Sexual Reproduction

Sexual Reproduction
- Meiosis
Sexual reproduction
• Sexual reproduction requires the genetic information from two parents in the
form of gametes. The place where gametes are produced are called gonads.
• In animals, the gametes for females are eggs which are produced in
reproductive organs called ovaries.
• For males, the gametes are the sperm which are made in the testes.
• The cells inside of the gonads that make the gametes are called germ cells.
Chromosome numbers
• Chromosomes are the instructions or the genetic information. Somatic cells are
the body cells. In all eukaryotic species they have a specific number of
chromosomes in each of their somatic cells.
• In humans the number of chromosomes in somatic cells is 46.
Chromosome numbers
• Diploid number – this describes the pairs of chromosomes. In case of
humans this would be 23 pairs. We use the symbol 2n to write
diploid.
• Homologous pairs – the two matching chromosomes in a diploid cell.
One from your mother and the other one from your father. In humans
we have 23 matching pairs making a total of 46 chromosomes.
Chromosome numbers
• Haploid numbers contain half the number of chromosomes, which we use

the symbol n. Gametes have 23 chromosomes each which is n=23.
• The process of making sperm and egg is done through the process of meiosis.
This is type of reduction division as it reduces the number from 46 to 23
chromosomes.
• When the sperm and egg combine this is called fertilisation which would
produce a baby with 46 chromosomes in humans.
Meiosis
• Meiosis only has one purpose in the body and that is to produce gametes
(sperm and eggs).
• It aims to make daughter cells with only half the amount of chromosomes as
the starting cell (n).
• Remember human cells have 46 chromosomes. We get 23 from mum
(maternal) and 23 from dad (paternal).
Meiosis Steps
PMAT cool x2
Interphase I Cytokinesis
Prophase II
Prophase I Metaphase II
Metaphase I Anaphase II
Anaphase I Telophase II
Telophase I Cytokinesis
Interphase I
G1 phase – the organelles get copied in this stage and the cell
increases its amount of cytosol.
S phase – the DNA is replicated and are double stranded

chromosomes.
G2 phase – proteins that make up the microtubules are made

during this phase. Further preparation for division happens here.
Meiosis occurs in two stages – meiosis I and meiosis II

Prophase I
• During prophase the chromosomes start to condense.
• The mitotic spindles start to form. The spindle is a structure that is
made of microtubules which helps moves the chromosomes around.
The spindles grow between the centrosomes as the move apart.
• The nuclear envelope breaks down, releasing chromosomes into
cytosol.
• The chromosomes also pair up with its homologue partner. This is
called synapsis. This means chromosome 1 lines up. Chromosome 2
would also line up together.*
• The homologous chromosomes then go through a process called
crossing over in which they exchange sections of DNA.*
• The paired centrioles move apart and the spindles continue to grow,
some of the microtubules them start to grab the chromosomes.
Crossing over
• During prophase I crossing over occurs between two
homologous pairs of chromosomes.
• Chromosome 1 lines up with the other chromosome 1.
• Chromosome 2 also lines up with the other chromosome
2.
• Homologous chromosomes become connected in a
process called synapsis.
• Crossing over occurs where matching sections of the
chromosomes swap genetic information.
• Chiasmata are places where the chromosomes cross over
and exchange genetic information. This produces new
combination of genetic instructions.
Crossing over
• Crossing over occurs where matching sections of the chromosomes swap genetic
information.
Metaphase I
• At this point the mitotic spindles is fully formed between the
two pairs of centrioles at the two poles of the spindle.
• The chromosome pairs (homologue pairs) line up next to
each other along the equator of the cell.
• Independent assortment occurs during metaphase 1 where
chromosomes line up on random sides.
• Chromosome 1 lines up with chromosome 1.
• Chromosome 2 lines up with chromosome 2.
• The spindle fibres attach themselves to the centromere of
each chromosome and pull them to opposite ends of the
cell.
Anaphase I
• The pair of chromosomes (homologue pairs) are then
pulled apart (disjoined) by the mitotic spindle, this
pulls one chromosome to one pole and the other
chromosome to the opposite pole.
• They are pulled by the centromere, which pulls the
whole double stranded chromosome.
• The disjoining of the chromosomes is done randomly,
so even when they line up they can be pulled to
either side.
• In this case the sister chromatids stay together and
move to the opposite poles.
Telophase I and cytokinesis
Telophase I
• The chromosomes completely move to the opposite
poles of the cell. At each pole each double stranded
chromosome gather together.
• A nuclear membrane forms around each new set of
chromosomes and the chromosomes decondense.
Cytokinesis (animal cells)
• Cytokinesis is the process where the cytoplasm
forms into two new cells.
• The protein called actin breaks down this area and
pinches it. This forms two new daughter cells.
Meiosis II
Prophase II
• The chromosomes begin to condense
forming the x shape structure which can be
seen under the microscope.
• The cells are now haploid as the have half
the DNA of the parent cell.
• The membrane around the nucleuses then
begin to break down again.
• The centriole then duplicates itself again and
the spindle fibres begin to form. They then
attach themselves to the kinetochores of
each chromosome.
Metaphase II
•At this point the mitotic spindles is fully formed between the two pairs of
centrioles at the two poles of the spindle.
•The spindles have captured all of the chromosomes and lined them up in
the middle/equator of the cell.
•All of the chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate.
•The microtubules are attached to the two kinetochores of each
chromosome from each of the separate spindle poles.
•This is happening in both cells that were duplicated in meiosis I.
Anaphase II
• In anaphase II the sister chromatids separate from

each other and are pulled towards opposite ends of
the poles.
• The microtubules that are not attached to
chromosomes elongate and push part which further
separates the poles making the cell longer.
• The kinetochore microtubules pull the
chromosomes towards the opposite poles.
Telophase II
• The mitotic spindles start to break down
• Two new nuclei (two or more nucleuses) start to
form around each set of chromosomes. Each
nucleus contains half the amount of DNA as the
parent cell.
• The nuclear membrane also forms around each set
of chromosome.
• The DNA also begins to decondense.
Cytokinesis
• In animal cells the place where the split occurs is called the
cleavage furrow.
• The protein called actin breaks down this area and pinches
it. This forms two new daughter cells.
• In meiosis II cytokinesis splits the two cells into four
haploid cells with half the amount of the DNA as the parent
cell. They also contain single stranded chromosomes.
• They are all different from each other due to the crossing
over that happened in meiosis I.
• In males this would be the sperm cells.
• In females one would become an egg cell and the others
are small cells that don’t develop into eggs.
Similarities and differences between mitosis
and meiosis
Feature Meiosis mitosis
Location
Function
DNA replication in interphase
Number of divisions
Pairing of matching
chromosomes (synapsis)
Crossing over occurs
End result
summary
For a cell with 2n=4 (4 chromosomes)

Sexual Reproduction

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Sexual Reproduction

• Haploid numbers contain half the number of chromosomes, which we use

S phase – the DNA is replicated and are double stranded

G2 phase – proteins that make up the microtubules are made

Meiosis occurs in two stages – meiosis I and meiosis II

• In anaphase II the sister chromatids separate from

DNA replication in interphase

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