ME 291

(Thermo-fluid Engineering)

Part II: Thermodynamics

Credit hour: 4.00
4 classes/week
Course teacher:
Monowar Wadud Hridoy
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechatronics and Industrial Engineering
CUET
Syllabus:
Introduction to Thermodynamics properties of substances, Process and Cycles, Closed, Open
Thermodynamics and Isolated systems
Laws of Laws of thermodynamics, Work and heat transfer in flow and non-flow
Thermodynamics processes, Steady flow energy equation

Gas and Vapor Analysis of gas and vapor power cycles

Power Cycles
Refrigeration and Vapor compression refrigeration system, Refrigerants, Basics of Air
Air-Conditioning conditioning, Psychometrics, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Controls
Heat Transfer Basic modes and laws of heat transfer, Steady and unsteady state heat
transfer, Heat exchangers.
Reference Books:
• Thermodynamics - An Engineering Approach
By Yunus A. Cengel

• Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics

By Michael. J. Moran & Howard N Shapiro
Thermodynamic-science of energy

Thermodynamics= therme + Dynamics

(Heat) (Power)

So, Thermodynamics is the science that

discuss about converting Heat into Power.

Broadly, Thermodynamics include all aspects of

* Energy and Energy Transformation
* Power generation
* Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
* Relation among the properties of matters
Thermodynamics:
o Thermodynamics is the science of energy transfer and its effect
on the physical properties of substance.

o The study of thermodynamics is concerned with the ways energy is

stored within a body and how energy transformations, which
involve heat and work, may take place.
Heat Transfer:

o The science that deals with the determination of the rates of

transfer of heat.

oThe basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence of a

temperature difference.
Difference Between Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer:

o Thermodynamics tells us the amount of heat that must be

transferred to change the state of a system.

oHeat transfer tells us about the rate at which heat is transferred

(time necessary for heat to be transferred).
Classification of Thermodynamics:

Macroscopic Thermodynamics or Classical Thermodynamics: The

branch of thermodynamics that does not consider the molecular level
for analysis.

Microscopic Thermodynamics or Statistical Thermodynamics: The

branch of thermodynamics that considers the molecular level for
analysis.
 Thermodynamics

Classical Statistical

Classical Thermodynamics Statistical Thermodynamics

• Macroscopic approach to thermodynamics •Microscopic approach to thermodynamics

•It is a more elaborate approach based

•It does not require a knowledge of the
on the average behavior of large
behavior of individual particles
groups of individual particles
•Example: Pressure of a gas in a •Example: Pressure of a gas in a
container that can be measured by a container is the result of momentum
pressure gage attached to the transfer between the molecules and
container the walls of the container
Application Areas of Thermodynamics
It is hard to imagine an area that does not relate to thermodynamics in
some manner. However, as for indication-
• Human body (pumping blood, energy conversions of body cells,
metabolic heat rejection etc)
• Household utensils (electric or gas oven, heating and air conditioning
system, Refrigerator, humidifier, pressure cooker, water heater, shower,
iron, and even computer and TV)
• Design and analysis of automotive engines, rockets, jet engines, and
conventional or nuclear power plants, solar collectors, and design of
vehicles from ordinary cars to airplanes etc)
• Energy-efficient appliances (house, car, office, industries etc)
Application:
• System- A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space
chosen for study.
• Surroundings-The mass or region outside the system
is called the surroundings.

• Boundary-The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from

its surroundings is called the boundary. boundary of a system can be fixed
or movable

• Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending

on whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen
for study.
Closed System or Control mass:
• A closed system(also known as a control mass) consists of a fixed amount
of mass.
• No mass can cross its boundary (no mass can
enter or leave a closed system)
• But energy, in the form of heat or work, can
cross the boundary.
• The volume of a closed system does not have to be
fixed.
• If energy is not allowed to cross the boundary,
that system is called an isolated system.
• Example: piston cylinder arrangement.
Open System or Control Volume:
• An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly
selected region in space.
• Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control
volume.
• It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a
compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
• The boundaries of a control volume are called a control surface, and
they can be real or imaginary.
PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
• Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
• Example: Pressure (P), Temperature ,Thermal conductivity (k), Thermal
expansion coefficient (α),electric resistivity etc.

Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.

• Intensive Properties → whose value is independent of the size or extent of
the system.
Example: Temperature ,pressure ,density etc.
• Extensive Properties → Those quantities whose
values depend on the size or extent of the system.
Example: mass (m).Volume(V) etc.
PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
• An easy way to determine whether a property is intensive or extensive is to
divide the system into two equal parts with an imaginary partition.
• Each part will have the same value of intensive properties as the
original system, but half the value of the extensive properties.
• Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties. Some
examples of specific properties are specific volume (v V/m) and specific
total energy (e E/m).
Continuum
Matter is made up of atoms that are widely spaced in the gas phase.
Yet it is very convenient to disregard the atomic nature of a substance
and view it as a continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes, that
is, a continuum. The continuum idealization allows us to treat
properties as point functions and to assume the properties vary
continually in space with no jump discontinuities.
THERMODYNAMIC STATE OF A SYSTEM
• Consider a system not undergoing any change.
• If all the properties can be measured or calculated throughout the
entire system, which gives us a set of properties that completely
describes the condition, or the state of the system.
• At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values.
• If the value of even one property changes, the state will change to a
different one.
THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM OF A SYSTEM
• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.
• The word equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium
state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the
system.
• A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated
from its surroundings.
• A system will not be in equilibrium
Unless all the relevant equilibrium
criteria are satisfied.(thermal,
mechanical, chemical equilibrium etc)
Thermodynamic Equilibrium:
• Thermal Equilibrium
The temperature throughout the entire system is uniform.
• Mechanical Equilibrium
The pressure throughout the entire system is uniform.
• Phase Equilibrium
The mass of each phase is in equilibrium.
• Chemical Equilibrium
Chemical composition does not change with time, i.e. no chemical reactions
take place.
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
• Process-Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium
state to another is called a process.
• Process Path-The series of states through
which a system passes during a process is
called the path of the process.
• To describe a process completely, one should
specify the initial and final states of the process,
as well as the path it follows, and the interactions
with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or Quasi-equilibrium Process
• When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains
infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times, it is called a
quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium, process.
• A quasi-equilibrium process can be viewed as a
sufficiently slow process that allows the system
to adjust itself internally so that properties in
one part of the system do not change any faster
than those at other parts.
• It should be pointed out that a quasi-equilibrium
process is an idealized process and is not a true representation
of an actual process.
• It should be pointed out that a quasi-equilibrium process is an
idealized process and is not a true representation of an actual process.
• Engineers are interested in quasi-equilibrium processes for two
reasons.
*First, they are easy to analyse
*Second, work-producing devices deliver the most work on
quasi-equilibrium
• Quasi-equilibrium Process - the process path indicates a series of
equilibrium states.
• Non quasi-equilibrium Process – the process path is a dashed line
between the initial .and final states.
• Isothermal Process-A process during which the temperature T remains constant.
• Isobaric Process-A process during which the pressure P remains constant.
• Isochoric (or isometric) process-a process during which the specific volume v
remains constant.
• Adiabatic Process-A process during which there is no heat transfer through the
boundary.
• A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state at the end
of the process. That is, for a cycle the initial and final states are identical.
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES
Reversible Process
• A reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without
leaving any trace on the surroundings.
• That is, both the system and the surroundings are returned to their initial
states at the end of the reverse process.
• This is only possible if both net heat
exchange and net work transfer between
the system and surroundings is zero for
the combined (original and reverse) process.
• Reversible processes actually do not occur
in nature. They are merely idealizations of
actual processes. Reversible processes can
be approximated by actual devices, but they can never be achieved.
Conditions of Reversibility of a Cycle:
• The pressure & temperature of the working substance must not differ
• There should be no loss of energy during the cycle of operation
• The working parts of the engine must be friction free.

A process will be reversible if it execute infinitely slowly such that every state passes
through by the system in an equilibrium state.
It is possible if
a. Heat transfer from the surrounding to the system by virtue of infinitely small temperature
difference.
b. Work transfer from the system to the surroundings due to infinitely small pressure
difference.
c. If there are no dissipative effects (friction, turbulence, electrical resistance, magnetic
hysteresis, viscosity).
Irreversible Process
• Processes that are not reversible are called irreversible processes.
• For irreversible processes, the surroundings usually do some work on the system and
therefore does not return to their original state.
• All the processes occurring in nature are irreversible.
Main Causes for the Irreversibility:

The factors that cause a process to be irreversible are called irreversibilitys. Examples:
1. Friction
2. Unrestrained expansion
3. Mixing of two gases
4. Heat transfer across a finite temperature difference
5. Spontaneous chemical reactions
6. Expansion or Compression with finite pressure difference
7. Mixing of matter at different states
Isentropic Process
• A process during which the entropy remains constant is called an isentropic process.
• The entropy of a fixed mass does not change during a process that is internally reversible
and adiabatic.
• Many engineering systems or devices such as pump, turbines, nozzles, and diffusers are
essentially adiabatic in their operation, and they perform best when the irreversibility's,
such as the friction associated with the process, are minimized.
• Therefore, an isentropic process can serve as an appropriate model for actual processes.
Also, isentropic processes enable us to define efficiencies to compare the actual
performance to the performance under idealized model.
Polytropic Process
• During actual expansion and compression processes of gases, pressure
and volume are often related by PVn= C where n and C are constants.
A process of this kind is called a polytropic process.
FlOW PROCESSES
Steady-Flow Process
• The term steady implies no change with time.
• A process during which a fluid flows through
a control volume steadily That is, the fluid
properties can change from point to point
within the control volume, but at any fixed
point they remain the same during the entire
process.
• Therefore, the volume V, the mass m, and the total
energy content E of the control volume remain
constant during a steady flow process.
• Steady-flow conditions can be closely approximated by devices that are
intended for continuous operation such as turbines, pumps, boilers,
condensers and heat exchangers or power plants or refrigeration systems.
Unsteady-flow or Transient-flow Process
• The processes which involve changes in fluid properties within the
control volume with time.
• During an unsteady-flow process, it is important to keep track of the
mass and energy contents of the control volume as well as the energy
interactions across the boundary.