one or more base pair gets deleted
sequence of base pairs in a DNA causing the base pairs to shi.
molecule that may result in an altered
polypeptide.
2 types of gene mutation:
• Base substitution mutation
(Silent, missene, nonsense).
• Frame shi mutation
(Deletion, insertion).
Silent: Insertion:
• the base pair changes but it does not • one or more base pair gets added to the
aect the polypeptide chain as it codes chain, causing the base pairs to shi.
for the same amino acid.

T (C,G,A) and (C,G,G) both code

for alanine.
CGG
-
I -
 Dierent tissues in plants Vascular tissues in dierent tissues
• vascular (phloem, xylem). ① The roots
• functional (parenchyma, collenchyma, • The vascular tissues are central.
sclerenchyma).
• specialized epidermal (stomata, root
hair cell, epidermal).

② The stem
• The vascular tissues are in bundles,
and The bundles are peripheral.

③ The leaf
• The vascular tissues are peripheral,
xylem is facing the upper epidermis.
 Structure of xylem
• Xylem vessel transports water and • from cortex cell to endodermis:
minerals from roots to shoots. ~ The endodermis has suberised cells.
~ suberin is a chemical substance that
• Xylem tissue is made up of: is hydrophobic, it accumulates in
- xylem vessel endodermis cell walls.
- tracheids
- parenchyma
- sclerenchyma
Xylem vessel elements:
• Dead and hollow, reduces resistance
to the flow of water.
• No organelles, to provide maximum
space and minimum resistance.
• Thick cell walls + lignified, prevents
the inward collapse of xylem vessel.
• Pith, allow the lateral movement of
water.
• Large lumen, reduces resistance to
the flow of water.
• Lack of end walls, reduces
resistance to the flow of water.

Movement of water
• from soil to root hair cell: ~ partial suberisation:
~ soil has a higher water potential 1- band of Suberin forms
than the cytoplasm. 2- only apoplast pathway blocked
~ the water moves down the water 3- only symplast pathway available
potential gradient, from soil to root
hair cell by osmosis. ~ complete suberisation:
1- cell wall will be completely filled with
• from root hair cell to context cell: Suberin blocking both symplast and
~ root hair cell has higher water apoplast pathway.
potential than the cortex cell.
~ water moves down the water
potential gradient, it can move by • This arrangement is thought to:
apoplast or symplast pathway. ~ give plants control over what mineral
ions can pass into xylem vessels.
~ may help with root pressure.
 • from endodermis to xylem: • when water reaches xylem vessel it will
~ by diusion. leave through diusion.
• when water is moving from xylem to
• what helps water move up the xylem mesophyll it can use apoplast and
vessel: symplast pathway.
1- cohesion and adhesion properties of *NOTE: xylem vessel elements are
water. elongated cells that are joined end to
2- root pressure (passage cells). end to form a continuous xylem vessel.
3- transpiration pull.

• movement of water up xylem vessel:

~ when transpiration occurs in the
leaf it will reduce the water potential
in the leaf creating the water
potential gradient between root and
leaf, in addition to the tension that
results from the adhesion of water
and the hydrophilic part of lignin,
and the cohesion between water
molecules, all these factors together
lead to the formation of continuous
column of water.
Xerophytes
Transpiration Adaptations:
~ The water potential in the 1. leaves reduced to spikes or spines
atmosphere surrounding The leaf is ~ reduce surface area → reduces
less than the water potential of the
transpiration rate → reduction in water
air spaces.
loss.
2. fleshy/ succulent leaves
→ As a result, water vapor will diuse ~ help store water for the days when
from the air spaces to the water is in short supply.
atmosphere through open stomata. 3. rolled leaf
~ Water evaporates from the cell walls ~ traps moisture → increases water
of mesophyll cells ( esp. Spongy
mesophyll) to the air spaces. potential in roof → reduces the gradient
in the atmosphere and the inside of the
leaf → leads to less transpiration rate
and less water loss.
4. thick waxy cuticle
~ reduces evaporation of water from • companion cells help phloem
the surface of the leaves. transport sap and is responsible
5. less number of stomata for the loading of sucrose into
~ lower transpiration rate → less the sieve tube.
water loss. Phloem seive tube elements:
6. stomata on the upper epidermis (in • cell walls made up of cellulose,
rolled leaves) support.
~ lowers the water potential gradient • perforated end walls (seive plate), to
→ reduces transpiration rate → less reduce the resistance of the flow of
water loss. sap & to prevent the bulging of the
7. sunken stomata (in crypts) vessel (outwalls).
~ stomata will be on the boom → • living cells: RER makes proteins,
traps moisture → reduces water plasma membrane for the
movement of water in & out of the
potential gradient → reduces water vessel by osmosis.
loss. • thin peripheral cytoplasm, reduce
8. Trichomes the resistance to the flow of sap.
~ traps moisture → reduces water
potential gradient → reduces
transpiration rate → less water loss.
9. multilayer epidermis
~ reduces the rate of evaporation
~ reduces the intake of sunlight.
10. Stomata open at night and close
during the day
~ reduce the rate of transpiration →
reduce water loss.

Structure of phloem
• phloem tissue transports water and Movement in phloem
assimilates (sucrose & amino acids)
Translocation: the transport of assimilates
dissolved in water from sources to sinks.
from source to sink and requires ATP.
• phloem tissue is made up of: * sucrose moves in both apoplast &
- phloem sieve tube element symplast by diusion until it reaches
- companion cells companion cells.
 The sucrose loading mechanism
By apoplast: ~ since the sieve tubes have
• companion cells pump hydrogen ions membranes this results the increase
out of the cytoplasm via a proton pump in hydrostatic pressure in sieve tube.
and into their cell wall. (Active process)
→ this leads to higher proton Near the sink:
concentration in cell wall than the • The sink cells are using up/storing the
cytoplasm. sucrose, this leads to lower
• this creates a proton concentration concentration in the sink compared to
gradient that is used by co-transporters sieve tube.
to move protons & sucrose. → this leads to sucrose moving from
companion cell to sink cell by apoplast
~ protons: will move back into the
& symplast pathways (diusion)
companion cell cytoplasm down The
• when sucrose leaves the sieve tube it
concentration gradient by facilitated
lowers the concentration of sucrose
diusion through the sucrose co-
transporter. → thus leading to higher water
~ sucrose: is transported through the potential in the sieve tube.
sucrose co-transporter from the cell → as a result water moves out of the
wall to cytoplasm by secondary active sieve tube by osmosis, the hydrostatic
transport. (against concentration pressure decreases in sieve tube.
gradient)
sucrose is loaded into phloem sieve
tube by diusion from cytoplasm of
companion cell through
plasmodesmata.
Mass flow
Near the source:
• The sucrose is actively loaded from
companion cell to phloem sieve tube
→ this increases the concentration
of sucrose in the sieve tube so
decreases the water potential in the
sieve tube.
→ as a result of the decreased
water potential, water will move *NOTE: The phloem sap will move from
from the near xylem vessel into the the area of high hydrostatic pressure to
sieve tube by osmosis. area of lower hydrostatic pressure.
The mammalian circulatory system 3 layers in arteries and veins
In one complete circuit of the body ① Tunica intima ( endothelium):
blood passes through the heart twice. • elastic fibres
. one cell thick layer of squamous
It consists of:
epithelial cells
• The heart
• The blood vessels ② Tunica media:
• The blood • collagen
• smooth muscle
• elastic fibres
③ Tunica externa:
• collagen
• elastic fibre

Blood vessels
Arteries: closer to the heart.
Structure:
• oval shape
• the tunica media is thick → withstand
the high pressure of blood.
• narrow lumen → ensures blood
remains at high pressure, which also
providing resistance to blood flow to
Pulmonary circulation: allow gas exchange as blood passes.
Movement of blood from heart to lung • collagen: helps the artery withstand
and back to heart. pressure.
Systematic circulation: • elastic fibre: allow vessel to stretch
Movement of blood from heart to the and recoil to with stand pressure and
rest of body and back to heart. help smoothing out pulsatile flow.
• smooth muscle: contract and relax to
Artery: transport blood away from maintain blood flow and control the
the heart at high pressures; arterioles amount of blood reaching the tissues.
are smaller arteries. Contract: lumen of artery gets smaller
Capillary: smallest & thinnest blood (vasoconstriction) → reduces blood
vessel to allow exchange of substances. flow.
Relax: lumen of artery gets wider
Vein: returns low pressure blood back
to the heart; venule’s are smaller (vasodilation) → increase blood flow.
veins.
Muscular arteries:
- the further away from the heart
the more muscular the arteries will
become.
Function: - maintain blood flow by
vasoconstriction & vasodilation.
Elastic arteries:
- the closer to the heart the
more elastic the arteries will
become. Veins: capillaries join together to form
Function: venules which join to form veins.
- withstand pressure and Structure:
smooth out the pulsatile flow.
• large lumen - reduces friction which
otherwise would slow down blood
movement.
• thinner walls - blood flowing through
veins is under very low pressure.
• no distinct shape
• contains valves - prevents backflow of
blood; allow blood moving toward the
heart and closes pathway when blood
travels in opposite direction.
• skeletal muscles - when these muscles
Capillaries: branched arterioles into contract, they squeeze inwards on the
smaller blood vessels (5-10 µm). veins temporarily raising the pressure
• made of squamous epithelial cells. within them.
Features:
• one cell thick → short diusion
distance.
• small gaps between the cells in the
walls of capillary → more diusion.
• have large surface area → more
diusion. ( decreases the blood
pressure)
• small lumen diameter → slow down
blood → more diusion.
 Tissue fluid Lymph vessels
• A fluid that bathes the cells in the • Lymph vessels go in parallel with
tissues, it's the real medium for veins, they end in the vein very close
exchange of waste & nutrients. to the heart.
→ formed from the plasma that • Large molecules that are not able to
leaks from the gaps of capillary. pass through the capillary wall enter
the lymphatic system as lymph.
• The movement of lymph within is
gonna be by the contraction of
muscles, any backflow is prevented
by values.
• Around the intestine there are a lot
of lymph vessels to transport lipids.
• Lymph nodes: are check points that
has lymphocytes in them (their
receptors detect antigen).
• If a tumor forms and pushes
At the arterial end of capillary: against lymph vessel it will block it
• there is a high concentration of causing oedema.
solute in the capillary, as a result we
have a solute concentration gradient - 90% of tissue fluid will return through
this causes the water to move into veins, the other 10% will return as
the capillary (down the water lymph through lymph vessel.
potential gradient).
• the hydrostatic pressure within the Blood
capillary is high relatively, as a result
we have a hydrostatic pressure
gradient this causes the water to
move out of the capillary.
• AS a result of both forces the net
movement of water is gonna be out
of the capillary.
At the venous end of capillary:
• the hydrostatic pressure within
the capillary is low, but the solute
concentration is high.
• As a result, the net movement of
water is gonna be into the
capillary.
 Cells of the blood Lymphocytes: a type of phagocyte.
Neutrophil: a type of phagocyte. → B-lymphocytes: produce antibodies,
Function: phagocytosis they mature in bone narrow.
- it accumulates in the site of infection → T-lymphocytes: (killer or helper)
to fight the infection by phagocytosis. doesn't produce antibodies, they
→ phagocytosis have receptors on mature in thymus gland ( that is near
their plasma membrane that helps the heart).
identify cell and non-cell antigen. Structure: big round nucleus that
Structure: multi-lobed nucleus and has occupies most of the cell and doesn't
granular cytoplasm (contains have granules.
lysozomes).

Monocytes: a type of phagocyte.

→ monocytes mature only when they Red blood cells: transports oxygen
leave the blood vessel.
Features: *has a bi concave shape →
→ when monocytes leave the blood
increases surface area → higher
vessel it dierentiates into
diusion rate.
macrophages.
Structure: its nucleus is lobed (kidney *No nucleus or organelles → more
bean shape) and has granular space for hemoglobin → more
cytoplasm. oxygen-carrying capacity.
* flexible and small→ fit through
capillaries.
* have a short live span.
 Haemoglobin The oxygen dissociation curve
• Binds with oxygen in the lungs and
leaves the oxygen at the body tissue.
• Each molecule of haemoglobin
contains 4 haem groups, each able to
bind with one molecule of oxygen (8
oxygen atoms in total).
• when oxygen binds to haemoglobin,
oxyhaemoglobin is formed.

4O2 + Hb Hb4O2
The molecular level shows the
cooperative binding:
• The binding of the first oxygen
molecule changes the (3D) shape of
haemoglobin, making it easier for each
successive oxygen molecule to bind.
The physiological level: (Describe &
explain the graph) shows the binding
and dissociation of haemoglobin:
• At the respiring tissue we have low
partial pressure of oxygen and the
ainity of haemoglobin towards * The higher the partial pressure of
oxygen is at its lowest, the oxygen the faster the reaction.
haemoglobin dissociates from oxygen
that is binded to. Q/ Why is the line not linear?
• At the lung we have high partial • Because haemoglobin has ainity
pressure of oxygen and the ainity towards the oxygen, this ainity
of haemoglobin towards oxygen is at increases as the partial pressure
its highest so oxygen binds to increases.
hemoglobin easily. • When the first oxygen binds to
• At medium partial pressure of haemoglobin it changes the shape
oxygen, oxygen binds more easily to making it easier for second, third and
haemoglobin and saturation fourth oxygen to bind to it.
increases quickly; at this point on the
graph a small increase in partial
pressure of oxygen causes a large
increase in haemoglobin saturation.
Carbon dioxide: only aects the • At each partial pressure of oxygen,
ainity of haemoglobin towards the hemoglobin is less saturated than
oxygen (it doesn't bind to haemoglobin. it would be at a low partial pressure
• The eect of partial pressure of of carbon dioxide.
carbon dioxide on the ainity of
haemoglobin towards oxygen is called
the Bohr eect or Bohr shi.

The Bohr shi

• When we have high partial pressure
of carbon dioxide the oxygen
dissociation curve will shi to the right,
and the ainity of haemoglobin
towards oxygen decreases.
Carbonic anhydrase: is an enzyme
found in the red blood cells, it catalyses
The reaction of carbon dioxide with
water to produce carbonic acid also
catalyses the breakdown of carbonic
acid to carbon dioxide and water.
The chloride shi
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 = H+ + HCO3- • The hydrogen carbonate ion diuses
• The carbonic acid dissociates into out of red blood cell by facilitated
hydrogen ion and hydrogen diusion into the blood plasma, since
carbonate. these ions have negative charge, to
• The hydrogen ion will bind to balance their movement the chloride
haemoglobin to produce ions move from the blood plasma into
oxyhaemoglobinic acid this makes the the red blood cell.
haemoglobin to release the oxygen The chloride shi helps to prevent the
which it is carrying. overall charge inside the cell from
• Haemoglobin has higher ainity becoming too positive, if the chloride
towards hydrogen ion than oxygen. shi did not happen, the hydrogen
• It removes excess hydrogen ions ions would accumulate the inside of
from solution because it produces a red blood cell developing an overall
low pH, which would make the blood positive charge.
acidic if not removed.
• Haemoglobin helps to maintain the
pH of the blood close to neutral by
acting as a buer.
 Carbon dioxide transport • Septum: The layer of tissue that
• 85% as hydrogen carbonate ions in separates the oxygenated blood and
the blood plasma. deoxygenated blood.
• 5% as dissolved carbon dioxide • The upper chamber on each side of the
molecules in the blood plasma. heart is called an atrium (atria) it
• 10% as carbinohaemoglobin. receives low-pressure blood from the
veins.
• The lower chambers are ventricles it
receives blood from the atria and then
pushes into the arteries.
• atrioventricular value: a value between
the atria and ventricles that closes
when the ventricles contract and stops
the backflow of blood into the atria.
→ bicuspid (mitral) value is on the le
side of the heart.
→ tricuspid value is on The right side of
the heart.
The structure of the heart • pulmonary artery: carries
deoxygenated blood from the heart to
the lungs (Pulmonary circulation).
• pulmonary vein: carries oxygenated
blood from the lungs to the heart
(pulmonary circulation).
• Aorta: carries oxygenated blood from
the heart to the rest of the body.
• Vena cava: carries deoxygenated blood
from the body to the heart.

The cardiac cycle

The cardiac cycle: the sequence of
Cardiac muscle: The type of muscle events that takes place during one
that makes up the walls of the heart. heart beat.
Coronary arteries: arteries that • Valves only open/close under the
branch from the aorta and spread eect of relative/ dierence in
over the walls of the heart, supplying pressure, used to prevent the
the cardiac muscle with nutrients and backflow of blood.
oxygen.
• The contraction of the heart is called Analyzing the cardiac cycle
systole, while the relaxation of the
heart is called diastole.
Atrial systole: (0.1 second)
• The walls of the atria contract.
• The pressure in the atria rises above
that in the ventricles, forcing the
atrioventricular values open
(semilunar valves are closed).
• The ventricles relax as they receive
the blood from the atria ( ventricular
diastole coincides with atrial systole.
Ventricular systole: (0.3 second)
• The walls of the ventricles contract.
• The pressure in the ventricles rises
above that in the atria, forcing the
atrioventricular values to close
preventing backflow of blood.
• The pressure in the ventricles rises
above that in the aorta and
pulmonary artery forcing the
semilunar values open so blood is
forced into the arteries and out of
the heart. Between points A and B - atrial systole
Point B - beginning of ventricular
Diastole: (0.4 second) systole
• The ventricles and atria are both Point C - ventricular systole
relaxed. Point D - beginning of diastole
• The pressure in the ventricles drop Between points D and E - early diastole
below that in the aorta and Point E - diastole
pulmonary artery forcing the Aer point E - late diastole
semilunar values to close.
• The atria continue to fill with blood, • line in aorta never drops, it's always
the pressure in the atria rises above high (80-120).
that in the ventricles, forcing the > aorta is on the le side
atrioventricular valves to open, → • pressure + valves → represented in
blood flows passively into the intersects.
ventricles → the cycle then begins Bub → closing of atrioventricular value.
again with atrial systole. Dub → closing of semilunar value.
 Control of heartbeat The atrioventricular node (AVN):
• cardiac muscles are myogenic • Is a region of conductive tissue
Myogenic: a word used to describe between the atria & ventricle.
muscle tissue that contracts and • Acts as a relay station, prevents the
relaxes even when there is no atria & ventricles from contracting at
stimulation from a nerve. the same time.
3- There is a time delay of about 0.1
Q/ how is the cardiac cycle initiated
and coordinated? second → allows atria to empty &
• Wave of exitation/electrical impulse ventricles to fill
is passed through the: 4- AVN passes the excitation wave to
purkyne tissues.
① Sinoatrial node (SAN)
② Atrioventricular node (AVN) The purkyne tissue:
③ Purkyne tissue • Tiny bundles of connecting fibres,
that conduct the wave of excitation
The sinoatrial node (SAN): down through the septum of the
• a patch of cardiac muscle in the heart to the base (apex) of the
right atrium of the heart, the SAN ventricles.
sets a rhythm for the rest of the 5- Signals are sent down the septum
heart muscle. via the bundle of Hiss
1- SAN sends out waves of 6- bundle of hiss triggers purkyne
exitation/electrical impulses. tissue in the wall of the ventricles.
2- Impulses spread across atria 7- Ventricles contract and blood is
→ both atria contract forced into the arteries.
simultaneously resulting in atrial
systole.
• The non-conducting bundle of
fibre between the atria & ventricle
prevents impulses from reaching
the ventricle.
→ so atria & ventricle do not
conduct at the same time.
 Gas exchange Trachea:
The gas exchange system is • Allows movement of air into and out
responsible for the uptake of oxygen of the lungs.
into the blood and the excretion of Features:
carbon dioxide. • lumen
The gas exchange surface in the • ciliated pseudo stratified epithelial
lungs is extensive, very thin, well cells
supplied with blood and well • submucosa
ventilated. • C-shape hyaline cartilage
• smooth muscle
• connective tissue

>

Goblet cells & Mucous gland: produce

mucus → mucus traps pathogens, dust,
etc.
Cilia: cilia move mucus to back of throat/
away from lungs → to be swallowed.
Cartilage: Keeps airway opens → low air
resistance.
Prevents airway from collapsing during
breathing due to changes in air pressure.
Elastic fibres: Can stretch during
inspiration, recoil during expiration.
stretching → increases surface area
recoil → expel air.
Smooth muscle: when it relaxes, the
airway widens
when it contracts the airway constricts.
Bronchi: —The lower we go in the gas exchange
A major branch of the trachea that system:
extends into the lungs. • the less ciliated cells present
Features: • the less cartilage present
• Lumen • the more smooth muscle (until
• ciliated pseudo stratified epithelial reaching the alveolus)
cells • The less goblet cells present
• thin submucosa (disappears in the terminal bronchiole)
• plates of cartilage Alveolus:
• more smooth muscle than cartilage • Made up of one cell thick layer of
squamous epithelial cells that gives a
short diusion distance for the
exchange of gases.
• The alveoli are well supplied with blood
by the many capillaries surrounding the
gas exchange surface.
• The constant flow of blood and the
continuous ventilation of the lungs
maintain concentration gradients
between blood and air for oxygen and
carbon dioxide.
Bronchiole: • Elastic fibres stretch during inspiration
• has no cartilage and recoil during expiration to help force
• more smooth muscle Ho contract & out air.
relax) Elastic fibers and some collagen in the
• mostly wavy infolded epithelium walls prevent the alveoli from bursting.
— Breathing brings supplies of fresh
air into the lungs, with a high oxygen
concentration and a low carbon
dioxide concentration. Blood is brought
to the lungs with a lower
concentration of oxygen and a higher
concentration of carbon dioxide than
the air in the alveoli.
Oxygen therefore diuses down its
concentration gradient from the air
in the alveoli to the blood, and CO2
diuses down its concentration
gradient in the opposite direction.
• Disease: is an illness or disorder of • Non-infectious diseases:
body or mind that leads to poor degenerative diseases that are not
health → refers to abnormal caused by pathogens.
medically, changes in the structure
or functioning of the human body.
• Illness: refers to the individuals
experience or subjective perception
of lack of physical and /or mental
well-being.
• Sickness: refers about
consequences to function normally
in social roles.

Infectious diseases
• diseases caused by an organisms
known as pathogens.
• called communicable diseases as
they are passed from infected to
uninfected people (transmissible). Communicable diseases:
• caused by direct or indirect spread
of pathogens from a person or ting
to another.

Distribution of disease:
 Transmission of cholera: • It is diicult to prevent and control
• caused by bacterium vibrio cholera cholera because of:
• comma-shaped, has flagella, motile. • the fast-growing cities in developing
• spread by the faecal-oral route it is countries not having the appropriate
a water-borne and food-borne infrastructure.
disease. • humanitarian cities (eg. Displacement
of people due to wars) which can
→ the disease occurs where people cause the destruction of sanitation
do not have access to proper infrastructure and for the provision
sanitation (clean water) and of poor sanitation facilities in
uncontaminated food. overcrowded temporary housing.
• infected people eggiest large • the use of raw human sewage to
numbers of the bacteria in their irritate crops.
faeces → if these faeces • prevention of cholera:
contaminate the water supply, then • sewage treatment.
the bacteria are transmied to • the provision of clean, piped water
uninfected people. that has been chlorinated to kill
Eects: bacteria.
• if bacteria is not killed by stomach • vaccination programs in areas
acid, bacteria reaches the small where cholera is endemic.
intestine.
• bacteria secretes choleragen toxin, • Cholera can be controlled by:
toxin binds to complementary • access to oral rehydration therapy.
receptor on intestinal epithelial cells • monitoring programmes by WHO.
and enters via endocytosis. • using antibiotics in severe cases.
• disrupts function of intestine
epithelial lining. Diagnosis: microscopical analysis of
• loss of chloride ions and sodium ions faeces.
from epithelial cells.
• water potential decreases, water
moves out from blood down water
potential gradient by osmosis through
partially permeable membrane.

Symptoms:
• vomiting
• low blood pressure
• diarrhea
• rapid weight loss
 Transmission of malaria: Treating Malaria:
• caused by one of four species of • anti -malarial drugs (eg quinine,
the protoctist plasmodium. chloroquine).
• Chloroquine inhibits protein synthesis
• plasmodium is most motile during and prevents parasite from spreading
initial infective stages. within the body it is also used as a
prophylactic (preventative) drug,
• these protocists are transmied to stopping an infection occurring if a
humans by an insect vector: person is bien by an infected
mosquito.
• Female Anopheles mosquitoes feed • prophylactic drugs are taken before,
on human blood to obtain the protein during and aer visiting an area
they need to develop their eggs. where malaria is endemic.
• Combination therapy: where multiple
• if the person they bite is infected drugs are used at the same time →
with plasmodium, the mosquito will used to prevent drug-resistance.
take up some of the pathogen with
the blood meal. Prevention of Malaria:
• Use prophylactic/preventive drugs.
• when feeding on the next human, • reduce number of mosquitoes
plasmodium pass from the mosquito (spray insecticide, spread oil over
to the new humans blood. water surface to prevent mosquito
breeding).
• Malaria may also be transmied • avoid being bien by mosquitoes
during blood transfusion and when (sleep beneath mosquito nets and
unsterile needles are re-used. use insect repellent.
• plasmodium can also pass from
mother to child across the placenta.

Symptoms:
• fever. • muscle pain
• anaemia • shivering
• Nausea • sweating
• Headaches. • Enlarged spleen

Diagnosis:
• Microscopical analysis of blood
• din stick test for malaria
antigen in blood.
 HIV/AIDS • the virus show no symptoms and
• human immunodeficiency virus is a people do not know they are infected
retrovirus ( its genetic material is because the virus can change its
RNA). surface protein, making it diicult for
• the virus is not transmied by a the human immune system to recognize
vector and it is unable to survive it and for a vaccine to be developed.
outside of human body. Opportunistic infections: an infection
• the virus is spread by intimate caused by pathogens that take
human contact and can only be advantage of a host with weekend
transmied by direct exchange of immune system (Eg. Oral thrush,
body fluids. pneumonia, tuberculosis,malaria,…).
* AIDS is a collection of these
Transmission of HIV/AIDS: opportunistic diseases associated with
• sexual intercourse immunodeficiency caused by HIV
• blood donation infection.
• sharing of needles used by
intravenous drug users. • preventing the transmission of HIV:
• from mother to child across the • HIV-positive mothers and their babies
placenta. can be treated with drugs.
• mixing of blood between mother • Blood donations can be screened for
and child during birth. HIV and heat-treated to kill any viruses.
• from mother to child through • condoms, femidoms and dental dams
breast milk. can be used.
• intravenous drug users encouraged
Eects: hot to share needles.
• when the virus is activated, HIV Controlling HIV can occur by:
infects cells of the immune system, • contact tracing
called helper T-cells. • screening blood donations
• this destroys helper T cells causes • public health measures widespread
their number to decrease, as a result HIV testing of the population and
body is unable its to defend self education programs.
against infection. • using anti-retroviral drugs
• this allows a range of pathogens to
cause a variety of opportunistic • The socio-economic status of a person
infections. with HIV can determine how it is controlled.
For example, HIV-positive mothers are
Symptoms: advised not to breaseed in high-income
• flu-like symptoms then symptomless countries, however, in low- and middle-
(since virus can stay dormant for income countries breaseeding oers
years). protection against other diseases.
 Tuberculosis Symptoms:
• caused by mycobacterium • racking cough • sweating
tuberculosis, mycobacterium bovis. • coughing blood • weight loss
• M. Tuberculosis causes TB in humans. • chest pain • loss of appetite
• M. Bovis causes TB in cows, humans • fever • shortness of breath
and other mammals.
Diagnosis:
Transmission of mycobacterium • X-ray
tuberculosis: • microscopical examination of sputum
• pathogen is in air borne droplets (mucus and pus) for bacteria.
• when infected people with the active
form of the disease cough or sneeze, Treatment of tuberculosis:
the M. Tuberculosis bacteria enters • long treatment time because
the air in tiny droplets of liquid. bacteria is slow growing and not very
• tuberculosis is transmied when responsive to drugs.
uninflected people then inhale these • combination therapy (use multiple
droplets. antibiotics).
• DOTS (direct observation treatment,
short course) makes sure patient take
Transmission of mycobacterium bovis: medicine regularly and reduce spread
• it occurs in cale, but is spread to of drug resistance.
humans through contaminated meat
an unpasteurised milk. Prevention of tuberculosis:
• use of BCG vaccine ( the only vaccine
for TB.
Eects:
• the vaccine protects up to 70-80%. Of
• site of primary infection= lungs.
those who receive it, although its
• secondary infections in lymph
eectiveness decreases with age
modes, bones and gut
unless the person is exposed to TB.
• slow infection- many infections are
• isolate patients which are in
controlled by immune system and
infectious stages.
people don't suer symptoms,
• contact tracing and TB screening for
cannot pass on the disease.
early detection to prevent spread.
• bacteria maybe activated aer
• Routinely testing cale for TB, and
many years when immune system
destroying those that test positive.
weakened by other infections.
• pasteurizing milk (kills any TB-
• the incubation period is few weeks
causing bacteria present in the milk).
to few years.
• Ensuring meat is cooked properly.
 Antibiotics • penicillin is only eective against
• a substance derived from a living bacteria that are still growing.
organism that is capable of killing or • penicillin is not eective against all
inhibiting the growth of a bacteria because the bacteria may have:
microorganism without harming the 1- thick cell walls which reduce
infected organism. permeability.
2- enzymes which breakdown penicillin.
How do antibiotics work? • penicillin and other antibiotics do not
• inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis aect viruses as they do not have cells
• inhibit activity of specific (or cell walls), When virus replicates, uses
membrane protein/ glycoprotein → the host cells mechanism for tranelation
blocking binding to cell. and translocation, so not even these
• block specific enzyme action. processes can be targeted as antibiotics
• inhibit protein synthesis and nucleic do not bind to the proteins that hot cells
acid synthesis. uses in these processes.
How penicillin aects bacteria? Antibiotic resistance
In the absence of penicillin:
• bacterial cell wall is made up of • when antibiotics are no longer
peptidoglycan. eective against bacteria, antibiotic
• these peptidoglycan molecules are resistance can be spread from
held together by cross-links that form bacteria to bacteria.
between them. Caused by:
• when bacteria cells grow, it secretes • random mutation in bacteria so
autolysins enzymes that create small when bacteria is treated with
holes in the bacterial cell wall, these antibiotic it won't die, the bacteria
allow the bacterial cell wall to stretch, can continue to reproduce with less
with new peptidoglycan molecules competition from non-resistance
then joining up via cross-links. bacteria.
In the presence of penicillin: • antibiotic resistance gene is passed
• pencilin stops these cross-links to the next generation and other
forming by inhibiting the enzymes bacteria.
that catalyse their formation. • This is evolution by natural selection.
• However, the autolysins keep creating • Some pathogenic bacteria have
holes in the bacterial cell walls, new become resistant to penicillin as they
peptidoglycan formed but cannot link have acquired genes that code for
up making the cell wall weaker. the production of the enzyme β-
• cell walls unable to with stand turgor lactamase (also known as
pressure, when water moves in by penicillinase), which breaks down
osmosis, bacteria bursts and dies. penicillin.
Bacteria can spread antibiotic Causes of antibiotic resistance:
resistance genes using: • due to patients not completing the
• vertical transmission → Bacteria course of antibiotics given.
reproduce a sexually by binary • treatment may not be completed
fission (the DNA of the bacterial so some susceptible bacteria
chromosome is replicated and the survives.
bacterial cell divides in two, with each • Bacteria replicates and have
daughter cell receiving a copy of the increased chance of mutation/
chromosome). becoming resistant.
• due to overuse of antibiotics in
• Horizontal transmission → the
situations where they were not
plasmids are frequently transferred
necessary.
between bacteria, this occurs during
• incorrect use of antibiotics.
conjugation (when a thin tube forms
between two bacteria to allow the Consequences of antibiotic resistance:
exchange of DNA). • Bacteria can carry several antibiotic
• In this way, a bacterium containing resistance genes.
a mutant gene that gives it antibiotic • develop multiple resistance.
resistance could pass this gene on to • become a "super bug".
other bacteria (even those from a • cannot be killed/ inhibited by common
dierent species). This is how antibiotics.
‘superbugs’ with multiple resistance
have developed. Ways to prevent antibiotic resistance:
• avoiding the overuse of antibiotics.
• antibiotics not being used in non-
serious infections and viral infections.
• finishing the entire course.
• use antibiotic specific to the infection
instead of using wide-spectrum
antibiotics.
• changing the type of antibiotics
prescribed for certain diseases.
• more tightly control on industries.

Spread of a already-resistant strains

can be limited by:
• ensuring good hygiene.
• isolating infected patients to prevent
the spread of resistant strains.
 Immunity Phagocytes
• is the protection against disease 2 types of phagocytes:
provided by the body's internal • neutrophils • macrophages
defense immune system. • are WBCs that are produced
1) first line of defense → external, continuously in bone marrow.
non-specific (saliva, tears, skin, • distributed around the body in the
stomach acid). blood, are responsible for removing
2) second line of defense → internal, dead cells and invasive
non-specific immune response, microorganisms by phagocytosis.
involves phagocytes. Neutrophils • travel throughout the body
3) third line of defence → internal, and oen leave the blood by squeezing
specific immune response, involves through capillary walls to "patrol" the
lymphocytes. body tissue.
Antigen: a substance that is foreign to • during an infection, they are released in
the body and stimulates an immune large numbers from their stores, but are
response. (macromolecules on cell short-lived cells.
surface membrane and allow cell-to- Mode of action:
cell recognition). ① if pathogens cause an infection in the
1) non-self antigens: not produced by body the cells under aack respond by
the organisms own body cells that is releasing chemicals (histamine) aract
recognized as being foreign and will neutrophils to the site.
stimulate an immune response • this movement towards a chemical is
(production of antibodies). called chemotaxis.
2) self antigens: produced by the ② the neutrophils which may be covered
organisms own body cells, does not in antibiotics move towards pathogens.
recognize as foreign, su they do not ③ the antibodies are another trigger to
Stimulate an immune response. stimulate neutrophils to aack the
Immune response: the body's immune pathogens (neutrophils have receptor
reaction towards nun-self antigen. proteins on their surfaces that recognize
• Involves WBC’s that made in bone antibody molecules and aach to them).
marrow: ④ the neutrophils cell surface membrane
1) phagocytes → mostly non-specific engulfs the pathogens and traps them
defencse (neutrophils and monocytes within a phagocytic vacuole (endocytosis).
which mature into macrophages). ⑤ lysosomes fuse with the vacuole
2) lymphocytes → mostly specific releasing enzymes that break down the
defence. pathogen.
 Lymphocytes
• are another type of WBCs, play an
important part in the specific immune
response.
• they are smaller than phagocyte and
have a large nucleus that fills most of
the cell.
• they are produced in the bone marrow
before birth.

B-lymphocytes • remain in the bone

marrow until they are mature and then
spread through the body, concentrating
in lymph modes and the spleen.
• as they mature the genes coding for
antibodies are changed to code for
dierent antibodies.
• each cell then divides to give a small
number of cells that are able to make
the same type of antibody (each small
group of identical cells is called a clone.
Macrophages • are larger than • At this stage, each B cell uses part of
neutrophils and are long lived cells. the antibody molecule to make receptors
• they move into organs (lung, liver, in the cell surface membrane.
spleen, kidney and lymph nodes). • these B cell receptors can combine with
Mode of action: one specific antigen.
• macrophages play a very
important role in initiating an
immune response.
• they carry out phagocytosis in a
similar way to neutrophils, they do
not destroy the pathogen
completely.
• they cut the pathogen up so that
they can display the antigens of
the pathogens on their surface
(becoming antigen-presenting cell).
• these displayed antigens can then
be recognized by lymphocytes.
Primary immune response of B-
lymphocytes:
• when an antigen enters the body
for the first time, the phagocytes
engulfs the pathogen and traps
them in a phagocytic vacuole by
endocytosis, lysosomes fuse with the
phagocytic vacuole breaking down
the pathogen and displaying the
antigens on the cell surface
membrane becoming an antigen-
presenting cell.
• the small numbers of B-
lymphocytes with receptors
complementary to that antigen are
stimulated to divide by mitosis (clonal
selection).
• as these clones divide repeatedly by
mitosis (clonal expansion) the result is
large numbers of identical B-
lymphocytes being produced over a
few weeks.
• during an immune response, the B-
lymphocytes then form two types of Secondary immune response of B-
cell: lymphocytes:
• If the same antigen is found in the
• ß- lymphocytes → become plasma
body a second time, the memory cells
cells that secrete lots of antibody
recognize the antigen, divide very
molecules (specific to the antigen)
quickly and dierentiate into plasma
into the blood, lymph or lining of the
cells (to produce antibodies) and more
lungs and the gut.
memory cells.
• these plasma cells are short lived
• this response to a previously
but the antibodies they have secreted
encountered pathogen is very quick,
stay in the blood for a long time.
meaning that the infection can be
• the other B-lymphocytes become
destroyed and removed before the
memory cells that remain circulating
pathogen population increases too
in the blood for a long time.
much and symptoms of the disease
• this response to a newly
develop.
encountered antigen is relatively slow.
 Antibodies 3) Hinge region
• are globular glycoproteins called • the disulfide bonds join the heavy
immunoglobulins. chains, give flexibility to the antibody
• made of 4 polypeptide chains: molecule which allows the antigen-
• 2 heavy chains binding site to be placed at dierent
• 2 light chains angles when binding to antigens.
• this region is not present in all
→ has quaternary structure, that
classes of antibody.
are held by disulfide bonds.
1) variable region
• made up of specific amino acid
sequence that is specific to an
antigen, this makes it the antigen-
binding site that is specific to an
antigen.
• at the end of the variable region is
the antigen binding site that vary
greatly giving the antibody its
specificity for binding to antigens,
the sites are specific to the epitopte.
• sequence of amino acids at the
variable region is dierent for each
type of antibody → each type of Function of antibodies:
antibody binds to dierent antigen. Prevent Aach to Agglutination
entry into flagella
2) constant region
cell
• binds to receptors on phagocytes
when circulating in blood.
• when antibody acts as B cell
receptor: aach to cell surface
membrane of B cell.
• it is indicative to it's family.
• The constant regions do not vary
within a class (isotype) of antibodies
but do vary between the classes. The
constant region determines the
mechanism used to destroy the
antigens. Lysis of Neutralize
Opsonisation
pathogen toxins
T-lymphocytes • immature T- Helper T cells:
lymphocytes leave the bone marrow to • Release cytokines that stimulate b-
mature in the thymus. lymphocytes to divide and develop
• mature T-lymphocytes have specific into antibody- secreting plasma cells.
cell surface receptors called T cell • Some helper T cells secrete cytokines
receptors that have a similar structure that stimulate macrophages to
to antibodies and are each specific to increase their rates of phagocytosis.
one antigen.
• T cells are activated when they Killer T cells:
recognize this antigen on another cell • Aach to the antigens on the cell
of the host (This antigen-presenting surface membrane of infected cells
host cell might be a macrophage or a and secrete toxic substances that kill
body cell that has been invaded by a the body cells along with the pathogens
pathogen and is displaying the antigen inside.
on its cell surface membrane).

Primary immune response of T-

lymphocytes:
• T-lymphocytes are activated when
they encounter and bind to their
specific antigen on the antigen- Secondary immune response of T-
presenting host cell. lymphocytes:
• These activated T-lymphocytes • They dierentiate into memory
(those that have receptors specific to helper T cells and memory killer T cells.
the antigen) divide by mitosis to • These memory T cells remain in the
increase in number (clonal selection body for a long time.
and clonal expansion). • If the same antigen is found in the
• These T-lymphocytes dierentiate body second time, these memory T
into helper T cells and killer T cells. cells become active very quickly.
 Types of immunity Passive immunity: the temporary
immunity gained without there being
Active immunity: immunity gained when
an immune response.
an antigen enters the body, an immune
• As the persons immune system has
response occurs and antibodies are
not been activated then there are no
produced by plasma cells.
memory cells that can produce
• Active immunity is naturally acquired
antibodies in a secondary response. If
through infection by pathogen or
a version is reinfected they would need
artificially acquired through
another infusion of antibodies.
vaccinations.
• Depending on the disease a person is
• The body produces memory cells,
infected with (eg. tetanus) they may not
along with plasma cells, in both types of
have time to actively acquire the
active immunity giving the person long
immunity, that is, there is no time for
term immunity, during the primary
active immunity. So passive immunity
response to a pathogen (natural) or to
occurs either:
a vaccination (artificial), the antibody
concentration in the blood takes 1 or 2 ① Artificial passive immunity occurs
weeks to increase. when people are given an injection/
• If the body is invaded by the same transfusion of the antibodies (eg. In
pathogen again or by the pathogen tetanus this is an antitoxin the
that the person was vaccinated against antibodies were collected from people
then, during the secondary response, whose immune system had been
the antibody concentration in the blood triggered by a vaccination to produce
takes a much shorter period of time to tetanus antibodies.
increase and is higher than aer the ② Natural passive immunity occurs
vaccination or first infection. when:
• fetus receive antibodies across the
placenta from their mothers.
• babies receive the metal milk from
mothers (the colostrum) which delivers
a certain isotype of antibody (IgA).
 Vaccines Live aenuated vaccines:
• A vaccine is a suspension of antigens • Contain whose pathogens that have
that are intentionally put into the body been "weakend", these pathogens
to induce artificial active immunity, a multiply slowly allowing for the body to
specific immune response where recognize the antigens and trigger the
antibodies are released by plasma primary immune response (plasma cells
cells. to produce antibodies), these vaccines
• Vaccines are administered either by tend to produce a stronger and longer-
injection or orally (bymouth), the lasting immune response.
vaccination given by injection can be • They can be unsuitable for people with
into a vein or muscle. weak immune systems as the pathogens
• Vaccinations produce long term may divide before suicient antibodies
immunity as they cause memory cells can be produced.
to be created, the immune system 2 modes of vaccination:
remembers the antigen when ① Mass vaccination → vaccinate large
reencounter and produces antibodies number of people at the same time,
to it, in what is a faster, stronger results in herd immunity that arises
secondary response. when a suiciently large proportion of
Vaccines can be: the population has been vaccinated(and
• Highly eective with one vaccination are therefore immune) which makes it
giving a lifetime’s protection (although diicult for a pathogen to spread within
less eective ones will require booster / that population.
subsequent injections)
• Generally harmless as they do not ② Ring vaccination → vaccinating all
cause the disease they protect against those people in contact with a person
because the pathogen is killed by the infected with a specific disease to
primary immune response. prevent transmission in the immediate
area.

Common barriers to vaccination:

• Poor response to vaccines. (people
that are malnourished and cannot
produce antibodies).
• Pathogens can mutate rapidly
(antigenic variation → form dierent
strain with dierent antigens, memory
cells unable to recognize pathogen).
• Pathogens can escape from immune
system (by living inside cells).
Monoclonal antibodies (Mabs)
• an antibody made by a single clone
of hybridoma cells; all the antibody
molecules made by the clone have
identical variable regions so are
specific to one antigen.

• Hybridoma: a cell formed by the

fusion of a plasma cell; it can both
secrete antibodies and divide to form
other cells like itself.

• the hybridoma method is used to

make monoclonal antibodies, it
enables large quantities of identical
antibodies to be produced.

Steps:
1) Inject mice with an antigen that
stimulates the production of
antibody-producing plasma cells.

2) Isolated plasma cells from the

mice are fused with immortal tumor
cells, which results in hybridoma cells.

3) These hybrid cells are grown in a

selective growth medium and Applications of monoclonal antibodies:
screened for the production of the • Diagnostic applications
desired antibody. • Therapeutic applications
(transplant rejection, cancer,
4) They are then cultured to produce cardiovascular disease, infectious
large numbers of monoclonal diseases, inflammatory diseases)
antibodies. • Clinical applications
(purification of drugs, imaging the
• Monoconal antibodies have multiple target)
applications to include diagnostics, • Future applications
treating disease, food safety testing (fight against bioterrorism)
and pregnancy testing.