‫بسم اهلل الرحمن‬

‫الرحيم‬
 ‫د‪ /‬محمود السيد مصطفى‬
‫كمية الهندسة ‪ -‬جامعة الزقازيق‬ ‫•‬
‫قسم هندسة القوى الميكانيكية‬ ‫•‬
‫ماجستير في الهندسة الميكانيكية من جامعة الزقازيق (في مجال‬ ‫•‬
‫التبريد وتكييف الهواء)‬
‫دكتوراه الفمسفة في الهندسة الميكانيكية من جامعة القاهرة (في‬ ‫•‬
‫مجال انتقال الحرارة)‬

‫• محمول‪01090064976 :‬‬
‫• بريد الكتروني‪[email protected] :‬‬
 Thermodynamics
Contents
Chapter 1
Basic Concepts of thermodynamics
Chapter 2
Properties of Pure Substances
Chapter 3
The First Law of Thermodynamics (Closed system)
Chapter 4
The First Law of Thermodynamics (Open system)
Chapter 5
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Chapter 6
Entropy
 THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY
• Thermodynamic is a physical science.
• Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of
energy.
• The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek
words therme (heat) and dynamis (power), which is
most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into
power.
• The study of thermodynamics is concerned with the
ways energy is stored within a body and how energy
transformation which involve heat and work may take
place
Application Areas of Thermodynamics
• All activities in nature involve some interaction between
energy and matter; thus, it is hard to imagine an area
that does not relate to thermodynamics in some manner.
• Therefore, developing a good understanding of basic
principles of thermodynamics has long been an essential
part of engineering education.
• In fact, one does not need to go anywhere. The
heart is constantly pumping blood to all parts of
the human body, various energy conversions
occur in trillions of body cells, and the body heat
generated is constantly rejected to the
environment.
 Some application areas

• Turbines, pumps, engines, and compressors.

• Heat exchangers.
• Power planets.
• Cooling of electronic equipment
• Air conditions systems, refrigerators, water, and
water heaters.
• Solar collectors
• Rocket engine
• Fuel cells
• Wind and wave energy
Electrical power plant
Turbojet engine
Automobile engine
Turboshaft engine
 Conservation of energy principle
• One of the most fundamental laws of nature is
the conservation of energy principle.
• A person who has a greater energy input
(food) than energy output (exercise) will gain
weight (store energy in the form of fat), and a
person who has a smaller energy input than
output will lose weight.
• The change in the energy content of a body or
any other system is equal to the difference
between the energy input and the energy
output. The energy balance is expressed as
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
 • Force = (Mass) (Acceleration)
• F=ma

Another force unit in common use in many European

countries is the kilogram-force (kgf), which is the weight
of 1 kg mass at sea level (1 kgf = 9.807 N).
•The term weight is often incorrectly used to express
mass, particularly by the “weight watchers.” Unlike mass,
weight W is a force. It is the gravitational force applied to a
body, and its magnitude is determined from Newton’s
second law,
• where m is the mass of the body, and g is the
local gravitational acceleration (g is 9.807 m/s2
or 32.174 ft/s2 at sea level and 45° latitude).
• The weight of a unit volume of a substance is
called the specific weight w and is determined
from w = ρ g, where ρ is density.
• Work, which is a form of energy, can simply be
defined as force times distance; therefore, it
has the unit “(N · m),” which is called a joule
(J). That is,
 PRESSURE
• Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a
fluid per unit area. Since pressure is defined as
force per unit area, it has the unit of (N/m2), which
is called a Pascal (Pa). That is,
 Absolute pressure
• The actual pressure at a given position is called the
absolute pressure, and it is measured relative to
absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure). Most
pressure-measuring devices, however, are calibrated to
read zero in the atmosphere
• The difference between the absolute pressure and the
local atmospheric pressure. This difference is called the
gage pressure.
• Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called
vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum gages
that indicate the difference between the atmospheric
pressure and the absolute pressure
Pressure measurements
 TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• Although we are familiar with temperature as a
measure of “hotness” or “coldness,”
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if
two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third
body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each
other.

Two bodies reaching thermal equilibrium

after being brought into contact in an isolated enclosure.
 Temperature Scales
The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius
scale by

The Rankine scale is related to th Fahrenheit

scale by

The temperature scales in the two unit

systems are related by

The temperature differences ∆T, the

temperature interval on both scales is the
same. Raising the temperature of a
substance by 10°C is the same as raising it
by 10 K. That is,
 Thermodynamics systems
• In thermodynamics the term system is used to
identify the subject of the analysis.

• A system is defined as a quantity

of matter or a region in space
chosen for study.

• The mass or region outside the system is called the

surroundings.
• The real or imaginary surface that separates the
system from its surroundings is called the boundary.
• boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.
 TYPES OF SYSTEMS
• A closed system (also known as a control mass). That is, no
mass can enter or leave a closed But energy, in the form of
heat or work, can cross the boundary.

• If, as a special case, even energy is not allowed to cross

the boundary, that system is called an isolated system.
 Open system
An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a
properly selected region in space. It usually encloses a device that
involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle. Flow
through these devices is best studied by selecting the region within
the device as the control volume. Both mass and energy can cross
the boundary of a control volume.
Open system
 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
• Systems can be studied from a macroscopic or a
microscopic point of view.
• The macroscopic approach to thermodynamics is
concerned with the gross or overall behavior. This is
sometimes called classical thermodynamics.
• The microscopic approach to thermodynamics,
known as statistical thermodynamics, is concerned
directly with the structure of matter.
• A property is a macroscopic characteristic of a
system such as mass, volume, energy, pressure, and
temperature to which a numerical value can be
assigned at a given time without knowledge of the
previous behavior (history) of the system.
 Intensive and Extensive properties
• Intensive properties are those that are independent of
the mass of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and
density.
• Extensive properties are those whose values depend on
the size (mass) of the system. Total mass, total volume,
and total momentum are some examples of extensive
properties. An Extensive properties per unit mass are
called specific properties. Some examples of specific
properties are specific volume (v =V/m) and specific total
energy (e = E/m).
 STATE
• State is a set of properties that completely
describes the condition of the system. At a
given state, all the properties of a system have
fixed values.
 Thermodynamics Equilibrium
• The word equilibrium implies a state of balance. A
system in equilibrium experiences no changes when
it is isolated from its surroundings.
• Types of equilibrium
• Thermal equilibrium if the temperature is the same
throughout the entire system,
 Thermodynamics Equilibrium
• Mechanical equilibrium; is related to pressure, and
a system is in mechanical equilibrium if there is no
change in pressure at any point of the system with
time.
• Phase equilibrium; If a system involves two phases,
it is in phase equilibrium when the mass of each
phase reaches an equilibrium level and stays there.
• Chemical equilibrium; a system is in chemical
equilibrium if its chemical composition does not
change with time, that is, no chemical reactions
occur.
• A system will not be in equilibrium unless all the
relevant equilibrium criteria are satisfied.
 PROCESSES
• Any change that a system undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another is called a process, and
the series of states through which a system passes
during a process is called the path of the process.
• To describe a process completely, one should specify
the initial and final states of the process, as well as
the path it follows, and the interactions with the
surroundings.
 Quasi and Nonquasi Equilibrium
• When a process proceeds in such a manner that the
system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium
state at all times, it is called a quasi-equilibrium,
process. A quasi-equilibrium process can be viewed as
a sufficiently slow process that allows the system to
adjust itself internally so that properties in one part of
the system do not change any faster than those at
other parts.
 Quasi and Nonquasi Equilibrium
• Note that the process path indicates a series of
equilibrium states through which the system
passes during a process and has significance for
quasi equilibrium processes only.
• For nonquasi-equilibrium processes, we are not
able to characterize the entire system by a single
state, and thus we cannot speak of a process
path for a system as a whole.
• A nonquasi-equilibrium process is denoted by a
dashed line between the initial and final states
instead of a solid line.
 The P-V diagram of a compression
process.

Process diagrams plotted by

employing thermodynamic
properties as coordinates are
very useful in visualizing the
processes. Some common
properties that are used as
coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V
(or specific volume v).
 Some processes

• Isothermal process, is a process during which

the temperature T remains constant.
• Isobaric process is a process during which the
pressure P remains constant.
• Isochoric process is a process during which
the specific volume v remains constant.
 Cycles
• A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it
returns to its initial state at the end of the
process. That is, for a cycle the initial and final
states are identical.

Cycle
 The Steady-Flow Process
• The terms steady and uniform are used frequently in
engineering.
• The term steady implies no change with time. The
opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient.
• The term uniform, however, implies no change with
location over a specified region.
 ENERGY AND ENERGY TRANSFER

• Energy exists in numerous forms such as

thermal, mechanical, electric, chemical, and
nuclear.
• Energy can be transferred to or from a closed
system (a fixed mass) in two distinct forms:
heat and work. For control volumes, energy
can also be transferred by mass flow.
• Consider a room whose door
and windows are tightly closed,
and whose walls are well-
insulated so that heat loss or
gain through the walls is
negligible.
• Now let’s place a refrigerator in
the middle of the room with its
door open, and plug it into a wall
outlet.
• Now, what do you think will
happen to the average
temperature of air in the
• room? Will it be increasing or
decreasing? Or will it remain
constant?
A refrigerator operating with its door open in
a well-sealed and well-insulated room.
• What do you think
would happen if we
operated a fan in
this room instead?

A fan running in a well-sealed and well-

insulated room will raise the temperature of
air in the room.
 FORMS OF ENERGY
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal,
mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical,
and nuclear energy.
• The macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses
as a whole with respect to some outside reference frame, such
as kinetic and potential energies.

The macroscopic energy of an object

changes with velocity and elevation.

• The microscopic forms of energy are those related to the

molecular structure of a system and the degree of the
molecular activity, and they are independent of outside
reference frames. The sum of all the microscopic forms of
energy is called the internal energy of a system and is denoted
by U.
 Total Energy
• kinetic energy (KE).

• potential energy (PE)

• The magnetic, electric, and surface tension effects
are significant in some specialized cases only and are
usually ignored. In the absence of such effects, the
total energy of a system consists of the kinetic,
potential, and internal energies and is expressed as
 Energy Flow
• Control volumes typically involve fluid flow for long
periods of time, and it is convenient to express the
energy flow associated with a fluid stream in the rate
form. This is done by incorporating the mass flow
rate m , which is the amount of mass flowing
through a cross section per unit time. It is related to
the volume flow rate V. , which is the volume of a
fluid flowing through a cross section per unit time, by
Mass flow rate:

Energy flow rate:

 Mechanical Energy
• The mechanical energy can be defined as the form of
energy that can be converted to mechanical work
completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device
such as an ideal turbine.
• Kinetic and potential energies are the familiar forms
of mechanical energy.
• Thermal energy is not mechanical energy, however,
since it cannot be converted to work directly and
completely.
• A pump transfers mechanical energy to a fluid by
raising its pressure, and a turbine extracts
mechanical energy from a fluid by dropping its
pressure.
 Flow Energy
• The pressure of a flowing fluid is associated with its
mechanical energy.
• In fact, the pressure unit Pa is equivalent to Pa N/m2= N ·
m/m3 = J/m3, which is energy per unit volume, and the
product Pv or its equivalent P/ρ has the unit J/kg, which is
energy per unit mass.
• Note that pressure itself is not a form of energy. But a
pressure force acting on a fluid through a distance
produces work, called flow work, in the amount of P/ ρ per
unit mass.
• Flow work is expressed in terms of fluid properties, and it
is convenient to view it as part of the energy of a flowing
fluid and call it flow energy. Therefore, the mechanical
energy of a flowing fluid can be expressed on a unit mass
basis as
 Flow Energy

• Where P/ρ is the flow energy, V2/2 is the kinetic

energy, and gz is the potential energy of the fluid,
all per unit mass.

• Therefore, the mechanical energy of a fluid does

not change during flow if its pressure, density,
velocity, and elevation remain constant.
 ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
• Energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in
two distinct forms: heat and work. It is important to
distinguish between these two forms of energy.
• Heat is defined as the form of energy that is
transferred between two systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.
 Heat
Heat is energy in transition.
It is recognized only as it
crosses the boundary of a
system. In thermodynamics,
the term heat simply means
heat transfer.

A process during
which there is no
heat transfer is called
an adiabatic process
 ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
• Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a
system and its surroundings. As mentioned earlier,
energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in
the form of heat or work.

Specifying the directions of heat and

work.
 Electrical Work

The electrical power done is

The electrical work done

during a time interval ∆t is
expressed as

When both V and I remain constant during the time

interval t, it reduces to
 MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK
• The work done by a constant force F on a body
displaced a distance s in the direction of the force is
given by

• If the force F is not constant, the work done is

obtained by adding the differential amounts
of work,
 Shaft Work
• Energy transmission with a rotating shaft is very common in
engineering practice. Often the torque T applied to the shaft is
constant, which means that the force F applied is also constant.
For a specified constant torque, the work done during n
revolutions is determined as follows: A force F acting through a
moment arm r generates a torque T of

• This force acts through a distance s, which is related to the radius

r by

The power transmitted through the shaft

can be expressed as
 Spring Work
• When the length of the spring changes by a
differential amount dx under the influence of a force
F, the work done is