BMEE203L– Engineering Thermodynamics

Unit 1 – Introduction and Basic

Concepts of Thermodynamics
Feroskhan M
Associate Professor,
School of Mechanical Engineering
 Module 1 - Introduction and Basic
Concepts of Thermodynamics
Topic Date

10/8/2022
Introduction to the course - Systems and control volume,
properties of a system, state and equilibrium, quasi
12/08/2022
Static equilibrium

processes and cycles, forms of energy, 13/08/2022

17/08/2022
pressure, work and heat transfer,
19/08/2022
temperature and the Zeroth law of thermodynamics

MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics

 Some Famous Words…
“Thermodynamics is a funny subject.

The first time you go through it, you don't understand it at all.

The second time you go through it, you think you understand
it, except for one or two small points.

The third time you go through it, you know you don't
understand it, but by that time you are so used to it, it doesn't
bother you anymore.”

— Arnold Sommerfeld

MEE1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics

 Thermodynamics
• The name ‘Thermodynamics’ is derived by
combining the Greek words ‘Therme’ meaning
heat and ‘Dynamis’ meaning Power
• The subject of Thermodynamics deals with the
conversion of Heat to Work (Power
Generation) and vice versa (Refrigeration)
• Even the Relationship among properties of
matter is dealt in Thermodynamics

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 Conservation of Energy
• The principle of ‘Conservation of Energy’ is a
fundamental law of nature
• It states that ‘Energy can neither be created
nor destroyed’
• Energy can only be changed from one form to
another
• A rock falling from a cliff has its potential
energy converted to kinetic energy

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 1st and 2nd Laws of Thermodynamics
• The 1st Law of Thermodynamics is simply as
assertion of the Principle of Conservation of
Energy
• It deals with quantities of energy
• The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics deals with
quantity as well as quality of energy
• It tells whether a process is possible or not,
which the 1st Law cannot tell

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 Application of Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics is everywhere
• The body heat generated due to metabolic
activity is continuously rejected to the
environment
• A residential building having solar water
heaters, refrigerator, humidifier etc is an
example of application of Thermodynamics

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 System
• A System is a fixed quantity or a region in space
chosen for study

• The mass or region outside the system is called

the Surroundings
• The real or imaginary surface that separates the
System from the Surroundings is called the
Boundary

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 Closed System (Control Mass)
• A Closed System is one which does not permit
mass to cross the system boundary. However,
energy can cross

• Energy can be in the form of Heat and Work

• If even the energy is not permitted to cross the
boundary, the system would be an Isolated
System
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Closed System with Moving Boundary
• The system boundary doesn’t have to be fixed

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 Open System (Control Volume)
• If a system permits both mass and energy
across its boundary, it is called an Open
System
• A large number of engineering problems
involve flow of mass in and out of a system
• Any arbitrary region in space can be selected
as a control volume
• A proper choice of control volume can make
the analysis simpler
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Control Volumes

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 Properties
• Any (measurable) characteristic of a system
• Examples: Temperature, volume, mass, moles, pressure,
enthalpy, entropy
• Others: Thermal conductivity, viscosity, density, electrical
resistance
• Symbols and Units
• Intensive properties – independent of mass of the system
• Extensive properties – depend on the size, mass
• Usually extensive are uppercase, intensive are lower case
• Extensive/mass or moles = Specific (intensive) properties
• e.g. Enthalpy, Volume, Entropy

MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics

Method to Determine Extensive or
Intensive Property

14
 Continuum
• Matter consists of atoms/molecules
• Space between particles: Solids < Liquids < Gas
• We deal mostly with gases – large voids (empty spaces)
• e.g. O2 : molecules : ~ 10-10 m (Angstrom), Mean free path (MFP) : 10-8 m
• Equivalent to : A human being meeting another after walking 100 m
• MFP << System dimensions (~ 0.1 – 1 m)
• Knudsen number (Kn) = (Mean Free Path) / System Dimension
• ~ 1025 molecules in 1 m3 O2
• Which means at any given point, we are very likely to find a particle
• Matter assumed to be a continuous, homogeneous medium with no voids
– continuum
• Properties vary continuously without jump discontinuities
• Continuum approach valid so long as Kn < 0.1
• Large MFP – requires rarefied gas flow theory (dynamics) – individual
particles (statistical)
MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics
 State
• The state of a system is its condition
• The state is completely described by a set of
properties (e.g. T, P, v)
• It is not necessary to specify all the properties
to describe a state
• The state postulate says that the state of a
simple compressible system is completely
specified by two independent intensive
properties
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 Equilibrium
• Thermodynamics deals with systems in equilibrium state
• State of balance (steady state) – no spontaneous change occurs in the
system properties when isolated from the surroundings
• No net mass and energy flow,
• No unbalanced potentials (driving forces) within the system (e.g.
temperature)
• No net change in composition/phase
• An isolated system left to itself reaches eqbm in the course of time
Non-eqbm Eqbm

Property X
@ a point

Time
MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics
 Components of Equilibrium
• Mechanical eqbm: No unbalanced forced within system (internal eqbm) and at
its boundaries (external eqbm) – pressure at any point doesn’t change with
time – can vary with elevation  gravity effect – usually neglected
• Chemical eqbm: No net change in chemical structure/composition – by
chemical reaction, diffusion etc.
• Thermal eqbm: Uniformity of temperature within the system (internal eqbm)
and between system and surroundings (external eqbm) - no T gradients - no
property change occurs when system is free to exchange heat with
surroundings (diathermic walls)
• Phase eqbm: Multiphase systems – mass of each phase remains constant
• Eqbm state represented by a set of properties – p, T, concentration

MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics

 Equilibrium
• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states
• Equilibrium implies balance
• There are several kinds of Equilibrium
• In an equilibrium state, there are no
unbalanced potentials
• Thermodynamics is concerned with Thermal,
Mechanical and Chemical equilibrium

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 Thermal Equilibrium
• A system is in Thermal Equilibrium if its
temperature is equal throughout the system

• After attaining equilibrium, there will be no

thermal gradients responsible for heat
transfer
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Mechanical and Chemical Equilibrium
• Mechanical equilibrium is said to have been
attained if the pressure in the system does not
change with time
• The pressure may vary within the system
• Chemical equilibrium is said to have been
attained when the chemical composition does
not change with time
• For a system to be in Thermodynamic
equilibrium, it must be in thermal, mechanical
and chemical equilibrium at the same time
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 Process, path, cycle
• Thermodynamic process – system undergoing transition from one eqbm
state to another
• Path – a series of intermediate states which describe the process
• Multiple paths from initial state (IS) to final state (FS)
• Process diagrams use thermodynamic properties like p, T, V
• Complete description of process – IS, FS, path
• Iso- processes: Isobaric, Isochoric/Isometric, Isothermal, Isentropic
• Cyclic process: IS = FS, no net change in the system properties, cyclic
integral = 0

MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics

 Processes and Cycles
• Process is the change in state a system
undergoes from one equilibrium state to the
other

• The series of states through which a system

passes during a process is called the Path
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 Process Diagrams
• Process diagrams plotted with thermodynamic
properties as coordinates are useful in
visualizing the process

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 Various Processes
• Isothermal Process: Temperature remains
constant, E.g. Phase change processes
• Isobaric Process: Pressure remains constant,
E.g. Heat addition in diesel engine
• Isochoric Process: Volume remains constant,
E.g. Heat addition in petrol engine
• Isentropic Process: Entropy remains constant,
E.g. Expansion in steam turbine

25
 Cycle
• A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it
returns to its initial state at the end of the
process

26
 Steady State Process
• A process during which a fluid flows through a
control volume steadily

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 Quasi-equilibrium
• Process can be represented only if system is in eqbm at all intermediate
points – ideal
• If departure from eqbm is infinitesimally small – quasi-static process/
quasi-eqbm (QE) process – slow processes
• e.g. Slow expansion (infinitesimally small Dp), slow heating (infinitesimally
small DT)
• Path is defined only for QE process - shown by solid line. Non QE process –
dashed line – intermediate states don’t have a unique property
representing the system

MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics

 Why Quasi-equilibrium

• Easy to analyse – TD principles apply to all points in a process

• Many real processes are closely approximated by QE
• Maximum work output in power generation systems

MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics

 Quasi-Static Process
• It is a process which proceeds in such a
manner that it is infinitesimally close to an
equilibrium state at all times

30
 Quasi-Static Process…
• It is an idealized process and is not a true
representation of an actual process
• However, most processes are close to quasi-
static process
• They are easy to analyze and
• A work producing device produces maximum
work when operating in a quasi-static process

31
 Pressure
• Pressure is defined as the normal force
exerted by a fluid per unit area
• Absolute pressure is the actual pressure
• Gauge (or Gage) pressure is the pressure over
and above atmospheric pressure
• Vacuum pressure is the pressure below
atmospheric pressure
• 1 atmosphere = 101325 Pa = 1.01325 bar
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Absolute, Gauge and Vacuum
Pressures

Pgauge = Pabs – Patm

Pvac = Patm - Pabs

33
 Forms of Energy
• Energy can exist in various forms
• The sum of all forms of energy is known as Total Energy (E)
• Thermodynamics deals with changes in total energy and not
its absolute value
• Macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as
a whole with respect to some outside reference frame (E.g KE,
PE)
• Microscopic forms of energy are those related to the
molecular structure of a system and the degree of molecular
activity.
• Microscopic energy is independent of outside reference
frames
• The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is called the
Internal Energy 34
 Forms of Energy…
• Energy can exist as thermal, mechanical,
kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical,
and nuclear forms
• The energy possessed as a virtue of motion is
called as Kinetic Energy
• That energy that a system possesses as a
result of its elevation is called Potential Energy

35
 Heat Energy
• Heat is the form of energy that is transferred
between two systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of temperature
difference
• Heat is energy in transition
• It is recognized only as it crosses the system
boundary
• A process during which there is no heat
transfer is called an Adiabatic System
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 Work
• Work is an energy interaction between a system
and its surroundings
• Only heat and work cross system boundaries of a
closed system
• If the energy crossing the boundary of a closed
system is not heat, then it must be work
• Work is the energy transfer associated with a
force acting through a distance, e.g. rising piston,
rotating shaft etc.
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 Similarities between Heat and Work
• Both are recognized at the boundaries of a
system
• Both are associated with processes and not
states
• Both are path functions

38
Path and Point Functions

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Sign Convention

(+)

(-)

(-)

(+)

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 Total Energy
• The magnetic, electrical, surface tension
effects are significant only in few specialized
cases only and are usually neglected
• Then the total energy of a system is given as
E = U + KE + PE
• Most closed systems remain stationary during
a process and have no change in KE or PE
• Such systems are called as Stationary Systems
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 Mechanical Energy
• Some engineering systems are designed to
transport a fluid at a certain rate, velocity,
pressure
• The fluid may be used in a turbine to produce
power
• They may also consume energy (pump, fan)
• Not all systems deal with heat
• Such systems can be analyzed by considering
only the mechanical form of energy
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 Mechanical Energy…
• Mechanical Energy is that form of energy that
can be converted to mechanical work
completely and directly by an ideal
mechanical device such as an ideal turbine
• KE and PE are forms of Mechanical Energy but
not Thermal Energy
P V2
emech    gz
 2
P V2 
Emech  m    gz 
 2  43
Change in Mechanical Energy
P2  P1 V22  V12
Demech    g z2  z1 
 2
 P2  P1 V22  V12 
DEmech  m    g z2  z1 
  2 

The mechanical energy of a fluid does not

change if the pressure, density, velocity and
elevation remain constant

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 Mechanical Forms of Work
2n
• Shaft Work: Wshaft 
60

• Spring Work:
1

Wspring  k x22  x12
2

2
• Elastic Work: Welastic    n Adx
1

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Organized and Disorganized Energy
• Macroscopic kinetic energy – ordered motion – entire system
moves uniformly in one direction (straight line or rotary)
• Microscopic kinetic energy – random molecular motion
• Similar case with PE
• Organized energy is more viable for conversion to work
• Example of water in a dam

MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics

 Static and Dynamic Energy
• Static energy: Total energy which is contained/stored in a
system. Does not cross boundaries as such

• Dynamic energy: Means of transfer of energy between system

and surroundings – energy lost/gained by system
– Closed system : heat, work
– Open system: heat, work, mass flow

MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics

 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• Consider 2 systems (A&B) which coexist in eqbm for any possible values of
properties (Xa, Ya) and (Xb, Yb) when separated by an adiabatic wall

• When separated by a diathermic wall, the properties change

spontaneously until the systems are in thermal eqbm with each other.
Number of attainable values of X, Y are restricted

• A&B are separated by an adiabatic wall, but they are in contact with C
across a diathermic wall. i.e. A&B are in thermal eqbm with C. If the
adiabatic wall separating A&B is replaced by a diathermic wall, then no
further change in the states of A&B takes place, i.e. they are also in
thermal eqbm

• “Two systems independently in thermal eqbm with a third are in thermal

eqbm with each other” - R.H. Fowler (1931)

MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics

 Temperature
• 2 systems A (Xa1, Ya1) and B (Xb1, Yb1) are in thermal eqbm. A will
remain in thermal eqbm with B for other possible states (Xa2, Ya2) ,
(Xa3, Ya3) etc. The locus of these points on the X-Y diagram -
isotherm
• All pts on an isotherm of A will be in eqbm with all pts on the
corresponding isotherm of B. Property that is common to all pts on
an isotherm – temperature : determines whether a system will be
in thermal eqbm with another
• Systems not in thermal eqbm attain same temperature after being
in contact across a diathermic wall
• Thermometry – measurement of temperature
• A system in thermal eqbm with the thermometer has the same
temperature

MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics

 Thermometers
• Fix Y. Temperature of each isotherm is a function of X only: f(X)
• X : thermometric property. f(x) : Thermometric function – usually linear:
T = aX

Thermometer Thermometric property

Gas (V = const) Pressure

Gas (p = const) Volume

Electrical resistor Resistance

Thermocouple Thermoelectric emf

Liquid column in glass capillary Column height

MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics

 Thermometers – Principle of Measurement
Constant volume gas t.m
Resistance t.m

Constant pressure gas t.m

p h

V1 V2 Liquid in glass t.m Thermocouple

MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics
 Review Questions
• Why does a bicyclist pick up speed on a downhill road even when he is not
pedaling? Does this violate the conservation of energy principle?
• An office worker claims that a cup of cold coffee on his table warmed up
to 80°C by picking up energy from the surrounding air, which is at 25°C. Is
there any truth to his claim? Does this process violate any thermodynamic
laws?
• A large fraction of the thermal energy generated in the engine of a car is
rejected to the air by the radiator through the circulating water. Should
the radiator be analyzed as a closed system or as an open system? Explain.
• A can of soft drink at room temperature is put into the refrigerator so that
it will cool. Would you model the can of soft drink as a closed system or as
an open system? Explain.

MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics

 Review Questions
• For a system to be in thermodynamic equilibrium, do the temperature and
the pressure have to be the same everywhere?
• What is a quasi-equilibrium process? What is its importance in
engineering?
• Is the state of the air in an isolated room completely specified by the
temperature and the pressure? Explain.
• Consider an alcohol and a mercury thermometer that read exactly 0°C at
the ice point and 100°C at the steam point. The distance between the two
points is divided into 100 equal parts in both thermometers. Do you think
these thermometers will give exactly the same reading at a temperature
of, say, 60°C? Explain.
• Explain why some people experience nose bleeding and some others
experience shortness of breath at high elevations.

MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics

 Review Questions
• Portable electric heaters are commonly used to heat small rooms. Explain
the energy transfer involved during this heating process.
• Consider the process of heating water on top of an electric range. What
are the forms of energy involved during this process? What are the energy
transformations that take place?
• What is the difference between the macroscopic and microscopic forms of
energy?
• What is total energy? Identify the different forms of energy that constitute
the total energy.
• List the forms of energy that contribute to the internal energy of a system.
• How are heat, internal energy, and thermal energy related to each other?
• What is mechanical energy? How does it differ from thermal energy?
What are the forms of mechanical energy of a fluid stream?

MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics

 Review Questions
• In what forms can energy cross the boundaries of a closed system?
• When is the energy crossing the boundaries of a closed system heat and
when is it work?
• What is an adiabatic process? What is an adiabatic system?
• A gas in a piston–cylinder device is compressed, and as a result its
temperature rises. Is this a heat or work interaction?
• A room is heated by an iron that is left plugged in. Is this a heat or work
interaction? Take the entire room, including the iron, as the system.
• A room is heated as a result of solar radiation coming in through the
windows. Is this a heat or work interaction for the room?
• An insulated room is heated by burning candles. Is this a heat or work
interaction? Take the entire room, including the candles, as the system.
• What are point and path functions? Give some examples.

MEE 1003 - Engineering Thermodynamics

Thank You !