Electron

− −
The electron (e or β ) is a subatomic Electron
particle with a negative one elementary
electric charge.[13] Electrons belong to the
first generation of the lepton particle
family,[14] and are generally thought to be
elementary particles because they have no
known components or substructure.[1] The
electron's mass is approximately 1/1836 that
of the proton.[15] Quantum mechanical
properties of the electron include an intrinsic
angular momentum (spin) of a half-integer
value, expressed in units of the reduced
Planck constant, ħ . Being fermions, no two
electrons can occupy the same quantum
state, per the Pauli exclusion principle.[14]
Like all elementary particles, electrons
exhibit properties of both particles and Hydrogen atomic orbitals at different energy levels. The
waves: They can collide with other particles more opaque areas are where one is most likely to find an
and can be diffracted like light. The wave electron at any given time.
properties of electrons are easier to observe
Composition elementary particle[1]
with experiments than those of other
particles like neutrons and protons because Statistics fermionic
electrons have a lower mass and hence a Family lepton
longer de Broglie wavelength for a given
Generation first
energy.
Interactions weak, electromagnetic, gravity
Electrons play an essential role in numerous − −
Symbol e ,β
physical phenomena, such as electricity,
magnetism, chemistry, and thermal Antiparticle positron[a]
conductivity; they also participate in
Theorized Richard Laming (1838–1851),[2]
gravitational, electromagnetic, and weak
G. Johnstone Stoney (1874) and
interactions.[16] Since an electron has
others.[3][4]
charge, it has a surrounding electric field; if
that electron is moving relative to an Discovered J. J. Thomson (1897)[5]
observer, the observer will observe it to Mass 9.109 383 7015(28) × 10−31 kg[6]
generate a magnetic field. Electromagnetic 5.485 799 090 65(16) × 10−4 Da[7]
fields produced from other sources will
[1 822.888 486 209(53)]−1 Da[b]
affect the motion of an electron according to
0.510 998 950 00(15) MeV/c2[8]
the Lorentz force law. Electrons radiate or
absorb energy in the form of photons when Mean lifetime stable ( > 6.6 × 1028 yr[9])
they are accelerated. Laboratory instruments Electric charge −1 e
are capable of trapping individual electrons −1.602 176 634 × 10−19 C[10]
as well as electron plasma by the use of
electromagnetic fields. Special telescopes Magnetic moment −9.284 764 7043(28) × 10−24 J⋅T−1[11]
can detect electron plasma in outer space. −1.001 159 652 181 28(18) µB[12]
Electrons are involved in many applications,
such as tribology or frictional charging, Spin  1 
2
electrolysis, electrochemistry, battery
technologies, electronics, welding, cathode- Weak isospin LH: −  1 
2
, RH: 0
ray tubes, photoelectricity, photovoltaic Weak hypercharge LH: −1, RH: −2
solar panels, electron microscopes, radiation
therapy, lasers, gaseous ionization detectors, and particle accelerators.

Interactions involving electrons with other subatomic particles are of interest in fields such as chemistry and
nuclear physics. The Coulomb force interaction between the positive protons within atomic nuclei and the
negative electrons without allows the composition of the two known as atoms. Ionization or differences in
the proportions of negative electrons versus positive nuclei changes the binding energy of an atomic
system. The exchange or sharing of the electrons between two or more atoms is the main cause of chemical
bonding.[17] In 1838, British natural philosopher Richard Laming first hypothesized the concept of an
indivisible quantity of electric charge to explain the chemical properties of atoms.[3] Irish physicist George
Johnstone Stoney named this charge 'electron' in 1891, and J. J. Thomson and his team of British physicists
identified it as a particle in 1897 during the cathode-ray tube experiment.[5] Electrons can also participate in
nuclear reactions, such as nucleosynthesis in stars, where they are known as beta particles. Electrons can be
created through beta decay of radioactive isotopes and in high-energy collisions, for instance, when cosmic
rays enter the atmosphere. The antiparticle of the electron is called the positron; it is identical to the electron,
except that it carries electrical charge of the opposite sign. When an electron collides with a positron, both
particles can be annihilated, producing gamma ray photons.

History

Discovery of effect of electric force

The ancient Greeks noticed that amber attracted small objects when rubbed with fur. Along with lightning,
this phenomenon is one of humanity's earliest recorded experiences with electricity.[18] In his 1600 treatise
De Magnete, the English scientist William Gilbert coined the New Latin term electrica, to refer to those
substances with property similar to that of amber which attract smaller objects after being rubbed.[19] Both
electric and electricity are derived from the Latin ēlectrum (also the root of the alloy of the same name),
which came from the Greek word for amber, ἤλεκτρον (ēlektron).

Discovery of two kinds of charges

In the early 1700s, French chemist Charles François du Fay found that if a charged gold-leaf is repulsed by
glass rubbed with silk, then the same charged gold-leaf is attracted by amber rubbed with wool. From this
and other results of similar types of experiments, du Fay concluded that electricity consists of two electrical
fluids, vitreous fluid from glass rubbed with silk and resinous fluid from amber rubbed with wool. These
two fluids can neutralize each other when combined.[19][20] American scientist Ebenezer Kinnersley later
also independently reached the same conclusion.[21]: 1 18  A decade later Benjamin Franklin proposed that
electricity was not from different types of electrical fluid, but a single electrical fluid showing an excess (+)
or deficit (−). He gave them the modern charge nomenclature of positive and negative respectively.[22]
Franklin thought of the charge carrier as being positive, but he did not correctly identify which situation
was a surplus of the charge carrier, and which situation was a deficit.[23]

Between 1838 and 1851, British natural philosopher Richard Laming developed the idea that an atom is
composed of a core of matter surrounded by subatomic particles that had unit electric charges.[2] Beginning
in 1846, German physicist Wilhelm Eduard Weber theorized that electricity was composed of positively
and negatively charged fluids, and their interaction was governed by the inverse square law. After studying
the phenomenon of electrolysis in 1874, Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney suggested that there
existed a "single definite quantity of electricity", the charge of a monovalent ion. He was able to estimate
the value of this elementary charge e by means of Faraday's laws of electrolysis.[24] However, Stoney
believed these charges were permanently attached to atoms and could not be removed. In 1881, German
physicist Hermann von Helmholtz argued that both positive and negative charges were divided into
elementary parts, each of which "behaves like atoms of electricity".[3]

Stoney initially coined the term electrolion in 1881. Ten years later, he switched to electron to describe
these elementary charges, writing in 1894: "... an estimate was made of the actual amount of this most
remarkable fundamental unit of electricity, for which I have since ventured to suggest the name electron". A
1906 proposal to change to electrion failed because Hendrik Lorentz preferred to keep electron.[25][26] The
word electron is a combination of the words electric and ion.[27] The suffix -on which is now used to
designate other subatomic particles, such as a proton or neutron, is in turn derived from electron.[28][29]

Discovery of free electrons outside matter

While studying electrical conductivity in rarefied gases in 1859, the

German physicist Julius Plücker observed the radiation emitted
from the cathode caused phosphorescent light to appear on the tube
wall near the cathode; and the region of the phosphorescent light
could be moved by application of a magnetic field.[31] In 1869,
Plücker's student Johann Wilhelm Hittorf found that a solid body
placed in between the cathode and the phosphorescence would cast
a shadow upon the phosphorescent region of the tube. Hittorf A beam of electrons deflected by a
inferred that there are straight rays emitted from the cathode and magnetic field into a circle[30]
that the phosphorescence was caused by the rays striking the tube
walls. In 1876, the German physicist Eugen Goldstein showed that
the rays were emitted perpendicular to the cathode surface, which distinguished between the rays that were
emitted from the cathode and the incandescent light. Goldstein dubbed the rays cathode rays.[32][33]: 3 93 
Decades of experimental and theoretical research involving cathode rays were important in J. J. Thomson's
eventual discovery of electrons.[3]

During the 1870s, the English chemist and physicist Sir William Crookes developed the first cathode-ray
tube to have a high vacuum inside.[34] He then showed in 1874 that the cathode rays can turn a small
paddle wheel when placed in their path. Therefore, he concluded that the rays carried momentum.
Furthermore, by applying a magnetic field, he was able to deflect the rays, thereby demonstrating that the
beam behaved as though it were negatively charged.[32] In 1879, he proposed that these properties could be
explained by regarding cathode rays as composed of negatively charged gaseous molecules in a fourth state
of matter in which the mean free path of the particles is so long that collisions may be ignored.[33]: 3 94–395 

The German-born British physicist Arthur Schuster expanded upon Crookes's experiments by placing metal
plates parallel to the cathode rays and applying an electric potential between the plates.[35] The field
deflected the rays toward the positively charged plate, providing further evidence that the rays carried
negative charge. By measuring the amount of deflection for a given level of current, in 1890 Schuster was
able to estimate the charge-to-mass ratio[c] of the ray components. However, this produced a value that was
more than a thousand times greater than what was expected, so little credence was given to his calculations
at the time.[32] This is because it was assumed that the charge carriers were much heavier hydrogen or
nitrogen atoms.[35] Schuster's estimates would subsequently turn out to be largely correct.
In 1892 Hendrik Lorentz suggested that the mass of these particles (electrons) could be a consequence of
their electric charge.[36]

While studying naturally fluorescing minerals in 1896, the French physicist

Henri Becquerel discovered that they emitted radiation without any
exposure to an external energy source. These radioactive materials became
the subject of much interest by scientists, including the New Zealand
physicist Ernest Rutherford who discovered they emitted particles. He
designated these particles alpha and beta, on the basis of their ability to
penetrate matter.[37] In 1900, Becquerel showed that the beta rays emitted
by radium could be deflected by an electric field, and that their mass-to-
charge ratio was the same as for cathode rays.[38] This evidence
strengthened the view that electrons existed as components of atoms.[39][40]

In 1897, the British physicist J. J. Thomson, with his colleagues John S.

Townsend and H. A. Wilson, performed experiments indicating that
cathode rays really were unique particles, rather than waves, atoms or
molecules as was believed earlier.[5] Thomson made good estimates of both J. J. Thomson
the charge e and the mass m, finding that cathode ray particles, which he
called "corpuscles", had perhaps one thousandth of the mass of the least
massive ion known: hydrogen.[5] He showed that their charge-to-mass ratio, e/m, was independent of
cathode material. He further showed that the negatively charged particles produced by radioactive
materials, by heated materials and by illuminated materials were universal.[5][41] The name electron was
adopted for these particles by the scientific community, mainly due to the advocation by G. F. FitzGerald, J.
Larmor, and H. A. Lorentz.[42]: 2 73  In the same year Emil Wiechert and Walter Kaufmann also calculated
the e/m ratio but they failed short of interpreting their results while J. J. Thomson would subsequently in
1899 give estimates for the electron charge and mass as well: e~6.8 × 10−10 esu and m~3 × 10−26 g[43][44]

The electron's charge was more carefully measured by the American

physicists Robert Millikan and Harvey Fletcher in their oil-drop experiment
of 1909, the results of which were published in 1911. This experiment used
an electric field to prevent a charged droplet of oil from falling as a result of
gravity. This device could measure the electric charge from as few as 1–
150 ions with an error margin of less than 0.3%. Comparable experiments
had been done earlier by Thomson's team,[5] using clouds of charged water
droplets generated by electrolysis, and in 1911 by Abram Ioffe, who
independently obtained the same result as Millikan using charged
microparticles of metals, then published his results in 1913.[45] However,
oil drops were more stable than water drops because of their slower
evaporation rate, and thus more suited to precise experimentation over Robert Millikan
longer periods of time.[46]

Around the beginning of the twentieth century, it was found that under certain conditions a fast-moving
charged particle caused a condensation of supersaturated water vapor along its path. In 1911, Charles
Wilson used this principle to devise his cloud chamber so he could photograph the tracks of charged
particles, such as fast-moving electrons.[47]

Atomic theory
By 1914, experiments by physicists Ernest Rutherford, Henry
Moseley, James Franck and Gustav Hertz had largely established
the structure of an atom as a dense nucleus of positive charge
surrounded by lower-mass electrons.[48] In 1913, Danish physicist
Niels Bohr postulated that electrons resided in quantized energy
states, with their energies determined by the angular momentum of
the electron's orbit about the nucleus. The electrons could move
between those states, or orbits, by the emission or absorption of
photons of specific frequencies. By means of these quantized
orbits, he accurately explained the spectral lines of the hydrogen
atom.[49] However, Bohr's model failed to account for the relative
intensities of the spectral lines and it was unsuccessful in explaining
the spectra of more complex atoms.[48] The Bohr model of the atom,
showing states of an electron with
Chemical bonds between atoms were explained by Gilbert Newton energy quantized by the number n.
Lewis, who in 1916 proposed that a covalent bond between two An electron dropping to a lower orbit
atoms is maintained by a pair of electrons shared between them.[50] emits a photon equal to the energy
Later, in 1927, Walter Heitler and Fritz London gave the full difference between the orbits.
explanation of the electron-pair formation and chemical bonding in
terms of quantum mechanics.[51] In 1919, the American chemist
Irving Langmuir elaborated on the Lewis's static model of the atom and suggested that all electrons were
distributed in successive "concentric (nearly) spherical shells, all of equal thickness".[52] In turn, he divided
the shells into a number of cells each of which contained one pair of electrons. With this model Langmuir
was able to qualitatively explain the chemical properties of all elements in the periodic table,[51] which
were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law.[53]

In 1924, Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli observed that the shell-like structure of the atom could be
explained by a set of four parameters that defined every quantum energy state, as long as each state was
occupied by no more than a single electron. This prohibition against more than one electron occupying the
same quantum energy state became known as the Pauli exclusion principle.[54] The physical mechanism to
explain the fourth parameter, which had two distinct possible values, was provided by the Dutch physicists
Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck. In 1925, they suggested that an electron, in addition to the
angular momentum of its orbit, possesses an intrinsic angular momentum and magnetic dipole
moment.[48][55] This is analogous to the rotation of the Earth on its axis as it orbits the Sun. The intrinsic
angular momentum became known as spin, and explained the previously mysterious splitting of spectral
lines observed with a high-resolution spectrograph; this phenomenon is known as fine structure
splitting.[56]

Quantum mechanics

In his 1924 dissertation Recherches sur la théorie des quanta (Research on Quantum Theory), French
physicist Louis de Broglie hypothesized that all matter can be represented as a de Broglie wave in the
manner of light.[57] That is, under the appropriate conditions, electrons and other matter would show
properties of either particles or waves. The corpuscular properties of a particle are demonstrated when it is
shown to have a localized position in space along its trajectory at any given moment.[58] The wave-like
nature of light is displayed, for example, when a beam of light is passed through parallel slits thereby
creating interference patterns. In 1927, George Paget Thomson discovered the interference effect was
produced when a beam of electrons was passed through thin metal foils and by American physicists Clinton
Davisson and Lester Germer by the reflection of electrons from a crystal of nickel.[59]
De Broglie's prediction of a wave nature for electrons led Erwin
Schrödinger to postulate a wave equation for electrons moving
under the influence of the nucleus in the atom. In 1926, this
equation, the Schrödinger equation, successfully described how
electron waves propagated.[60] Rather than yielding a solution that
determined the location of an electron over time, this wave equation
also could be used to predict the probability of finding an electron
near a position, especially a position near where the electron was
bound in space, for which the electron wave equations did not
change in time. This approach led to a second formulation of
quantum mechanics (the first by Heisenberg in 1925), and solutions
of Schrödinger's equation, like Heisenberg's, provided derivations
of the energy states of an electron in a hydrogen atom that were
equivalent to those that had been derived first by Bohr in 1913, and
that were known to reproduce the hydrogen spectrum.[61] Once
spin and the interaction between multiple electrons were In quantum mechanics, the behavior
of an electron in an atom is
describable, quantum mechanics made it possible to predict the
described by an orbital, which is a
configuration of electrons in atoms with atomic numbers greater
probability distribution rather than an
than hydrogen.[62]
orbit. In the figure, the shading
indicates the relative probability to
In 1928, building on Wolfgang Pauli's work, Paul Dirac produced a
"find" the electron, having the energy
model of the electron – the Dirac equation, consistent with relativity
corresponding to the given quantum
theory, by applying relativistic and symmetry considerations to the
numbers, at that point.
hamiltonian formulation of the quantum mechanics of the electro-
magnetic field.[63] In order to resolve some problems within his
relativistic equation, Dirac developed in 1930 a model of the vacuum as an infinite sea of particles with
negative energy, later dubbed the Dirac sea. This led him to predict the existence of a positron, the
antimatter counterpart of the electron.[64] This particle was discovered in 1932 by Carl Anderson, who
proposed calling standard electrons negatrons and using electron as a generic term to describe both the
positively and negatively charged variants.[65]

In 1947, Willis Lamb, working in collaboration with graduate student Robert Retherford, found that certain
quantum states of the hydrogen atom, which should have the same energy, were shifted in relation to each
other; the difference came to be called the Lamb shift. About the same time, Polykarp Kusch, working with
Henry M. Foley, discovered the magnetic moment of the electron is slightly larger than predicted by Dirac's
theory. This small difference was later called anomalous magnetic dipole moment of the electron. This
difference was later explained by the theory of quantum electrodynamics, developed by Sin-Itiro
Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger and Richard Feynman in the late 1940s.[66]

Particle accelerators

With the development of the particle accelerator during the first half of the twentieth century, physicists
began to delve deeper into the properties of subatomic particles.[67] The first successful attempt to
accelerate electrons using electromagnetic induction was made in 1942 by Donald Kerst. His initial
betatron reached energies of 2.3 MeV, while subsequent betatrons achieved 300 MeV. In 1947, synchrotron
radiation was discovered with a 70  MeV electron synchrotron at General Electric. This radiation was
caused by the acceleration of electrons through a magnetic field as they moved near the speed of light.[68]

With a beam energy of 1.5  GeV, the first high-energy particle collider was ADONE, which began
operations in 1968.[69] This device accelerated electrons and positrons in opposite directions, effectively
doubling the energy of their collision when compared to striking a static target with an electron.[70] The
Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) at CERN, which was operational from 1989 to 2000, achieved
collision energies of 209  GeV and made important measurements for the Standard Model of particle
physics.[71][72]

Confinement of individual electrons

Individual electrons can now be easily confined in ultra small (L = 20 nm, W = 20 nm) CMOS transistors
operated at cryogenic temperature over a range of −269 °C (4 K) to about −258 °C (15 K).[73] The electron
wavefunction spreads in a semiconductor lattice and negligibly interacts with the valence band electrons, so
it can be treated in the single particle formalism, by replacing its mass with the effective mass tensor.

Characteristics

Classification

In the Standard Model of particle physics, electrons

belong to the group of subatomic particles called leptons,
which are believed to be fundamental or elementary
particles. Electrons have the lowest mass of any charged
lepton (or electrically charged particle of any type) and
belong to the first-generation of fundamental particles.[74]
The second and third generation contain charged leptons,
the muon and the tau, which are identical to the electron
in charge, spin and interactions, but are more massive.
Leptons differ from the other basic constituent of matter,
the quarks, by their lack of strong interaction. All
members of the lepton group are fermions, because they
all have half-odd integer spin; the electron has spin 12 .[75]
Standard Model of elementary particles. The
electron (symbol e) is on the left.
Fundamental properties

The invariant mass of an electron is approximately 9.109 × 10−31   kilograms,[76] or 5.489 × 10−4   atomic
mass units. Due to mass–energy equivalence, this corresponds to a rest energy of 0.511  MeV. The ratio
between the mass of a proton and that of an electron is about 1836.[15][77] Astronomical measurements
show that the proton-to-electron mass ratio has held the same value, as is predicted by the Standard Model,
for at least half the age of the universe.[78]

Electrons have an electric charge of −1.602 176 634 × 10−19 coulombs,[76] which is used as a standard unit
of charge for subatomic particles, and is also called the elementary charge. Within the limits of experimental
accuracy, the electron charge is identical to the charge of a proton, but with the opposite sign.[79] As the
−
symbol e is used for the elementary charge, the electron is commonly symbolized by e , where the minus
+
sign indicates the negative charge. The positron is symbolized by e because it has the same properties as
the electron but with a positive rather than negative charge.[75][76]
The electron has an intrinsic angular momentum or spin of 12 .[76] This property is usually stated by referring
to the electron as a spin- 12 particle.[75] For such particles the spin magnitude is ħ2 ,[80] while the result of the
measurement of a projection of the spin on any axis can only be ± ħ2 . In addition to spin, the electron has an
intrinsic magnetic moment along its spin axis.[76] It is approximately equal to one Bohr magneton,[81][d]
which is a physical constant equal to 9.274 009 15(23) × 10−24  joules per tesla.[76] The orientation of the
spin with respect to the momentum of the electron defines the property of elementary particles known as
helicity.[82]

The electron has no known substructure.[1][83] Nevertheless, in condensed matter physics, spin–charge
separation can occur in some materials. In such cases, electrons 'split' into three independent particles, the
spinon, the orbiton and the holon (or chargon). The electron can always be theoretically considered as a
bound state of the three, with the spinon carrying the spin of the electron, the orbiton carrying the orbital
degree of freedom and the chargon carrying the charge, but in certain conditions they can behave as
independent quasiparticles.[84][85][86]

The issue of the radius of the electron is a challenging problem of modern theoretical physics. The
admission of the hypothesis of a finite radius of the electron is incompatible to the premises of the theory of
relativity. On the other hand, a point-like electron (zero radius) generates serious mathematical difficulties
due to the self-energy of the electron tending to infinity.[87] Observation of a single electron in a Penning
trap suggests the upper limit of the particle's radius to be 10−22  meters.[88] The upper bound of the electron
radius of 10−18  meters[89] can be derived using the uncertainty relation in energy. There is also a physical
constant called the " classical electron radius", with the much larger value of 2.8179 × 10−15  m, greater than
the radius of the proton. However, the terminology comes from a simplistic calculation that ignores the
effects of quantum mechanics; in reality, the so-called classical electron radius has little to do with the true
fundamental structure of the electron.[90][91][e]

There are elementary particles that spontaneously decay into less massive particles. An example is the
muon, with a mean lifetime of 2.2 × 10−6  seconds, which decays into an electron, a muon neutrino and an
electron antineutrino. The electron, on the other hand, is thought to be stable on theoretical grounds: the
electron is the least massive particle with non-zero electric charge, so its decay would violate charge
conservation.[92] The experimental lower bound for the electron's mean lifetime is 6.6 × 1028 years, at a
90% confidence level.[9][93][94]

Quantum properties

As with all particles, electrons can act as waves. This is called the wave–particle duality and can be
demonstrated using the double-slit experiment.

The wave-like nature of the electron allows it to pass through two parallel slits simultaneously, rather than
just one slit as would be the case for a classical particle. In quantum mechanics, the wave-like property of
one particle can be described mathematically as a complex-valued function, the wave function, commonly
denoted by the Greek letter psi (ψ). When the absolute value of this function is squared, it gives the
probability that a particle will be observed near a location—a probability density.[95]: 1 62–218 

Electrons are identical particles because they cannot be distinguished from each other by their intrinsic
physical properties. In quantum mechanics, this means that a pair of interacting electrons must be able to
swap positions without an observable change to the state of the system. The wave function of fermions,
including electrons, is antisymmetric, meaning that it changes sign when two electrons are swapped; that is,
ψ(r1 , r2 ) = −ψ(r2 , r1 ), where the variables r1 and r2 correspond to
the first and second electrons, respectively. Since the absolute value
is not changed by a sign swap, this corresponds to equal
probabilities. Bosons, such as the photon, have symmetric wave
functions instead.[95]: 1 62–218 

In the case of antisymmetry, solutions of the wave equation for

interacting electrons result in a zero probability that each pair will
occupy the same location or state. This is responsible for the Pauli
exclusion principle, which precludes any two electrons from Example of an antisymmetric wave
occupying the same quantum state. This principle explains many of function for a quantum state of two
the properties of electrons. For example, it causes groups of bound identical fermions in a 1-dimensional
electrons to occupy different orbitals in an atom, rather than all box. If the particles swap position,
overlapping each other in the same orbit.[95]: 1 62–218  the wave function inverts its sign.

Virtual particles

In a simplified picture, which often tends to give the wrong idea but may serve to illustrate some aspects,
every photon spends some time as a combination of a virtual electron plus its antiparticle, the virtual
positron, which rapidly annihilate each other shortly thereafter.[96] The combination of the energy variation
needed to create these particles, and the time during which they exist, fall under the threshold of
detectability expressed by the Heisenberg uncertainty relation, ΔE · Δt ≥ ħ. In effect, the energy needed to
create these virtual particles, ΔE, can be "borrowed" from the vacuum for a period of time, Δt, so that their
product is no more than the reduced Planck constant, ħ ≈ 6.6 × 10−16  eV·s. Thus, for a virtual electron, Δt
is at most 1.3 × 10−21  s.[97]

While an electron–positron virtual pair is in existence, the Coulomb

force from the ambient electric field surrounding an electron causes
a created positron to be attracted to the original electron, while a
created electron experiences a repulsion. This causes what is called
vacuum polarization. In effect, the vacuum behaves like a medium
having a dielectric permittivity more than unity. Thus the effective
charge of an electron is actually smaller than its true value, and the
charge decreases with increasing distance from the electron.[98][99]
This polarization was confirmed experimentally in 1997 using the
Japanese TRISTAN particle accelerator.[100] Virtual particles cause A schematic depiction of virtual
a comparable shielding effect for the mass of the electron.[101] electron–positron pairs appearing at
random near an electron (at lower
The interaction with virtual particles also explains the small (about left)
0.1%) deviation of the intrinsic magnetic moment of the electron
from the Bohr magneton (the anomalous magnetic
moment).[81][102] The extraordinarily precise agreement of this predicted difference with the experimentally
determined value is viewed as one of the great achievements of quantum electrodynamics.[103]

The apparent paradox in classical physics of a point particle electron having intrinsic angular momentum
and magnetic moment can be explained by the formation of virtual photons in the electric field generated by
the electron. These photons can heuristically be thought of as causing the electron to shift about in a jittery
fashion (known as zitterbewegung), which results in a net circular motion with precession.[104] This motion
produces both the spin and the magnetic moment of the electron.[14] In atoms, this creation of virtual
photons explains the Lamb shift observed in spectral lines.[98] The Compton Wavelength shows that near
elementary particles such as the electron, the uncertainty of the energy allows for the creation of virtual
particles near the electron. This wavelength explains the "static" of virtual particles around elementary
particles at a close distance.

Interaction

An electron generates an electric field that exerts an attractive force on a particle with a positive charge,
such as the proton, and a repulsive force on a particle with a negative charge. The strength of this force in
nonrelativistic approximation is determined by Coulomb's inverse square law.[105]: 5 8–61  When an electron
is in motion, it generates a magnetic field.[95]: 1 40  The Ampère–Maxwell law relates the magnetic field to
the mass motion of electrons (the current) with respect to an observer. This property of induction supplies
the magnetic field that drives an electric motor.[106] The electromagnetic field of an arbitrary moving
charged particle is expressed by the Liénard–Wiechert potentials, which are valid even when the particle's
speed is close to that of light (relativistic).[105]: 4 29–434 

When an electron is moving through a magnetic field, it is subject

to the Lorentz force that acts perpendicularly to the plane defined
by the magnetic field and the electron velocity. This centripetal
force causes the electron to follow a helical trajectory through the
field at a radius called the gyroradius. The acceleration from this
curving motion induces the electron to radiate energy in the form of
synchrotron radiation.[107][f][95]: 1 60  The energy emission in turn
causes a recoil of the electron, known as the Abraham–Lorentz–
Dirac Force, which creates a friction that slows the electron. This
force is caused by a back-reaction of the electron's own field upon
itself.[108] A particle with charge q (at left) is
moving with velocity v through a
Photons mediate electromagnetic magnetic field B that is oriented
interactions between particles in toward the viewer. For an electron, q
quantum electrodynamics. An is negative so it follows a curved
isolated electron at a constant trajectory toward the top.
velocity cannot emit or absorb a
real photon; doing so would violate
conservation of energy and momentum. Instead, virtual photons can
transfer momentum between two charged particles. This exchange of
virtual photons, for example, generates the Coulomb force.[109] Energy
emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged
particle, such as a proton. The deceleration of the electron results in the
Here, Bremsstrahlung is
emission of Bremsstrahlung radiation.[110]
produced by an electron e
An inelastic collision between a photon (light) and a solitary (free) electron
deflected by the electric
is called Compton scattering. This collision results in a transfer of
field of an atomic nucleus.
momentum and energy between the particles, which modifies the
The energy change E2 − E1
determines the frequency f
wavelength of the photon by an amount called the Compton shift.[g] The
of the emitted photon. maximum magnitude of this wavelength shift is h/mec, which is known as
the Compton wavelength.[111] For an electron, it has a value of
2.43 × 10−12  m.[76] When the wavelength of the light is long (for instance,
the wavelength of the visible light is 0.4–0.7 μm) the wavelength shift becomes negligible. Such interaction
between the light and free electrons is called Thomson scattering or linear Thomson scattering.[112]
The relative strength of the electromagnetic interaction between two charged particles, such as an electron
and a proton, is given by the fine-structure constant. This value is a dimensionless quantity formed by the
ratio of two energies: the electrostatic energy of attraction (or repulsion) at a separation of one Compton
wavelength, and the rest energy of the charge. It is given by α ≈ 7.297 353 × 10−3 , which is approximately
1 [76]
equal to 137 .

When electrons and positrons collide, they annihilate each other, giving rise to two or more gamma ray
photons. If the electron and positron have negligible momentum, a positronium atom can form before
annihilation results in two or three gamma ray photons totalling 1.022 MeV.[113][114] On the other hand, a
high-energy photon can transform into an electron and a positron by a process called pair production, but
only in the presence of a nearby charged particle, such as a nucleus.[115][116]

In the theory of electroweak interaction, the left-handed component of electron's wavefunction forms a
weak isospin doublet with the electron neutrino. This means that during weak interactions, electron
neutrinos behave like electrons. Either member of this doublet can undergo a charged current interaction by
emitting or absorbing a W and be converted into the other member. Charge is conserved during this
reaction because the W boson also carries a charge, canceling out any net change during the transmutation.
Charged current interactions are responsible for the phenomenon of beta decay in a radioactive atom. Both
0
the electron and electron neutrino can undergo a neutral current interaction via a Z exchange, and this is
responsible for neutrino-electron elastic scattering.[117]

Atoms and molecules

An electron can be bound to the nucleus of an atom by

the attractive Coulomb force. A system of one or more
electrons bound to a nucleus is called an atom. If the
number of electrons is different from the nucleus's
electrical charge, such an atom is called an ion. The
wave-like behavior of a bound electron is described by a
function called an atomic orbital. Each orbital has its own
set of quantum numbers such as energy, angular
momentum and projection of angular momentum, and
only a discrete set of these orbitals exist around the
nucleus. According to the Pauli exclusion principle each
orbital can be occupied by up to two electrons, which
must differ in their spin quantum number.
Probability densities for the first few hydrogen
Electrons can transfer between different orbitals by the atom orbitals, seen in cross-section. The
emission or absorption of photons with an energy that energy level of a bound electron determines the
matches the difference in potential. [118]: 1 59–160  Other orbital it occupies, and the color reflects the
methods of orbital transfer include collisions with probability of finding the electron at a given
particles, such as electrons, and the Auger effect. [119] To position.
escape the atom, the energy of the electron must be
increased above its binding energy to the atom. This
occurs, for example, with the photoelectric effect, where an incident photon exceeding the atom's ionization
energy is absorbed by the electron.[118]: 1 27–132 

The orbital angular momentum of electrons is quantized. Because the electron is charged, it produces an
orbital magnetic moment that is proportional to the angular momentum. The net magnetic moment of an
atom is equal to the vector sum of orbital and spin magnetic moments of all electrons and the nucleus. The
magnetic moment of the nucleus is negligible compared with that of the electrons. The magnetic moments
of the electrons that occupy the same orbital (so called, paired electrons) cancel each other out.[120]

The chemical bond between atoms occurs as a result of electromagnetic interactions, as described by the
laws of quantum mechanics.[121] The strongest bonds are formed by the sharing or transfer of electrons
between atoms, allowing the formation of molecules.[17] Within a molecule, electrons move under the
influence of several nuclei, and occupy molecular orbitals; much as they can occupy atomic orbitals in
isolated atoms.[122] A fundamental factor in these molecular structures is the existence of electron pairs.
These are electrons with opposed spins, allowing them to occupy the same molecular orbital without
violating the Pauli exclusion principle (much like in atoms). Different molecular orbitals have different
spatial distribution of the electron density. For instance, in bonded pairs (i.e. in the pairs that actually bind
atoms together) electrons can be found with the maximal probability in a relatively small volume between
the nuclei. By contrast, in non-bonded pairs electrons are distributed in a large volume around nuclei.[123]

Conductivity

If a body has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance

the positive charge of the nuclei, then that object has a net electric
charge. When there is an excess of electrons, the object is said to be
negatively charged. When there are fewer electrons than the
number of protons in nuclei, the object is said to be positively
charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons
are equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to
be electrically neutral. A macroscopic body can develop an electric
charge through rubbing, by the triboelectric effect.[127]

Independent electrons moving in vacuum are termed free electrons.

Electrons in metals also behave as if they were free. In reality the
particles that are commonly termed electrons in metals and other A lightning discharge consists
solids are quasi-electrons—quasiparticles, which have the same primarily of a flow of electrons.[124]
electrical charge, spin, and magnetic moment as real electrons but The electric potential needed for
might have a different mass. [128] When free electrons—both in lightning can be generated by a
vacuum and metals—move, they produce a net flow of charge triboelectric effect.[125][126]
called an electric current, which generates a magnetic field.
Likewise a current can be created by a changing magnetic field.
These interactions are described mathematically by Maxwell's equations.[129]

At a given temperature, each material has an electrical conductivity that determines the value of electric
current when an electric potential is applied. Examples of good conductors include metals such as copper
and gold, whereas glass and Teflon are poor conductors. In any dielectric material, the electrons remain
bound to their respective atoms and the material behaves as an insulator. Most semiconductors have a
variable level of conductivity that lies between the extremes of conduction and insulation.[130] On the other
hand, metals have an electronic band structure containing partially filled electronic bands. The presence of
such bands allows electrons in metals to behave as if they were free or delocalized electrons. These
electrons are not associated with specific atoms, so when an electric field is applied, they are free to move
like a gas (called Fermi gas)[131] through the material much like free electrons.

Because of collisions between electrons and atoms, the drift velocity of electrons in a conductor is on the
order of millimeters per second. However, the speed at which a change of current at one point in the
material causes changes in currents in other parts of the material, the velocity of propagation, is typically
about 75% of light speed.[132] This occurs because electrical signals propagate as a wave, with the velocity
dependent on the dielectric constant of the material.[133]

Metals make relatively good conductors of heat, primarily because the delocalized electrons are free to
transport thermal energy between atoms. However, unlike electrical conductivity, the thermal conductivity
of a metal is nearly independent of temperature. This is expressed mathematically by the Wiedemann–Franz
law,[131] which states that the ratio of thermal conductivity to the electrical conductivity is proportional to
the temperature. The thermal disorder in the metallic lattice increases the electrical resistivity of the material,
producing a temperature dependence for electric current.[134]

When cooled below a point called the critical temperature, materials can undergo a phase transition in
which they lose all resistivity to electric current, in a process known as superconductivity. In BCS theory,
pairs of electrons called Cooper pairs have their motion coupled to nearby matter via lattice vibrations
called phonons, thereby avoiding the collisions with atoms that normally create electrical resistance.[135]
(Cooper pairs have a radius of roughly 100  nm, so they can overlap each other.)[136] However, the
mechanism by which higher temperature superconductors operate remains uncertain.

Electrons inside conducting solids, which are quasi-particles themselves, when tightly confined at
temperatures close to absolute zero, behave as though they had split into three other quasiparticles: spinons,
orbitons and holons.[137][138] The former carries spin and magnetic moment, the next carries its orbital
location while the latter electrical charge.

Motion and energy

According to Einstein's theory of special relativity, as an electron's speed approaches the speed of light,
from an observer's point of view its relativistic mass increases, thereby making it more and more difficult to
accelerate it from within the observer's frame of reference. The speed of an electron can approach, but
never reach, the speed of light in vacuum, c. However, when relativistic electrons—that is, electrons
moving at a speed close to c—are injected into a dielectric medium such as water, where the local speed of
light is significantly less than c, the electrons temporarily travel faster than light in the medium. As they
interact with the medium, they generate a faint light called Cherenkov radiation.[139]

The effects of special relativity are based on a quantity known as

the Lorentz factor, defined as where v is the speed of
the particle. The kinetic energy Ke of an electron moving with
velocity v is:

where me is the mass of electron. For example, the Stanford linear

accelerator can accelerate an electron to roughly 51  GeV.[140]
Since an electron behaves as a wave, at a given velocity it has a
characteristic de Broglie wavelength. This is given by λe  =  h/p
where h is the Planck constant and p is the momentum.[57] For the Lorentz factor as a function of
velocity. It starts at value 1 and goes
to infinity as v approaches c.
51  GeV electron above, the wavelength is about 2.4 × 10−17   m, small enough to explore structures well
below the size of an atomic nucleus.[141]

Formation
The Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted scientific theory
to explain the early stages in the evolution of the Universe.[143] For
the first millisecond of the Big Bang, the temperatures were over
10  billion  kelvins and photons had mean energies over a million
electronvolts. These photons were sufficiently energetic that they
could react with each other to form pairs of electrons and positrons.
Likewise, positron-electron pairs annihilated each other and emitted
Pair production of an electron and
energetic photons:
positron, caused by the close
+ − approach of a photon with an atomic
γ+γ↔e +e nucleus. The lightning symbol
represents an exchange of a virtual
An equilibrium between electrons, positrons and photons was
photon, thus an electric force acts.
maintained during this phase of the evolution of the Universe. After
The angle between the particles is
15 seconds had passed, however, the temperature of the universe
very small.[142]
dropped below the threshold where electron-positron formation
could occur. Most of the surviving electrons and positrons
annihilated each other, releasing gamma radiation that briefly reheated the universe.[144]

For reasons that remain uncertain, during the annihilation process there was an excess in the number of
particles over antiparticles. Hence, about one electron for every billion electron-positron pairs survived.
This excess matched the excess of protons over antiprotons, in a condition known as baryon asymmetry,
resulting in a net charge of zero for the universe.[145][146] The surviving protons and neutrons began to
participate in reactions with each other—in the process known as nucleosynthesis, forming isotopes of
hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of lithium. This process peaked after about five minutes.[147]
Any leftover neutrons underwent negative beta decay with a half-life of about a thousand seconds,
releasing a proton and electron in the process,
−
n → p + e + νe

For about the next 300 000–400 000 years, the excess electrons remained too energetic to bind with atomic
nuclei.[148] What followed is a period known as recombination, when neutral atoms were formed and the
expanding universe became transparent to radiation.[149]

Roughly one million years after the big bang, the first generation of stars began to form.[149] Within a star,
stellar nucleosynthesis results in the production of positrons from the fusion of atomic nuclei. These
antimatter particles immediately annihilate with electrons, releasing gamma rays. The net result is a steady
reduction in the number of electrons, and a matching increase in the number of neutrons. However, the
process of stellar evolution can result in the synthesis of radioactive isotopes. Selected isotopes can
subsequently undergo negative beta decay, emitting an electron and antineutrino from the nucleus.[150] An
60
example is the cobalt-60 (60 Co) isotope, which decays to form nickel-60 ( Ni).[151]

At the end of its lifetime, a star with more than about 20 solar masses can undergo gravitational collapse to
form a black hole.[152] According to classical physics, these massive stellar objects exert a gravitational
attraction that is strong enough to prevent anything, even electromagnetic radiation, from escaping past the
 Schwarzschild radius. However, quantum mechanical effects are
believed to potentially allow the emission of Hawking radiation at
this distance. Electrons (and positrons) are thought to be created at
the event horizon of these stellar remnants.

When a pair of virtual particles (such as an electron and positron) is

created in the vicinity of the event horizon, random spatial
positioning might result in one of them to appear on the exterior;
this process is called quantum tunnelling. The gravitational
potential of the black hole can then supply the energy that
An extended air shower generated by transforms this virtual particle into a real particle, allowing it to
an energetic cosmic ray striking the radiate away into space.[153] In exchange, the other member of the
Earth's atmosphere pair is given negative energy, which results in a net loss of mass-
energy by the black hole. The rate of Hawking radiation increases
with decreasing mass, eventually causing the black hole to
evaporate away until, finally, it explodes.[154]

Cosmic rays are particles traveling through space with high energies. Energy events as high as
3.0 × 1020   eV have been recorded.[155] When these particles collide with nucleons in the Earth's
atmosphere, a shower of particles is generated, including pions.[156] More than half of the cosmic radiation
observed from the Earth's surface consists of muons. The particle called a muon is a lepton produced in the
upper atmosphere by the decay of a pion.
− −
π → μ + νμ

A muon, in turn, can decay to form an electron or positron.[157]

− −
μ → e + νe + νμ

Observation
Remote observation of electrons requires detection of their radiated
energy. For example, in high-energy environments such as the
corona of a star, free electrons form a plasma that radiates energy
due to Bremsstrahlung radiation. Electron gas can undergo plasma
oscillation, which is waves caused by synchronized variations in
electron density, and these produce energy emissions that can be
detected by using radio telescopes.[159]

The frequency of a photon is proportional to its energy. As a bound Aurorae are mostly caused by
electron transitions between different energy levels of an atom, it energetic electrons precipitating into
absorbs or emits photons at characteristic frequencies. For instance, the atmosphere.[158]
when atoms are irradiated by a source with a broad spectrum,
distinct dark lines appear in the spectrum of transmitted radiation in
places where the corresponding frequency is absorbed by the atom's electrons. Each element or molecule
displays a characteristic set of spectral lines, such as the hydrogen spectral series. When detected,
spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of these lines allow the composition and physical
properties of a substance to be determined.[160][161]
In laboratory conditions, the interactions of individual electrons can be observed by means of particle
detectors, which allow measurement of specific properties such as energy, spin and charge.[162] The
development of the Paul trap and Penning trap allows charged particles to be contained within a small
region for long durations. This enables precise measurements of the particle properties. For example, in one
instance a Penning trap was used to contain a single electron for a period of 10 months.[163] The magnetic
moment of the electron was measured to a precision of eleven digits, which, in 1980, was a greater
accuracy than for any other physical constant.[164]

The first video images of an electron's energy distribution were captured by a team at Lund University in
Sweden, February 2008. The scientists used extremely short flashes of light, called attosecond pulses,
which allowed an electron's motion to be observed for the first time.[165][166]

The distribution of the electrons in solid materials can be visualized by angle-resolved photoemission
spectroscopy (ARPES). This technique employs the photoelectric effect to measure the reciprocal space—a
mathematical representation of periodic structures that is used to infer the original structure. ARPES can be
used to determine the direction, speed and scattering of electrons within the material.[167]

Plasma applications

Particle beams

Electron beams are used in welding.[169] They allow energy

densities up to 107   W·cm−2 across a narrow focus diameter of
0.1–1.3 mm and usually require no filler material. This welding
technique must be performed in a vacuum to prevent the electrons
from interacting with the gas before reaching their target, and it can
be used to join conductive materials that would otherwise be
considered unsuitable for welding.[170][171]

Electron-beam lithography (EBL) is a method of etching

semiconductors at resolutions smaller than a micrometer.[172] This During a NASA wind tunnel test, a
technique is limited by high costs, slow performance, the need to model of the Space Shuttle is
operate the beam in the vacuum and the tendency of the electrons targeted by a beam of electrons,
to scatter in solids. The last problem limits the resolution to about simulating the effect of ionizing
10 nm. For this reason, EBL is primarily used for the production of gases during re-entry.[168]
small numbers of specialized integrated circuits.[173]

Electron beam processing is used to irradiate materials in order to change their physical properties or
sterilize medical and food products.[174] Electron beams fluidise or quasi-melt glasses without significant
increase of temperature on intensive irradiation: e.g. intensive electron radiation causes a many orders of
magnitude decrease of viscosity and stepwise decrease of its activation energy.[175]

Linear particle accelerators generate electron beams for treatment of superficial tumors in radiation therapy.
Electron therapy can treat such skin lesions as basal-cell carcinomas because an electron beam only
penetrates to a limited depth before being absorbed, typically up to 5 cm for electron energies in the range
5–20 MeV. An electron beam can be used to supplement the treatment of areas that have been irradiated by
X-rays.[176][177]
Particle accelerators use electric fields to propel electrons and their antiparticles to high energies. These
particles emit synchrotron radiation as they pass through magnetic fields. The dependency of the intensity
of this radiation upon spin polarizes the electron beam—a process known as the Sokolov–Ternov effect.[h]
Polarized electron beams can be useful for various experiments. Synchrotron radiation can also cool the
electron beams to reduce the momentum spread of the particles. Electron and positron beams are collided
upon the particles' accelerating to the required energies; particle detectors observe the resulting energy
emissions, which particle physics studies .[178]

Imaging

Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a method of bombarding a crystalline material with a collimated
beam of electrons and then observing the resulting diffraction patterns to determine the structure of the
material. The required energy of the electrons is typically in the range 20–200 eV.[179] The reflection high-
energy electron diffraction (RHEED) technique uses the reflection of a beam of electrons fired at various
low angles to characterize the surface of crystalline materials. The beam energy is typically in the range 8–
20 keV and the angle of incidence is 1–4°.[180][181]

The electron microscope directs a focused beam of electrons at a specimen. Some electrons change their
properties, such as movement direction, angle, and relative phase and energy as the beam interacts with the
material. Microscopists can record these changes in the electron beam to produce atomically resolved
images of the material.[182] In blue light, conventional optical microscopes have a diffraction-limited
resolution of about 200  nm.[183] By comparison, electron microscopes are limited by the de Broglie
wavelength of the electron. This wavelength, for example, is equal to 0.0037 nm for electrons accelerated
across a 100,000-volt potential.[184] The Transmission Electron Aberration-Corrected Microscope is
capable of sub-0.05  nm resolution, which is more than enough to resolve individual atoms.[185] This
capability makes the electron microscope a useful laboratory instrument for high resolution imaging.
However, electron microscopes are expensive instruments that are costly to maintain.

Two main types of electron microscopes exist: transmission and scanning. Transmission electron
microscopes function like overhead projectors, with a beam of electrons passing through a slice of material
then being projected by lenses on a photographic slide or a charge-coupled device. Scanning electron
microscopes rasteri a finely focused electron beam, as in a TV set, across the studied sample to produce the
image. Magnifications range from 100× to 1,000,000× or higher for both microscope types. The scanning
tunneling microscope uses quantum tunneling of electrons from a sharp metal tip into the studied material
and can produce atomically resolved images of its surface.[186][187][188]

Other applications

In the free-electron laser (FEL), a relativistic electron beam passes through a pair of undulators that contain
arrays of dipole magnets whose fields point in alternating directions. The electrons emit synchrotron
radiation that coherently interacts with the same electrons to strongly amplify the radiation field at the
resonance frequency. FEL can emit a coherent high-brilliance electromagnetic radiation with a wide range
of frequencies, from microwaves to soft X-rays. These devices are used in manufacturing, communication,
and in medical applications, such as soft tissue surgery.[189]

Electrons are important in cathode-ray tubes, which have been extensively used as display devices in
laboratory instruments, computer monitors and television sets.[190] In a photomultiplier tube, every photon
striking the photocathode initiates an avalanche of electrons that produces a detectable current pulse.[191]
Vacuum tubes use the flow of electrons to manipulate electrical signals, and they played a critical role in the
development of electronics technology. However, they have been largely supplanted by solid-state devices
such as the transistor.[192]

See also
Electronics portal

Physics portal

Science portal

Anyon List of particles

Beta radiation One-electron universe
Electride Periodic systems of small molecules
Electron bubble Spintronics
Exoelectron emission Stern–Gerlach experiment
g-factor Townsend discharge
Lepton Zeeman effect

Notes
a. The positron is occasionally called the 'anti-electron'.
b. The fractional version's denominator is the inverse of the decimal value (along with its
relative standard uncertainty of 2.9 × 10−11).
c. Note that older sources list charge-to-mass rather than the modern convention of mass-to-
charge ratio.
d. Bohr magneton:

e. The classical electron radius is derived as follows. Assume that the electron's charge is
spread uniformly throughout a spherical volume. Since one part of the sphere would repel
the other parts, the sphere contains electrostatic potential energy. This energy is assumed to
equal the electron's rest energy, defined by special relativity (E = mc2).
From electrostatics theory, the potential energy of a sphere with radius r and charge e is
given by:

where ε0 is the vacuum permittivity. For an electron with rest mass m0, the rest energy is
equal to:

where c is the speed of light in vacuum. Setting them equal and solving for r gives the
classical electron radius.
See: Haken, Wolf, & Brewer (2005).
 f. Radiation from non-relativistic electrons is sometimes termed cyclotron radiation.
g. The change in wavelength, Δλ, depends on the angle of the recoil, θ, as follows,

where c is the speed of light in vacuum and me is the electron mass. See Zombeck
(2007).[77]: 393, 396 
h. The polarization of an electron beam means that the spins of all electrons point into one
direction. In other words, the projections of the spins of all electrons onto their momentum
vector have the same sign.

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External links
"The Discovery of the Electron" (https://history.aip.org/exhibits/electron/). Center for History
of Physics. American Institute of Physics.
"Particle Data Group" (https://pdg.lbl.gov/). University of California.

Bock, R.K.; Vasilescu, A. (1998). The Particle Detector BriefBook (https://physics.web.cern.c

h/ParticleDetector/BriefBook/) (14th ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-64120-9.
Copeland, Ed. "Spherical Electron" (https://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/electron_sphere.h
tm). Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.

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