Laboratory manual for biology

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 Laboratory manual for biology

CONTENTS
S.no Name of the experiment Date Remarks
1 STUDY OF ADAPTATION OF FLOWERS FOR
POLLINATION
2 CONTROLLED POLLINATION -
EMASCULATION AND BAGGING
3 STUDY OF POLLEN GERMINATION ON
STIGMA
4 STUDY OF POLLEN GERMINATION
5 STUDY OF MEIOSIS IN FLORAL BUDS OF
ONION
6 IDENTIFICATION OF STAGES OF GAMETE
DEVELOPMENT
7 STUDY OF T.S. OF BLASTULA
8 STUDY OF MENDELIAN INHERITANCE USING
SEED SAMPLES
9 STUDY OF PREPARED PEDIGREE CHARTS OF
THE GENETIC TRAITS
10
STUDY OF COMMOMDISEASE CAUSING
ORGANISMS
11
STUDY OF HOMOLOGOUS AND ANALOGOUS
ORGANS
12 STUDY OF SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATION AND
PARASITISM
13 STUDY OF PLANT POPULATION DENSITY
14 STUDY OF PLANT FREQUENCY
15 STUDY OF MITOSIS IN ONION ROOT TIP
16 . ISOLATION OF DNA FROM PLANT
MATERIAL

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 Laboratory manual for biology

1.STUDY OF ADAPTATION OF FLOWERS FOR

POLLINATION
AIM:
To study the various adaptation of flowers for pollination
Pollination by wind
 Also known as anemophily
i. The size of flower is very small
ii. Bright coloured corolla. nectar glands and fragrance are absent
iii. Flowers are grouped together in clusters
iv. pollen grains are produced in large quantities
v. Versatile Fixation of anthers aid in shaking off pollen grains in the air
vi. pollen grains are dry smooth and very light.
vii. Well exposed feathery stigma to capture the pollen coming in the wind.
Pollination by insects
 Also known as entomophily
i. The insect-pollinated flowers comprise brightly coloured petals
with a pleasant strong smell.
ii. If the flowers are small, they form inflorescence.
iii. Flowers have landing platform for insects.
iv. Insect-pollinated flowers, produce large pollen grains, sticky and
spiny which helps the insect to carry the pollen grains.
v. These flowers produce a lot of nectars.
Pollination by birds
 Also known as ornithophily
i. Birds seek energy-rich nectar by visiting flowers
ii. Most flowers pollinated by birds have nectars hidden deep inside the
flower.
iii. The pollen sticks to the bird’s head/ neck and back when it tries to
reach the nectar
iv. Birds transfer these pollens when visiting other plants
v. Corolla tubular or funnel shaped.
vi. Strong supports for perching
vii. Brightly coloured: red, yellow, or orange
viii. Odourless (birds have a poor sense of smell)

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2. CONTROLLED POLLINATION -EMASCULATION,

TAGGING & BAGGING
AIM:
To comment on the process of emasculation and bagging
REQIUREMENTS:
Pictures of emasculation and bagging

EMASCULATION
 The removal of anthers from a bisexual flowers before the dehiscence of
anthers, is called emasculation.
 It is done few hours before the opening of flower bud.
 It is done to avoid self-pollination.
 Not required for unisexual flowers.
 If flowers are large anthers are removed using forceps or scissors.
 If flowers are small hot water method is used. E.g. Sorghum, Barley
BAGGING
 Cover the emasculated flower with a plastic bag to protect it from
undesired pollen (Bagging).
 The bag should be held securely in place with a paper clip/ string/thread.
Select the size of bag in accordance with the flower size.
 Bags must be transparent with minute pores
 Cover the pollinated flower again with the bag immediately. For
identification, label the female parent (Tagging). Each pollinated flower
should bear a label containing the name of the seed parent, the letter X (to
signify a cross), the name of the pollen parent, and the date on which the
cross was affected.

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3. STUDY OF POLLEN GERMINATION ON STIGMA

AIM:
To study the pollen growth on stigma
REQIUREMENTS:
Permanent slide, microscope
PROCEDURE:
Place the slide on the stage of the microscope and observe first under lower
magnification and then in higher magnification.
OBSERVATION
Different stages of pollens germinating on stigma and style are observed.

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4.STUDY OF POLLEN GERMINATION

AIM:
To prepare a temporary mount to observe pollen germination.
REQUIREMENT:
Calcium nitrate, Boric acid, sucrose, distilled water, watch glass, needle,
brush, microscope, mature pollen grains of seasonal flowers.
PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare pollen germination medium by dissolving 10g of sucrose,30mg
calcium nitrate and 10mg boric acid in 100ml of distilled water.
Alternatively, 10% sucrose solution can also be used.
2. Take a drop of medium on a clean slide and dust a few pollen grains from
the stamen of a mature flower on it.
3. After 10 minutes observe the slide under microscope.
OBSERVATION:
In nutrient medium pollen grains germinate. the tube cell enlarges and comes
out of the pollen grain through one of the germ pores to form a pollen tube.
PRECAUTONS:
1. Flowers should be freshly plucked.
2. Use clean slide to observe the pollen grains

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 Laboratory manual for biology

5. STUDY OF MEIOSIS IN FLORAL BUDS OF ONION

AIM:
To study stages of meiosis using permanent slide.
REQIUREMENTS:
Permanent slides of meiosis and compound microscope
PROCEDURE
Place the slide on the stage of the microscope and search for the dividing cells
using lower magnification. When dividing cells are located observe them under
higher magnification.
OBSERVATIONS.
Observe various stages of meiosis and identify them on the basis of the specific
features given. A significant number of cells will be in the Interphase. These
cells have a centrally positioned densely stained nucleus.
PROPHASE
Unlike the prophase of mitosis, it is a comparatively complex phase
characterised by a number of events. Five sub-phases can be identified in it.
(a) Leptotene
(i) The nuclear membrane and nucleolus are not distinctly observable.
(ii) Fine network of thin threads is seen uniformly distributed in the
nucleus. These are chromatin threads, which may be observed as
more prominent structures in the later stages
(b) Zygotene
This stage is characterised by the pairing of the homologous
chromosomes, which can be seen as paired chromatin threads (bivalents).
(c) Pachytene
The chromatin threads get condensed and appear shortened and thick.
Pairs of homologous chromosomes can be seen. Each chromosome has
two chromatids and thus each bivalent consists of four chromatids. This
configuration is called tetrad.
(d) Diplotene
The homologous chromosomes (each made up of two chromatids) show
distinct separation from each other except at few regions where
attachments are seen.
These are chiasmata (sing. chiasma) representing the site of exchange of
the parts between two homologous chromosomes (i.e., crossing over).

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(e) Diakinesis
The homologous pair of chromosomes appear more shortened, thick and
prominent.
(iii) Chiasmata can be still observed.
(iv) (iii) All the homologous pairs appear scattered in the cell
METPHASE 1
The homologous pair of chromosomes appear more shortened,
thick and prominent.
(ii) Chiasmata can be still observed.
(iii) All the homologous pairs appear scattered in the cell.
Homologous chromosomes are still in pairs, and are arranged
along the equatorial plane of the cell . At this stage, the number of
bivalents can be counted. Chiasmata may still be seen in a few
bivalents.
ANAPHASE 1
(i) The chromosome pairs appear to have moved towards the two
opposite poles of the cell. At the later stage, the anaphase - I may
show the assembly of chromosomes at two poles.
(ii) This results into the reduction of number of chromosomes to half.
This stage can be identified by the presence of two chromatids in
each chromosome.
TELOPHASE 1
The chromosomes present at the two poles appear decondensed
and form two distinct nuclei.
PROPHASE 2
Distinct thread- like chromatin fibres or rod- shaped chromosome
are seen.
METAPHASE 2
This phase is similar to that of mitotic division.
(i) The chromosomes having two chromatids attached at the
centromere are observed arranged at the equatorial plane of the
cell.
ANAPHASE 2
The two chromatids of each chromosome after separation appear
to lie at the two poles of the cell .
TELOPHASE 2
The separated chromosomes appear decondensed and form nuclei

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Figure describing the stages of meiosis

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6. IDENTIFICATION OF STAGES OF GAMETE

DEVELOPMENT
AIM:
To study stages of gametogenesis in mammalian testis and ovary.
REQIUREMENTS:
Permanent slides of T.S. of testis and Ovary, microscope
PROCEDURE:
1.Place the slide on the stage of the microscope and observe first under lower
magnification and then in higher magnification.
2. Observe various stages of gamete development.
3.Record your observations in the record and draw labelled diagrams.
OBSERVATIONS:
TS OF TESTIS:
 You will observe a large number of seminiferous tubules under lower
magnification.
 Observe a complete tubule in higher magnification and view various
stages of gamete development from periphery towards lumen and identify
the following types of cells.
 Namely, Germinal epithelium, Spermatogonial cells, Primary
spermatocytes, Secondary spermatocytes, Spermatids and Spermatozoa.
 In T.S. of testis the space between tubules is filled with blood vessels and
a specific cell type called Leydig's cell or Interstitial cells.

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T.S. OF OVARY
 In the section of ovary, there is a mass of tissue lined with germinal
epithelium. Inside that you will observe an ovum, which is a cell
surrounded by one to several layers of follicular cells. As the ovum
matures, the number of surrounding follicular cell layer increases.
 In the later stage of follicular development, a cavity called antrum
appears.
 The cavity gets further enlarged and the follicle grows bigger. This is the
stage of Graafian follicle ready to release the ovum (ovulation).
 In the next stage, you may notice a Corpus luteum, and/or Corpus
albicans, which differ from each other and also from Graafian follicle in
their features.

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7. STUDY OF T.S. OF BLASTULA

AIM:
To study the blastula stage of embryonic development with the help of
permanent slide.
REQIUREMENTS:
Microscope, a clean glass slide
PROCEDURE
Observe the slide under lower magnification of the microscope. In case of
chart/models/photographs, note the feature of blastula in your practical record
and draw labelled diagram.
OBSERVATION
In transverse section, the blastula appears as a sphere with a cavity, called
blastocoel within it (Fig. 8.1). Notice an outer layer of blastomeres called
trophoblasts. A cellular mass, adhered to the trophoblast is present on one end
of the blastula. It is called inner cell mass.

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8. STUDY OF MENDELIAN INHERITANCE USING SEED

SAMPLES
AIM:
To verify Mendel’s law of segregation
REQIUREMENTS:
64 plastic beads of green and yellow colour, Petri dish
PROCEDURE:
Students have to work in pairs to perform the experiment. The following steps
are to be strictly followed in the sequence mentioned below.
(i) Put 64 yellow beads in one beaker/Petri dish and 64 green beads in the
other to represent respectively male and female gametes. Let the
yellow bead be indicated by ‘Y’ and green bead by ‘y’.
(ii) Take a bead from each container and place them together (it represents
fertilisation) on the napkin spread before you on the table. (One
student to take out beads and to put in the hands of the other student
who will put them on the table).
(iii) Just like the previous step, continue to pick beads and arrange them in
pairs. Thus 64 pairs of beads are obtained representing the 64
heterozygous F1 progeny. Note that all the F1 individuals are
represented by one yellow and one green bead.
(iv) Put 32 F1 progeny in one Petri dish and the remaining 32 in another
Petri dish (representing the F1 males and females).
(v) Stir the beads of each Petri dish with a pencil/pen for about 10 times
taking care that no bead falls off
(vi) To obtain the F2 generation, one student would withdraw one bead
from one beaker labelled male and one from the other beaker labelled
female keeping his/her eyes closed (to ensure randomness), and put
them together in the stretched palm of the partner, who will put them
together on the napkin spread over the table. Continue this process till
all the beads are paired. Thus 64 offsprings of F2 are obtained.
(vii) Note the genotype (YY or Yy or yy) of each pair, and their possible
phenotype.
(viii) (viii) Have six repeats of the experiment (steps i to vii) with partners
changing their roles. Pool all the data from the six repeats together.
(ix) (ix) Calculate the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of your pooled
data. Note that larger the sample size, more accurate is the result.

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OBSERVATION:
(i) Record the result in the following table
Generation Repeat no. Total no. of Genotypes Phenotypes
individual

Phenotypic Ratio: in F1……. in F2…….

Genotypic Ratio: in F1……. in F2…….

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9.STUDY OF PREPARED PEDIGREE CHARTS OF THE

GENETIC TRAITS
AIM:
Analysis of Pedigree Charts.
REQIUREMENTS:
Prepared pedigree chart of genetic traits
PROCEDURE:
Observe the given pedigree char and write comment on it.
Autosome linked Dominant trait.

The characteristic features of inheritance of such type of traits are: (a)

Transmission of traits occurs from parents of either sex.
(b) Males and females are equally affected.
(c) The pedigree is vertical, i.e., the trait is marked to be present in each of the
generations.
(d) Multiple generations are characteristically affected.
Autosome linked Recessive trait.

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a) Occur in equal proportions in multiple male and female siblings, whose

parents are normal but carriers;
(b) The siblings are homozygous for the defective allele, but their parents,
though some may appear normal, are obviously heterozygous, i.e., are merely
carriers of the trait.
(c) Consanguinity (marriage between man and woman genetically related to
each other, such as cousins) occasionally results in the appearance of such traits.
(d) it skips generations.
X-linked Recessive traits:

These are the traits whose encoding gene is present on the X-chromosome and
its mutant allele is recessive to its wild-type allele. The characteristic features of
such inheritance are:
(a) Females express the trait only when they are homozygous for the mutant
allele, whereas the males do so even when they are hemizygous for it.
(b) About half of the sons of the carrier (heterozygous for the trait) females are
affected. In case of homozygous females showing the trait, fifty percent of her
daughters and all of her sons are likely to be affected. Therefore, the males are
most affected in the population. (c) Affected persons are related to one another
through the maternal side of their family.
(d) Any evidence of male-to-male transmission of the trait rules out the X-
linked inheritance.

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10. STUDY OF COMMOMDISEASE CAUSING ORGANISMS

AIM:
To study the diseases and symptoms caused by organisms.
REQIUREMENTS:
Permanent slides or pictures of organisms
A. ENTAMOEBA HISTOLYTICA

Note - Entamoeba is an intestinal

parasite in humans.
Disease caused: Amoebic dysentery.
The symptoms of the disease are
frequent loose, mucus filled watery
stools, abdominal pain and spasms.

B. ASCARIS

Note: Round worm or Ascaris is one of the

common parasite found in the intestine of
human beings.
Disease caused: Ascariasis
Symptoms: (a) Irregular bowel, (b)
Occasional vomiting, (c) Anaemia

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C. PLASMODIUM

It is a protozoan parasite causing malaria in humans.

When an infected female anopheles mosquito bites a
healthy person, it injects the infective stage, sporozoite,
into the peripheral blood vessels.
The infective stage undergoes several rounds of
multiplication in liver and erythrocytes.
Symptoms: Intermittent high fever with chills followed
by profuse sweating at an interval of alternate days.

D. TRYCHOPHYTON

It is a fungus that feeds on keratin of the skin

of human beings.
Disease caused: Ringworm.
Symptoms:
Ringworm is a contagious fungal infection of
the skin. Infected area of skin is itchy, red,
raised, scaly patches (with sharply defined
edges). It is more red on the periphery than in
the centre creating a ring like appearance .

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11. STUDY OF HOMOLOGOUS AND ANALOGOUS ORGANS

AIM:
To study homologous and analogous organs
REQIUREMENTS:
Pictures of homologous and analogous organs
OBSERVATION
1. HOMOLOGOUS ORGANS
 Homologous organs are those organs that have the same basic structural
design and origin but have different functions.
 Developed as a result of the adaptation to a different environment
A. Homologous Organs in Animals
 Wings of birds, and forelimb of mammals/reptiles/ frog: All have the
same bony elements (humerus radio ulna, carpals, metacarpals and
phalanges), but perform different (flying in birds, for holding or walking
etc. in other) functions.
B. Homologous Organs in Plants
 Tendrils of Cucurbita and thorns of Bougainvillea are homologous organs
because they are similar in origin as they are modified branches and axial
in position. Their different function is modified for protection in
Bougainvillea and in Cucurbita, tendrils are for climbing.

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2. ANALOGOUS ORGANS
 Analogous organs are those organs which have different basic structural
design and origin but have similar functions.
 Developed as a result of the adaptation to a similar environment
A. Analogous organs in animals
 Wings of bat, butterfly and of birds. The wings of the bird are made up
of feathers that extend all along the arm. However, the wings of bats
consist of flaps of skin that stretch between the bones of the fingers but
the wings of both organisms perform the similar function of flying.

B. Analogous organs in plants

Potato and sweet potato are examples of analogous organs. Both sweet potato
and potato have a common function i.e., storage of food in the form of starch.
But they both differ in structural origin as the sweet potato is a root tuber, while
the potato is a stem tuber.

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12. STUDY OF SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATION AND

PARASITISM
AIM:
To study types of interaction, symbiosis and parasitism
REQIUREMENTS:
Pictures of root nodules, Cuscuta and Lichen
OBSERVATION:
A. ROOT NODULES
 Legumes are able to form a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-
fixing soil bacteria called rhizobia.
 The result of this symbiosis is to form nodules on the plant root,
within which the bacteria can convert atmospheric nitrogen into
ammonia that can be used by the plant.
B. CUSCUTA
 Cuscuta commonly known as dodder or amarbel
 Cuscuta plants are total stem parasite. They do not possess roots or
leaves and the vegetative part is stem only.
 The parasite winds around plants and penetrates the host stems via
haustoria, forming direct connections to the vascular bundles of their
hosts to withdraw water and nutrients.
C. LICHENS
 Lichens are a small group of plants of composite nature, consisting of
two dissimilar organisms, an alga-phycobiont and a fungus-
mycobiont; living in a symbiotic association.
 Generally, the fungal partner occupies the major portion of the thallus
and produces its own reproductive structures.
 The algal partner-produce carbohydrate through photosynthesis is
utilised by both of them and the fungal partner serves the function of
absorption and retention of water.
 Based on the morphological structure of thalli, they are of three types
crustose, foliose and fruticose.
 Lichen reproduces by all the three means – vegetative, asexual, and
sexual.

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13.STUDY OF PLANT POPULATION DENSITY

AIM:
To study plant population density by quadrat method.

REQUIREMENT:
Cotton threads, nails, hammer
PROCEDURE:
1. In the selected site of study, make a 1mx1m quadrat with the help of nails
and thread. Hammer the nails firmly and make sure that the vegetation is
not damaged while laying the quadrat.
2. List the number of plant species seen the quadrat (if names are not known
mark these as A, B etc. and the same species is seen in the other quadrats
assign the same alphabet.)
3. Count the number of individuals of each species present in the quadrat
and record the data as shown in the table.
4. Similarly make four more quadrats randomly in the site of study and
record the names and numbers of the individuals of each species.
OSERVATIONS:
 Record the total number of species seen in the five quadrats.
 There will be difference in the species composition in quadrats made in
shady areas, exposed areas, dry or wet areas etc.
 Calculate the density using the given formula.
Density=
total number of the individuals of the species in all the quadrats (S)
Total number of quadrats studied (Q)
 The value thus obtained is then expressed as number of individuals per
unit area.
 Density studies of the given vegetation.

Plant No. of individuals in each quadrat Total number of Total no. of Density
species I II III IV V individulas(S) quadrats(Q) (D)

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PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the quadrat should of same size.
2. String used should not be very thick.

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14. STUDY OF PLANT FREQUENCY

AIM:
To study plant frequency by quadrat method.

REQUIREMENT:
Cotton threads, nails, hammer
PROCEDURE:
1.In the selected site of study, make a 1mx1m quadrat with the help of nails
and thread. Hammer the nails firmly and make sure that the vegetation is not
damaged while laying the quadrat.
2.List the number of plant species seen the quadrat (if names are not
known mark these as A, B etc. and the same species is seen in the other
quadrats assign the same alphabet.)
3. Count the number of individuals of each species present in the quadrat
and record the data as shown in the table.
4. Similarly make four more quadrats randomly in the site of study and
record the names and numbers of the individuals of each species.
OSERVATIONS:
 Record the total number of species seen in the five quadrats.
 There will be difference in the species composition in quadrats made in
shady areas, exposed areas, dry or wet areas etc.
 Calculate the frequency using the given formula.
Frequency or (frequency index) =
number of sampling units in which the species occurs. (S)
Total number of sampling units studied (Q)
 The value thus obtained is then expressed as number of individuals per
unit area.
Frequency studies of the given vegetation.
Plant No. of individuals in each quadrat(Q) No: of Percentage
species I II III IV V quadrats of
in which frequency
the F=N/Qx100
species is
present(N)

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PRECAUTIONS:
1.All the quadrat should of same size.
2. String used should not be very thick.

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15. STUDY OF MITOSIS IN ONION ROOT TIP

AIM:
To prepare a temporary acetocarmine mount of onion root tip to study various
stages of mitosis
REQUIREMENTS:
Onion bulb, boiling test tubes, glacial acetic acid, ethanol, acetocarmine
stain,1N HCl, spirit lamp, slide, cover slip, microscope, needle, blotting paper.
PROCEDURE:
1. Take one or two preserved roots, wash them in water on a clean and grease
free slide.
2. Place one drop of N/10 HCl on the root tip followed by 2–3 drops of aceto-
carmine or aceto-orcein stain on it. Leave the slide for 5–10 minutes a hot plate
(or warm it slightly on spirit lamp).
3.Care should be taken that the stain is not dried up
4. Carefully blot the excess stain using blotting paper. Now cut the
comparatively more stained (2–3 mm) tip portion of the root and retain it on the
slide and discard the remaining portion.
5. After (10–20 seconds) put one or two drops of water and blot them carefully
using blotting paper.
6. Again put a drop of water on the root tip and mount a cover slip on it
avoiding air bubbles.
7. Place the slide in between the folds of blotting paper using the fingers in
such a way that the cover slip mounted on the slide is properly held.
8. Now slowly tap the cover slip using the blunt end of a pencil so that the
meristematic tissue of the root tip below the cover slip is properly squashed and
spread as a thin layer of cells.
9. Place the slide on the stage of a good quality compound microscope. First
observe it under the lower magnification (10 X objective) to search for the area
having a few dividing cells.
10. Examine the dividing cells under higher magnification of the microscope to
observe the detailed features of mitosis.

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OBSERVATION:
INTERPHASE
1. Those cells, which are not in the phases of cell division are considered to
be in interphase.
2. most of the cells in a microscope field are in interphase.
3. The cells are mostly rectangular, oval or even circular in shape, with
almost centrally situated densely stained nucleus. the boundary of the
nucleus is distinct. One or two nucleoli can also be observed inside the
nucleus.
Prophase
1. Intact nuclear outline is seen. The chromatin appears as a network of fine
threads (chromosomes). Nucleoli may or may not be visible.
2. In the early stage of prophase then the chromatin fibres (chromosomes) are
very thin.
3. In the cells at late prophase, comparatively thicker chromatin fibres would
be visible. Besides this, in the late prophase the nuclear membrane may not
be noticed.
Metaphase
1. The nuclear membrane disappears.
2. Chromosomes are thick and are seen arranged at the equatorial plane of
the cell.
3. Each chromosome at this stage has two chromatids joined together at the
centromere.
Anaphase
1. This stage shows the separation of the chromatids of each
chromosome.
2. The chromatids separate due to the splitting of the centromere. Each
chromatid now represents a separate chromosome as it has its own
centromere.
3. The chromosomes at this stage may look like the shape of alphabets
'V', 'J' or 'I' depending upon the position of centromere in them.
Anaphase.
Telophase
1. Chromosomes reach the opposite poles, lose their individuality,
and look like a mass of chromatin
2. Nuclear membrane appears to form the nuclei of the two future
daughter cells.

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PRECAUTONS:
1. Root tips should be fixed in the morning between 8 to 10am.
2. The slide should be warmed gently

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16. ISOLATION OF DNA FROM PLANT MATERIAL

AIM:
To isolate DNA from available plant materials such as spinach leaves, fresh
green pea seeds, green papaya, etc.

REQIUREMENTS:
Plant materials, mortar and pestle, beakers, test tubes, ethanol, etc.

PROCEDURE:
 Take a small amount of plant material and grind it in a mortar with a little
amount of water and sodium chloride.
 Make it into a solution and filter it.
 To this filtrate, add liquid soap solution or any detergent solution and mix
it with a glass rod.
 Then tilt the test tube and add chilled ethanol and leave it aside in the stand.
 After half-an-hour we can observe the precipitated DNA as fine threads.
 DNA that separates can be removed by spooling DNA that separates can
be removed by spooling

OBSERVATION:
DNA appears as white precipitate of very fine threads on the spool.

PRECAUTIONS:
· All the glass wares must be thoroughly cleaned and dried.
· The chemicals used for the experiments must be of standard quality.
· If ordinary ethanol is used, the time duration for obtaining precipitated DNA
may extend further

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