Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction and

Development

Lesson 8.2

Animal Reproduction and Development

Contents

Introduction 1

Learning Objectives 2

Warm Up 2

Learn about It! 4

General Animal Life Cycle 4
Complete Metamorphosis 5
Incomplete Metamorphosis 6
Animal Reproduction 7
Asexual Reproduction 7
Sexual Reproduction 10
Mechanism of Fertilization 11
Animal Development 13
Embryogenesis 13
Organogenesis 14

Key Points 17

Check Your Understanding 17

Challenge Yourself 19

Photo Credits 20

Bibliography 20
Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
and Development
Lesson 8.2
Animal Reproduction and
Development

Introduction
Unlike plants, animals do not produce spores or seeds that can be dispersed into their
environment for reproduction. Instead, life emerges from externally-incubated eggs or
direct birth from the female parent. From the fusion of sex cells, new individuals grow and
develop until they reach maturity. The reproduction and development of animal species
are significantly different from that of plant species. From the previous lesson, you have
learned the common stages in the life cycle of plants. In this lesson, you will explore how
animals reproduce and develop into mature individuals. How do animals reproduce and
develop? How are these processes different from that in plants?

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
and Development

Learning Objectives DepEd Competency

In this lesson, you should be able to do the Compare and contrast reproduction
following: and developmental processes in
plants and animals
● Describe the life cycle of animals.
(STEM_BIO11/12 -IVa-h-1).
● Discuss the processes involved in animal
reproduction.
● Describe the stages of animal
development.

Warm Up
Animal Development Time Table 20 minutes
Various models can be used to observe and study important events in animal development.
Common in vivo or living models include zebrafish, fruit flies, and the nematode
Caenorhabditis elegans. In this activity, you will observe animal development by creating a
time table of the selected stages in the life cycle of fruit flies.

Materials
● ripe bananas
● camera (phone camera will suffice)
● clear glass jar
● baker’s yeast
● a computer unit with an MS PowerPoint

Procedure
1. Form a group with four members.
2. At least five days before the activity, prepare fermented banana (a mixture of
mashed banana and baker’s yeast) and place it in a jar. A pinch of yeast may be
added to every ⅛ kilo of banana.

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3. Leave the jar open and set it aside for one day.
4. Wait for fruit flies to invade the banana medium in the jar.
5. On the succeeding days, observe the development of fruit fly larvae in the medium.
6. By using Fig. 8.2.1 as your guide, identify the developmental stages of fruit flies, from
the egg stage to adult males and females. Take note of the number of days for the
fruit flies to reach each stage.
7. By using a camera, try to document each stage and make a photo story through a
PowerPoint presentation.
8. Present your photostory in class. Compare your created timeline of development
with the output of the other groups.
9. Observe proper disposal measures for the banana medium that you used. Clean and
dry the glass jars afterward.
10. Answer the guide questions afterward.

Fig. 8.2.1. Developmental stages in fruit flies

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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Guide Questions
1. Which part of the activity represents animal reproduction?
2. Which part of the activity represents animal development?
3. Have you observed a similar timeline for the development of fruit flies compared
with other groups? If no, what factor could possibly affect the development of this
species?
4. What do you think is the difference between reproduction and development in fruit
flies?
5. Why do you think it is important to study animal reproduction and development?

Learn about It!

How does the life cycle of an animal begin?

General Animal Life Cycle

The life cycle of an animal usually starts from the fusion of the male and female gametes
during fertilization. The resulting fertilized egg will undergo a series of cell division and
differentiation to form the developing embryo in a process called embryogenesis.
Thereafter, the embryo will undergo organogenesis, where it starts to form specific tissue
types that will lead to the formation of functional organs and organ systems. Eventually, it
will continue to grow and mature into an adult. This adult individual will be capable of
reproducing upon sexual maturity to form another generation of individuals.

Ontogeny or development is useful in understanding the series of changes an animal

undergoes from being a fertilized egg. As shown in the life cycle of a frog below in Fig. 8.2.2,
a sexually mature, the adult frog is capable of producing eggs. These eggs are fertilized.
Thus, each of them bears the complete set of genetic information in their species. Young
individuals or tadpoles will then hatch from these eggs. This juvenile stage is spent in
aquatic habitats such as ponds. Later on, their complexity increases as organ systems

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
and Development
further develop. The tail-bearing tadpoles eventually form hind legs and forelegs. Their tails
also regress, and their limbs allow them to spend their adult stage outside of water. Upon
reaching sexual maturity, they can reproduce before they eventually die.

Fig. 8.2.2. The life cycle of a frog involves changes in morphology and habitat.

Metamorphosis (meta, new; morphe, form) is a biological feature in the life cycle of some
animals, usually in insects, amphibians, fishes, and other invertebrates. Metamorphosis
involves a rapid change of an organism from an immature larva to a sexually mature adult.
This transformation is accompanied by changes in morphology, function, and habitat of the
individual. Metamorphosis can be classified into two general types, namely complete
metamorphosis and incomplete metamorphosis.

Complete Metamorphosis
Complete metamorphosis or holometabolous development is the type of life cycle that
is exhibited by fruit flies, moths, butterflies, beetles, and other insects. These insects have
larval stages that do not resemble the adult stage, and a pupa stage is present. Shown
below in Fig. 8.2.3 is the complete metamorphosis of a stag beetle. The larval stage, which is

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
and Development
called grub in beetles, emerges from eggs. The grub is the counterpart of caterpillars in
butterflies and maggots in fruit flies. The larva usually has instar stages or periods
between molting or shedding of their exoskeleton to allow growth. After some time, the
feeding larva will undergo the immobile pupa stage, where drastic changes in morphology
and function occur. Then, the adult individual or imago will emerge from the pupa. Upon
sexual maturity, they can mate and produce new generations of offspring.

Fig. 8.2.3. The complete metamorphosis of a beetle can reach more than three months.

Incomplete Metamorphosis
In incomplete metamorphosis, as shown below in Fig. 8.2.4, the early or juvenile stage
resembles the adult stage, and there is no pupa stage. Two forms exist according to the
type of juvenile stage. Hemimetabolous development occurs when the juvenile stage
thrives in an aquatic environment, whereas paurometabolous metamorphosis occurs
when the juvenile stage thrives in a terrestrial environment. Hemimetabolous insects
such as dragonflies, damselflies, and mayflies have aquatic larvae or nymphs called naiads.
These larvae have external gills that allow them to breathe underwater, usually in streams.
Paurometabolous insects such as grasshoppers and cockroaches have terrestrial larvae or
nymphs that simply undergo several molting stages to become adult or imago.

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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Fig. 8.2.4. The incomplete metamorphosis in dragonflies (left) and grasshoppers (right)

Animal Reproduction
During animal reproduction, the existing adult individuals perform certain mechanisms to
allow their gametes to fuse and form new individuals or offspring. Reproduction is preceded
by gametogenesis, where gametes are produced in gonadal tissues. However, similar to
plants, the reproduction in animals is also not limited to sexual means.

Asexual Reproduction
In animals, the process of asexual reproduction ensures that future generations of
individuals carry the same genetic information as to their parents. Thus, offspring are
usually called clones. Asexual reproduction is usually an option for animals when they
cannot locate their mating partners. Also, this allows them to rapidly and efficiently
colonize a particular environment.
● Fission or binary fission, as shown below in Fig. 8.2.5, is a form of asexual
reproduction where new individuals are formed through the splitting of the parent
into approximately equal halves. The sea anemone is an example of organism that
perform this type of asexual reproduction.

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Fig. 8.2.5. Fission in organisms such as Anthopleura artemisia (sea anemone)

● Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction where a parent needs to break its

body parts into fragments to allow regeneration and regrowth of lost parts, as shown
below in Fig. 8.2.6. The fragments grow and form new, fully functional individuals.
For example, sea stars break their arms and allow them to regenerate and form
clones. Take note that only arms with part of the central disk attached can grow a
new organism.

Fig. 8.2.6. Sea stars perform fragmentation and subsequent regeneration of lost
parts.

● Budding is a form of asexual reproduction where a bud or outgrowth forms in the

body of the parent and develops into a new individual. This bud eventually breaks off
from the parent’s body once functional organs are already present. For example, the
hydra (as shown in Fig. 8.2.7) is a freshwater cnidarian that forms a bud from the
parent’s body, and this bud eventually detaches to become a new individual.

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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Fig. 8.2.7. Budding in hydra begins as an outgrowth in the parent’s body.

● Parthenogenesis is a highly specialized form of asexual reproduction where an

offspring is produced without fertilization, as shown in Fig. 8.2.8. The haploid
unfertilized egg develops into an adult individual. Female bees perform
parthenogenesis to produce haploid drones or males. In bee colonies, males are
always haploid, and females are always diploid. Thus, when there is fertilization
always results in female bees. However, if fertilization is absent, males are formed.

Fig. 8.2.8. Parthenogenesis in female bees forms haploid male bees.

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction in animals requires male and female parents to perform
gametogenesis, which involves a meiotic division. Afterward, fertilization follows where the
combination of genes from both parents enhances the genetic variation in populations, an
aspect that is not present in asexual reproduction. Fertilization during sexual reproduction
in animals can happen internally or externally, as shown in Fig. 8.2.9.

● External fertilization refers to the process where the union of egg and sperm
occurs outside the female reproductive tract. This is common among aquatic
animals, especially in most species of corals, bony fishes, and amphibians.
● Internal fertilization refers to the process where the union of egg and sperm
occurs in the female reproductive tract. The male parent deposits sperm cells into
the reproductive tract of the female parent so that fertilization occurs internally.

Fig. 8.2.9. Sexual reproduction is accomplished externally in fishes and internally in birds.

For animals in which fertilization occurs internally, embryos are produced and nourished in
three different ways, as shown in Fig. 8.2.10.
○ Oviparity: The eggs are fertilized internally, but they will complete their
development outside the mother’s body. Embryos obtain their nourishment from
the yolk nutrients stored in eggs. Examples of oviparous animals include bony fishes,
cartilaginous fishes, reptiles, and birds.

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○ Ovoviviparity: The eggs are fertilized internally, and they complete their
development within the mother or rarely, in the father. Ovoviviparous animals
produce embryos in eggs but do not lay them. Rather, eggs hatch within the body of
the parent. Ovoviviparous animals include some bony fishes, cartilaginous fishes,
and reptiles.
○ Viviparity: The eggs are also fertilized internally. However, the embryos receive
most of their nourishment directly from their mother’s blood through the placenta
rather than from the yolk. Viviparous animals include some insects, cartilaginous
fishes, and mammals.

A B C
Fig. 8.2.10. (A) Oviparous frogs lay eggs so that tadpoles are nourished outside of the
female’s body. (B) Seahorses are ovoviviparous. Males house the developing eggs inside
their bodies until they are ready to hatch. (C) Viviparous mammals like sheep directly
nourish their young until they give birth.

Mechanism of Fertilization
During fertilization, only one sperm shall fertilize the egg. The fusion of two or more sperms
with an egg can lead to polyspermy, and it causes abnormal development. Thus, the egg
has some mechanisms, namely, the “fast block” and the “slow block” to prevent
polyspermy. The general mechanism of fertilization is shown below in Fig. 8.2.11.
1. The head of the sperm cell comes into contact with the jelly layer or zona pellucida,
which refers to the outermost layer of the egg cell in most animal species.
2. Sperm receptors attach to the glycoproteins on the egg cell that initiates the
acrosome reaction. The acrosome is located at the tip of the head of sperm, which
contains digestive enzymes that can degrade the egg’s zona pellucida.

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
and Development
3. The sperm penetrates the egg plasma membrane. This interaction is mediated by the
bindin, a protein in sperm that is species-specific to the receptors in the egg. The
species-specific interaction initiates the fusion of the sperm and egg membranes. An
electrical depolarization forms at the egg plasma membrane, which restricts other
sperm cells from fusing. This process refers to the fast block to polyspermy.

Fig. 8.2.11. The general mechanism of fertilization that helps prevent polyspermy

4. The membrane depolarization initiates calcium release and triggers a cortical

reaction, a form of exocytosis in the egg. This lifts the vitelline layer of the egg
away from the plasma membrane and creates the fertilization envelope.
5. The fertilization envelope acts as a shield that prevents other sperm from entering
the egg. This process refers to the slow block to polyspermy.
6. Now the egg is activated, and the fusion of the genetic material from maternal and
paternal parents occurs.

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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Animal Development
During development, the fertilized egg will undergo a series of mitotic divisions. This event
is needed to increase the number of cells in the developing embryo. Afterward, cells will
start to migrate and differentiate in order to form highly specialized tissues that will
eventually form the future organs of the offspring.

Embryogenesis
The activated egg will begin a series of rapid cell divisions called cleavage, as shown in Fig.
8.2.12. Every cleavage cell division occurs within a span of 10 minutes. Cells divide and
increase in number, but the developing zygote does not increase in size. Repeated cell
division forms the morula, a solid ball of cells. Cells that progressively become smaller are
called blastomeres. After a series of cleavage, the blastula stage is attained.
● The blastula is a spherical mass of blastomeres that represents the first embryonic
tissue. The blastula consists of the blastoderm and blastocoel.
○ The blastoderm is a layer of cells that surrounds the yolk-filled cavity.
○ The blastocoel refers to the yolk cavity at the center of the developing
embryo. It is the first cavity that is formed during embryonic development.

Fig. 8.2.12. Cleavage formation and the blastula

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
and Development
After the formation of the blastula, gastrulation will follow. Gastrulation, as shown in Fig.
8.2.13, refers to the rearrangement of the cells in the blastula. This is possible due to the
active cell migration within the developing embryo. As a result, three distinct layers of cells
will be formed, namely, the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm. Each layer will soon
form the different organs of the offspring.

Fig. 8.2.13. Gastrulation involves the rearrangement of cells to form three distinct layers,
namely, the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. The process starts at the animal pole of
the blastula, where there is less yolk as compared to the vegetal pole. This also forms the
archenteron, the initial alimentary canal in the developing embryo.

Organogenesis
During organogenesis, organs and tissues are starting to form through further cell division
and cell differentiation. One of the early signs of organ formation in the developing embryo
is the neurulation, the mechanism of which is shown in Fig. 8.2.14. It refers to the
formation of the future brain and spinal cord in vertebrates. During neurulation in the
embryo, an ectodermal group of cells called the neural plate starts to fold and eventually
form the neural tube.

The neural tube is the embryonic precursor of the central nervous system. Thus, it
ultimately gives rise to the brain and the spinal cord. At the same time, the mesodermal
layer of the gastrula starts to form the notochord of the embryo. The notochord is a rod of
cartilage that serves as the primary skeletal element in the embryo and eventually forms the
future vertebral column of vertebrate species.

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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Fig. 8.2.14. Neurulation allows for the formation of the neural tube in the embryo

The process of gastrulation provides a greater understanding of organ formation. Most of

the tissues and organs of the developing organism will be derived from the three layers
formed during gastrulation. Fig. 8.2.15 below shows the different types of cells that will
come from the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm of the gastrula.

Fig. 8.2.15. Derivative organs of the three layers of the gastrula

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
and Development

What do you think will happen if cells do not

differentiate during the development of the
embryo?

Did You Know?

The genetic information in the DNA plays an important role in
regulating the differentiation and migration of cells in the
developing embryo. One important gene for the development of
organisms is the hox genes. It refers to a subset of a gene family
that dictates the general architecture of the embryo orientation.
The proteins encoded by these genes specify the proper positioning
of the organs and regulate the general orientation of the body of
the future individual.

Different hox genes that control the body orientation. Body regions are
color-coded in the gene sequence.

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
and Development

Key Points
__________________________________________________________________________________________
● The life cycle of an animal usually starts from the fusion of the male (sperm) and the
female (egg cell) gametes during the fertilization process.
● Metamorphosis is a biological feature in the life cycle of some organisms. It can
either be complete or incomplete, depending on whether a pupa stage is present.
● The fertilized egg will undergo active cell division and cell differentiation to form the
developing embryo during embryogenesis.
● The embryo will undergo organogenesis, where it starts to form several types of
tissues that will lead to the formation of the organs and organ systems.
● Once an individual is formed, this will grow and mature into an adult, which will be
capable of reproducing and forming another generation of individuals.

The general pattern of the development of a fertilized egg into an adult organism
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Check Your Understanding

A. Determine the accuracy of each of the following statements.

Write true if the statement is correct and false if otherwise.

1. During reproduction, the fusion of gametes of adult individuals allows for the
formation of new generations of offspring.
2. The process of sexual reproduction in animals ensures that the future generation
of individuals carries the same genetic information as to their parents.

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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3. Gastrulation refers to the rearrangement of the cells in the blastula.
4. The layers of a gastrula include the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm.
5. After fertilization, the fertilized will begin a series of rapid cell divisions.
6. In a blastula, the cells divide and increase in number, and the developing zygote
also increases in size.
7. The blastula is a ball of blastomeres that represents the first embryonic tissue after
fertilization.
8. Each layer of the blastula will soon form the different organs of the new individual.
9. To avoid polyspermy from occurring, the egg performs “fast-block” and “slow-block”
mechanisms.
10. Tissues and organs of a newly formed offspring will arise through a series of cell
division and differentiation.

B. Complete the Venn diagrams by comparing and contrasting the given

terms below.

1. Blastula and gastrula

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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2. Fast block and slow block against polyspermy

Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions.

1. What is the importance of reproduction in animals?

2. What is the importance of development in animals?
3. Do you think the reproduction process in animals is more complicated than in
plants? Explain your answer.
4. Why is it important to avoid polyspermy during fertilization?
5. What are the special features of animal reproduction and development that are not
present in plants?

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
and Development

Photo Credits

Fission by The Open University of Hongkong is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 via Open
Textbooks for Hongkong.

Frog eggs by Geoff Gallice is licensed under CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

Pregnant male White's Seahorse-Hippocampus whitei (16175153524) by Sylke Rohrlach is

licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

Lambing in England -10March2012 (2) by Karen Roe is licensed under CC BY 2.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.

Bibliography
Coyne, Jerry. 2009. Why Evolution Is True. Oxford University Press. Genetic Science Learning
Center. July 1, 2013.

Johnson, G.B., and Raven, P.H. 2001. Biology: Principles & Explorations. Austin: Holt, Rinehart,
and Winston.

Klug, W.S., Spencer, C.A., and Cummings, M.R. 2016. Concepts of Genetics. Boston: Pearson.

Mader, S.S. 2014. Concepts of Biology. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

Reece, J.B., and Campbell, N.A. 2011. Campbell Biology. Boston: Benjamin
Cummings/Pearson.

8.2. Animal Reproduction and Development 20