In an Impulse steam turbine compounding can be achieved in the

following three ways:

1. Velocity compounding
2. Pressure compounding
3. Pressure-Velocity Compounding

In a reaction turbine compounding can be achieved only by pressure

compounding.

Velocity compounded Impulse turbine

The velocity compounded Impulse turbine was first proposed by C.G. Curtis
to solve the problem of single stage Impulse turbine for use of high
pressure and temperature steam.

The rings of moving blades are separated by rings of fixed blades. The
moving blades are keyed to the turbine shaft and the fixed blades are fixed
to the casing. The high pressure steam coming from the boiler is expanded
in the nozzle first. The Nozzle converts the pressure energy of the steam into
kinetic energy. The total enthalpy drop and hence the pressure drop occurs
in the nozzle. Hence, the pressure thereafter remains constant.

Disadvantages of Velocity Compounding

• Due to the high steam velocity there are high friction losses.
• Work produced in the low-pressure stages is much less.
• The designing and fabrication of blades that can withstand such
high velocities is difficult.

Pressure compounded Impulse turbine

The pressure compounded Impulse turbine is also called a Rateau turbine,
after its inventor. This is used to solve the problem of high blade velocity in
the single-stage impulse turbine.

It consists of alternate rings of nozzles and turbine blades. The nozzles are
fitted to the casing and the blades are keyed to the turbine shaft.
In this type of compounding the steam is expanded in a number of stages,
instead of just one (nozzle) in the velocity compounding. It is done by the
fixed blades which act as nozzles. The steam expands equally in all rows of
fixed blade. The steam coming from the boiler is fed to the first set of fixed
blades i.e. the nozzle ring. The steam is partially expanded in the nozzle
ring. Hence, there is a partial decrease in pressure of the incoming steam.
This leads to an increase in the velocity of the steam. Therefore, the
pressure decreases and velocity increases partially in the nozzle.

Disadvantages of Pressure Compounding

• Since there is pressure drop in the nozzles, it has to be made air-

tight.
• They are much larger at 34 inches

Velocity & Pressure compounded Impulse turbine

It is a combination of the above two types of compounding. The total
pressure drop of the steam is divided into a number of stages. Each stage
consists of rings of fixed and moving blades. Each set of rings of moving
blades is separated by a single ring of fixed blades. In each stage there is
one ring of fixed blades and 3-4 rings of moving blades. Each stage acts as
a velocity compounded impulse turbine.

The fixed blades act as nozzles. The steam coming from the boiler is
passed to the first ring of fixed blades, where it gets partially expanded. The
pressure partially decreases and the velocity rises correspondingly. The
velocity is absorbed by the following rings of moving blades until it reaches
the next ring of fixed blades and the whole process is repeated once again.
Unit Quantities:
1] Unit speed.
2] Unit discharge.
3] Unit Power.

1] Unit speed.
It is defined as the speed of a turbine working under a unit head (i.e. under a head of 1m) it
is denoted by 'Nu'
N = Speed of a turbine under a head 'H'
H = Head under which a turbine is working.
u = Tangential velocity.
The tangential velocity, absolute velocity of water and head on the turbine are related as,
uαvuαv (where VαH−−√VαH)
αH−−√αH ----(1)
Also tangential velocity (u) is given by

u=πDN60u=πDN60
For a given turbine, the diameter (D) is constant.

∴∴ (uαN)(uαN) or (Nαu)(Nαu) or (NαH−−√)(NαH)

∴∴ N=k1H−−√N=k1H ---- (2)
Where k1k1 is a constant of proportionality.
If head on the turbine becomes unity, the speed becomes unit speed or when

(H = 1), (N = Nu)

Substituting these values in equation (2), we get…

Nu=k11–√.0Nu=k11.0
=K1=K1
substituting the value of k1k1 in equation (2)

N=NuH−−√N=NuH or Nu = NH√NH
2] Unit Discharge.

It is defined as, the discharge passing through a turbine, which is working under a unit
head (i.e. lm). It is denoted by the symbol 'Qu'

H = Head of water on the turbine.

Q = Discharge passing through turbine when head is 'H' on the turbine.

a = Area of flow of water.

The discharge passing through a given turbine under a head 'H' is given by

Q = Area of flow x Velocity

But for a turbine, area of flow is constant and velocity is proportional to H−−√H

QQ αα velocity αH−−√αH ∴∴ Q=K2H−−√Q=K2H ------- (3)

where K2K2 is constant of proportionality.
If, H = 1 , Q = Qu

substituting these values in equation (3), we get

qu=qu=K_21–√.01.0
= K2K2
substituting the value of k2 in equation (3), we get

Q=QuH−−√Q=QuH
∴∴ Qu=QH√Qu=QH

3] Unit power.
It is defined as the power developed by a turbine, working under a unit head. it is denoted
by 'Pu' The expression is as follows.
H = Head of water on the turbine.
P = Power developed by turbine.
Q = Discharge through turbine under head 'H'
The overall efficiency (nono) is given by
no=power developed water power no=power developed water power
=pp×g×Q×H1000=pp×g×Q×H1000
∴∴ p=no×p× h×Q×H1000p=no×p× h×Q×H1000
αQ×HαQ×H
αH−−√×HαH×H (∵QαH−−√∵QαH)
αH3/2αH3/2
∴∴ p=k3H3/2p=k3H3/2
where k3k3 is constant of proportionality
when, H = 1m , p = pu

∴∴ pu=k3(1)3/2pu=k3(1)3/2
= k3k3

Substituting the value of k3k3 in equation (4)

we get,

P=PuH3/2P=PuH3/2
∴∴ pu=pH3/2pu=pH3/2
use of unit quantities (Nu,Qu,Pu)(Nu,Qu,Pu)

Nu=N1H√1=N2H2√Nu=N1H1=N2H2
Qu=Q1H√1=Q2H2√Qu=Q1H1=Q2H2
Pu=P1H31/2=P2H32/2

Cavitation :
cavitation, formation of vapour bubbles within a liquid at low-pressure

regions that occur in places where the liquid has been accelerated to high

velocities, as in the operation of centrifugal pumps, water turbines, and

marine propellers. Cavitation is undesirable because it produces extensive

erosion of the rotating blades, additional noise from the resultant knocking

and vibrations, and a significant reduction of efficiency because it distorts

the flow pattern.

Surging :
Surging is a momentary backflow through the compressor from the

discharge to the suction. This can occur when the mass flow of gas to the

compressor falls below a critical level with a high-pressure difference.

Surging is the complete breakdown of steady flow in the compressor which

occurs at a low flow rate.

Choking :
Choking is the condition which occurs in the compressor in which it

operates at a very high mass flow rate and flows through the compressor

can’t be further increased as mach number at some part of the

compressor reach to unity i.e. to sonic velocity and the flow is said to be

choked.

Losses of steam turbine :

These losses can be categorized into four main types of losses; leakage,

friction, moisture, and particle.

Leakage is any flow that escapes travel through the blading. For example,

steam seeping through clearances and gaps between the rotating and

stationary components. An example of leakage is found when steam

passes through the seals on wheels and diaphragms.

Frictional losses occur when the steam comes into contact with any

surface between the inlet and exhaust. The density of the steam is

significantly higher at the inlet compared to the exhaust, which causes

more frictional losses. Since the rotor is completely surrounded by the

steam, the surface roughness of any component in the turbine casing

directly impacts the steams energy.

Moisture occurs in condensing turbines when the temperature of the

steam drops below the saturation line. Moisture loss occurs when the

condensed moisture passes through the vanes and affects the moving

blades as the temperature of the steam drops.

Particle loss is a function of steam purity. Steam purity can be categorized

as either inert or reactive. Inert describes a contaminant that causes

deposit to form whereas reactive describes a corrosion causing

contaminant.

Reheating :

The reheat cycle increases the turbine work and consequently the
net work of the cycle. This is accomplished not by changing
the compressor work or the turbine inlet temperature but instead by
dividing the turbine expansion into two or more parts with constant
pressure heating before each expansion.

Reheat factor:

It is defined as the ratio of cumulative heat drop to the adiabatic heat drop

in all stages of the turbine. The value of reheat factor depends on the type

and efficiency of the turbine. The value of the reheat factor is of the order

of 1.1 to 1.5.
Reheat factor (R.F) = Cummulative heat drop/isentropic heat drop(overall)

INTERCOOLERS :
Intercooler is used to reduce the work required for compression of a gas.
Intercoolers are used in between two stages of compressor. At first stage
the gas is get compressed to a temperature T2(from state1 to state2) and
then it is usually cooled to the temperature at the start of
compression(T3=T1). Again the gas is compressed to desired
temperature(state3 to state4)

While compressing a gas without intercooler the gas is compressed from

state1 to state2″.
Regeneration :
Regeneration in thermodynamics process refers to a method where the
certain quantity of heat abstracted from the steam is utilized to heat the
water. The regeneration process occurs between the stages of turbine and
pump respectively. Using regeneration, the efficiencies of thermodynamic
cycles can be improved.

Working principal of centrifugal pump :

The basic principle of operation of centrifugal pumps is – force vortex flow.
This means, when a body of liquid is acted upon by an external torque, it
increases the pressure head of the rotating liquid. This increase in pressure
is directly proportional to the velocity of the liquid.

Suction head :
The positive pressure in feet (meters) of water or pounds per square inch
(kilograms per square centimeter) of mercury vacuum on the suction side
of a pump. The pressure can be measured from the centerline of the pump
up to the elevation of the hydraulic grade line on the suction side of the
pump.

Discharge tube :
the discharge of a centrifugal pump will be directly proportional to square
of the diameter of its impeller. Head of a centrifugal pump will also be
directly proportional to the square of the diameter of its impeller. And the
power created by a centrifugal pump will be directly proportional to the
fourth power of its impeller.
Static head :
Vertical Lift, also known as Static Head, is the height that water has to travel
as it moves through your discharge pipe. To estimate this, measure the
vertical distance from where water enters your sump pump to where the
discharge pipe turns from vertical to horizontal.

H = hs+hd

Manometric head :
Manometric Head (Hm): The manometric head is defined as the head
against which a centrifugal pump has to work. It is given by the following
expressions:

• Hm = Head imparted by the impeller to the water – Loss of head in

the pump
• Hm = Total head at the outlet of the pump – Total head at the inlet of
the pump
• Hm = Suction Head (hs ) + Delivery Head (hd ) + Friction head loss in
the suction pipe (hfs ) + Friction head loss in the Delivery pipe (hfd )
+ Velocity head of water in the delivery pipe (V2 /2g).
Centrifugal pumps :

Governing of hydraulic turbine :

Governing of hydraulic turbine means speed regulation. Governing of a
turbine is necessary as a turbine is directly coupled to an electric
generator, which is required to run at constant speed under all fluctuating
load conditions. This is achieved by means of a governor called oil
pressure governor.
Governing of Impulse Turbines :
Governing of Impulse Turbines In order to regulate the quantity of water
rejected from the turbine nozzle and from striking the buckets one of the
following methods of regulation may be adapted : 1. Spear regulation. 2.
Deflector regulation. 3. Combined spear and deflector regulation.

Governing of Reaction Turbines :

In a reaction turbine the discharge is controlled by varying the area of flow
between adjacent guide vanes. The guide vanes are connected to the
regulating ring through links. The regulating ring is connected to the
regulating lever through two regulating rods. The regulating ring is thus
connected to the regulating shaft which is operated by a servomotor. The
servomotor, oil sump, control valve and system of pipes, etc. are similar to
that in the governing arrangement of an impulse turbine. The component
parts are, however, stronger as greater energy is required to move the
gates as compared to the spear in the nozzle of a Pelton turbine.

Read problems and velocity diagrams from the notes

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