Electron

−
The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol e Electron
−
or β , whose electric charge is negative one
elementary charge.[9] Electrons belong to the first
generation of the lepton particle family,[10] and
are generally thought to be elementary particles
because they have no known components or
substructure.[1] The electron has a mass that is
approximately 1/1836 that of the proton.[11]
Quantum mechanical properties of the electron
include an intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of
a half-integer value, expressed in units of the
reduced Planck constant, ħ. Being fermions, no
two electrons can occupy the same quantum state,
in accordance with the Pauli exclusion
principle.[10] Like all elementary particles,
electrons exhibit properties of both particles and
waves: they can collide with other particles and Hydrogen atomic orbitals at different energy levels.
can be diffracted like light. The wave properties of The more opaque areas are where one is most likely
electrons are easier to observe with experiments to find an electron at any given time.
than those of other particles like neutrons and
Composition Elementary particle[1]
protons because electrons have a lower mass and
hence a longer de Broglie wavelength for a given Statistics Fermionic
energy. Generation First

Electrons play an essential role in numerous Interactions Gravity, electromagnetic, weak

physical phenomena, such as electricity, Symbol −
e ,β
−
magnetism, chemistry and thermal conductivity,
and they also participate in gravitational, Antiparticle Positron (also called
electromagnetic and weak interactions.[12] Since antielectron)
an electron has charge, it has a surrounding Theorized Richard Laming (1838–1851),[2]
electric field, and if that electron is moving G. Johnstone Stoney (1874)
relative to an observer, said observer will observe and others.[3][4]
it to generate a magnetic field. Electromagnetic
fields produced from other sources will affect the Discovered J. J. Thomson (1897)[5]
motion of an electron according to the Lorentz Mass 9.109 383 7015(28) × 10−31 kg[6]
force law. Electrons radiate or absorb energy in 5.485 799 090 70(16) × 10−4 u[7]
the form of photons when they are accelerated. [1 822.888 4845(14)]−1 u[a]
Laboratory instruments are capable of trapping 0.510 998 950 00(15) MeV/c2[6]
individual electrons as well as electron plasma by
the use of electromagnetic fields. Special Mean lifetime stable ( > 6.6 × 1028 yr[8])
telescopes can detect electron plasma in outer Electric charge −1 e[b]
space. Electrons are involved in many −1.602 176 634 × 10−19 C[6]
applications such as electronics, welding, cathode −4.803 204 51(10) × 10−10 esu
ray tubes, electron microscopes, radiation
therapy, lasers, gaseous ionization detectors and Magnetic moment −1.001 159 652 180 91(26) μB[7]
particle accelerators. 1
Spin 2
Weak isospin LH: − 12 , RH: 0
Weak hypercharge LH: -1, RH: −2
Interactions involving electrons with other
subatomic particles are of interest in fields such as chemistry and nuclear physics. The Coulomb force
interaction between the positive protons within atomic nuclei and the negative electrons without,
allows the composition of the two known as atoms. Ionization or differences in the proportions of
negative electrons versus positive nuclei changes the binding energy of an atomic system. The
exchange or sharing of the electrons between two or more atoms is the main cause of chemical
bonding.[13] In 1838, British natural philosopher Richard Laming first hypothesized the concept of an
indivisible quantity of electric charge to explain the chemical properties of atoms.[3] Irish physicist
George Johnstone Stoney named this charge 'electron' in 1891, and J. J. Thomson and his team of
British physicists identified it as a particle in 1897 during the cathode ray tube experiment.[5]
Electrons can also participate in nuclear reactions, such as nucleosynthesis in stars, where they are
known as beta particles. Electrons can be created through beta decay of radioactive isotopes and in
high-energy collisions, for instance when cosmic rays enter the atmosphere. The antiparticle of the
electron is called the positron; it is identical to the electron except that it carries electrical charge of
the opposite sign. When an electron collides with a positron, both particles can be annihilated,
producing gamma ray photons.

Contents
History
Discovery of effect of electric force
Discovery of two kinds of charges
Discovery of free electrons outside matter
Atomic theory
Quantum mechanics
Particle accelerators
Confinement of individual electrons
Characteristics
Classification
Fundamental properties
Quantum properties
Virtual particles
Interaction
Atoms and molecules
Conductivity
Motion and energy
Formation
Observation
Plasma applications
Particle beams
Imaging
Other applications
See also
Notes
References
External links
History

Discovery of effect of electric force

The ancient Greeks noticed that amber attracted small objects when rubbed with fur. Along with
lightning, this phenomenon is one of humanity's earliest recorded experiences with electricity.[14] In
his 1600 treatise De Magnete, the English scientist William Gilbert coined the New Latin term
electrica, to refer to those substances with property similar to that of amber which attract small
objects after being rubbed.[15] Both electric and electricity are derived from the Latin ēlectrum (also
the root of the alloy of the same name), which came from the Greek word for amber, ἤλεκτρον
(ēlektron).

Discovery of two kinds of charges

In the early 1700s, French chemist Charles François du Fay found that if a charged gold-leaf is
repulsed by glass rubbed with silk, then the same charged gold-leaf is attracted by amber rubbed with
wool. From this and other results of similar types of experiments, du Fay concluded that electricity
consists of two electrical fluids, vitreous fluid from glass rubbed with silk and resinous fluid from
amber rubbed with wool. These two fluids can neutralize each other when combined.[15][16] American
scientist Ebenezer Kinnersley later also independently reached the same conclusion.[17]:118 A decade
later Benjamin Franklin proposed that electricity was not from different types of electrical fluid, but a
single electrical fluid showing an excess (+) or deficit (−). He gave them the modern charge
nomenclature of positive and negative respectively.[18] Franklin thought of the charge carrier as being
positive, but he did not correctly identify which situation was a surplus of the charge carrier, and
which situation was a deficit.[19]

Between 1838 and 1851, British natural philosopher Richard Laming developed the idea that an atom
is composed of a core of matter surrounded by subatomic particles that had unit electric charges.[2]
Beginning in 1846, German physicist William Weber theorized that electricity was composed of
positively and negatively charged fluids, and their interaction was governed by the inverse square law.
After studying the phenomenon of electrolysis in 1874, Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney
suggested that there existed a "single definite quantity of electricity", the charge of a monovalent ion.
He was able to estimate the value of this elementary charge e by means of Faraday's laws of
electrolysis.[20] However, Stoney believed these charges were permanently attached to atoms and
could not be removed. In 1881, German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz argued that both positive
and negative charges were divided into elementary parts, each of which "behaves like atoms of
electricity".[3]

Stoney initially coined the term electrolion in 1881. Ten years later, he switched to electron to
describe these elementary charges, writing in 1894: "... an estimate was made of the actual amount of
this most remarkable fundamental unit of electricity, for which I have since ventured to suggest the
name electron". A 1906 proposal to change to electrion failed because Hendrik Lorentz preferred to
keep electron.[21][22] The word electron is a combination of the words electric and ion.[23] The suffix -
on which is now used to designate other subatomic particles, such as a proton or neutron, is in turn
derived from electron.[24][25]

Discovery of free electrons outside matter

While studying electrical conductivity in rarefied gases in 1859, the German physicist Julius Plücker
observed that the phosphorescent light, which was caused by radiation emitted from the cathode,
appeared at the tube wall near the cathode, and the region of the phosphorescent light could be
moved by application of a magnetic field.[27] In 1869, Plucker's
student Johann Wilhelm Hittorf found that a solid body placed in
between the cathode and the phosphorescence would cast a
shadow upon the phosphorescent region of the tube. Hittorf
inferred that there are straight rays emitted from the cathode and
that the phosphorescence was caused by the rays striking the
tube walls. In 1876, the German physicist Eugen Goldstein
showed that the rays were emitted perpendicular to the cathode
surface, which distinguished between the rays that were emitted A beam of electrons deflected in a
from the cathode and the incandescent light. Goldstein dubbed circle by a magnetic field[26]
the rays cathode rays.[28][29]:393 Decades of experimental and
theoretical research involving cathode rays were important in J.
J. Thomson's eventual discovery of electrons.[3]

During the 1870s, the English chemist and physicist Sir William Crookes developed the first cathode
ray tube to have a high vacuum inside.[30] He then showed in 1874 that the cathode rays can turn a
small paddle wheel when placed in their path. Therefore, he concluded that the rays carried
momentum. Furthermore, by applying a magnetic field, he was able to deflect the rays, thereby
demonstrating that the beam behaved as though it were negatively charged.[28] In 1879, he proposed
that these properties could be explained by regarding cathode rays as composed of negatively charged
gaseous molecules in fourth state of matter in which the mean free path of the particles is so long that
collisions may be ignored.[29]:394–395

The German-born British physicist Arthur Schuster expanded upon Crookes's experiments by placing
metal plates parallel to the cathode rays and applying an electric potential between the plates.[31] The
field deflected the rays toward the positively charged plate, providing further evidence that the rays
carried negative charge. By measuring the amount of deflection for a given level of current, in 1890
Schuster was able to estimate the charge-to-mass ratio[c] of the ray components. However, this
produced a value that was more than a thousand times greater than what was expected, so little
credence was given to his calculations at the time.[28]

In 1892 Hendrik Lorentz suggested that the mass of these particles (electrons) could be a
consequence of their electric charge.[32]

While studying naturally fluorescing minerals in 1896, the French

physicist Henri Becquerel discovered that they emitted radiation without
any exposure to an external energy source. These radioactive materials
became the subject of much interest by scientists, including the New
Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford who discovered they emitted
particles. He designated these particles alpha and beta, on the basis of
their ability to penetrate matter.[33] In 1900, Becquerel showed that the
beta rays emitted by radium could be deflected by an electric field, and
that their mass-to-charge ratio was the same as for cathode rays.[34] This
evidence strengthened the view that electrons existed as components of
atoms.[35][36]

In 1897, the British physicist J. J. Thomson, with his colleagues John S.

Townsend and H. A. Wilson, performed experiments indicating that
cathode rays really were unique particles, rather than waves, atoms or
molecules as was believed earlier.[5] Thomson made good estimates of J. J. Thomson
both the charge e and the mass m, finding that cathode ray particles,
which he called "corpuscles", had perhaps one thousandth of the mass of
the least massive ion known: hydrogen.[5] He showed that their charge-to-mass ratio, e/m, was
independent of cathode material. He further showed that the negatively charged particles produced
by radioactive materials, by heated materials and by illuminated materials were universal.[5][37] The
name electron was adopted for these particles by the scientific community, mainly due to the
advocation by G. F. FitzGerald, J. Larmor, and H. A. Lorentz.[38]:273

The electron's charge was more carefully measured by the American

physicists Robert Millikan and Harvey Fletcher in their oil-drop
experiment of 1909, the results of which were published in 1911. This
experiment used an electric field to prevent a charged droplet of oil from
falling as a result of gravity. This device could measure the electric
charge from as few as 1–150 ions with an error margin of less than 0.3%.
Comparable experiments had been done earlier by Thomson's team,[5]
using clouds of charged water droplets generated by electrolysis, and in
1911 by Abram Ioffe, who independently obtained the same result as
Millikan using charged microparticles of metals, then published his
results in 1913.[39] However, oil drops were more stable than water
drops because of their slower evaporation rate, and thus more suited to
Robert Millikan
precise experimentation over longer periods of time.[40]

Around the beginning of the twentieth century, it was found that under
certain conditions a fast-moving charged particle caused a condensation of supersaturated water
vapor along its path. In 1911, Charles Wilson used this principle to devise his cloud chamber so he
could photograph the tracks of charged particles, such as fast-moving electrons.[41]

Atomic theory

By 1914, experiments by physicists Ernest Rutherford, Henry

Moseley, James Franck and Gustav Hertz had largely established
the structure of an atom as a dense nucleus of positive charge
surrounded by lower-mass electrons.[42] In 1913, Danish
physicist Niels Bohr postulated that electrons resided in
quantized energy states, with their energies determined by the
angular momentum of the electron's orbit about the nucleus. The
electrons could move between those states, or orbits, by the
emission or absorption of photons of specific frequencies. By
means of these quantized orbits, he accurately explained the
spectral lines of the hydrogen atom.[43] However, Bohr's model
failed to account for the relative intensities of the spectral lines The Bohr model of the atom,
and it was unsuccessful in explaining the spectra of more showing states of electron with
complex atoms.[42] energy quantized by the number n.
An electron dropping to a lower orbit
Chemical bonds between atoms were explained by Gilbert emits a photon equal to the energy
Newton Lewis, who in 1916 proposed that a covalent bond difference between the orbits.
between two atoms is maintained by a pair of electrons shared
between them.[44] Later, in 1927, Walter Heitler and Fritz
London gave the full explanation of the electron-pair formation and chemical bonding in terms of
quantum mechanics.[45] In 1919, the American chemist Irving Langmuir elaborated on the Lewis's
static model of the atom and suggested that all electrons were distributed in successive "concentric
(nearly) spherical shells, all of equal thickness".[46] In turn, he divided the shells into a number of
cells each of which contained one pair of electrons. With this model Langmuir was able to
qualitatively explain the chemical properties of all elements in the periodic table,[45] which were
known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law.[47]
In 1924, Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli observed that the shell-like structure of the atom could be
explained by a set of four parameters that defined every quantum energy state, as long as each state
was occupied by no more than a single electron. This prohibition against more than one electron
occupying the same quantum energy state became known as the Pauli exclusion principle.[48] The
physical mechanism to explain the fourth parameter, which had two distinct possible values, was
provided by the Dutch physicists Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck. In 1925, they suggested
that an electron, in addition to the angular momentum of its orbit, possesses an intrinsic angular
momentum and magnetic dipole moment.[42][49] This is analogous to the rotation of the Earth on its
axis as it orbits the Sun. The intrinsic angular momentum became known as spin, and explained the
previously mysterious splitting of spectral lines observed with a high-resolution spectrograph; this
phenomenon is known as fine structure splitting.[50]

Quantum mechanics

In his 1924 dissertation Recherches sur la théorie des quanta (Research on Quantum Theory),
French physicist Louis de Broglie hypothesized that all matter can be represented as a de Broglie
wave in the manner of light.[51] That is, under the appropriate conditions, electrons and other matter
would show properties of either particles or waves. The corpuscular properties of a particle are
demonstrated when it is shown to have a localized position in space along its trajectory at any given
moment.[52] The wave-like nature of light is displayed, for example, when a beam of light is passed
through parallel slits thereby creating interference patterns. In 1927, George Paget Thomson
discovered the interference effect was produced when a beam of electrons was passed through thin
metal foils and by American physicists Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer by the reflection of
electrons from a crystal of nickel.[53]

De Broglie's prediction of a wave nature for electrons led Erwin

Schrödinger to postulate a wave equation for electrons moving
under the influence of the nucleus in the atom. In 1926, this
equation, the Schrödinger equation, successfully described how
electron waves propagated.[54] Rather than yielding a solution
that determined the location of an electron over time, this wave
equation also could be used to predict the probability of finding
an electron near a position, especially a position near where the
electron was bound in space, for which the electron wave
equations did not change in time. This approach led to a second
formulation of quantum mechanics (the first by Heisenberg in
1925), and solutions of Schrödinger's equation, like Heisenberg's,
provided derivations of the energy states of an electron in a
hydrogen atom that were equivalent to those that had been
derived first by Bohr in 1913, and that were known to reproduce
the hydrogen spectrum.[55] Once spin and the interaction In quantum mechanics, the behavior
between multiple electrons were describable, quantum of an electron in an atom is
mechanics made it possible to predict the configuration of described by an orbital, which is a
electrons in atoms with atomic numbers greater than probability distribution rather than an
hydrogen.[56] orbit. In the figure, the shading
indicates the relative probability to
In 1928, building on Wolfgang Pauli's work, Paul Dirac produced "find" the electron, having the
a model of the electron – the Dirac equation, consistent with energy corresponding to the given
quantum numbers, at that point.
relativity theory, by applying relativistic and symmetry
considerations to the hamiltonian formulation of the quantum
mechanics of the electro-magnetic field.[57] In order to resolve
some problems within his relativistic equation, Dirac developed in 1930 a model of the vacuum as an
infinite sea of particles with negative energy, later dubbed the Dirac sea. This led him to predict the
existence of a positron, the antimatter counterpart of the electron.[58] This particle was discovered in
1932 by Carl Anderson, who proposed calling standard electrons negatons and using electron as a
generic term to describe both the positively and negatively charged variants.

In 1947, Willis Lamb, working in collaboration with graduate student Robert Retherford, found that
certain quantum states of the hydrogen atom, which should have the same energy, were shifted in
relation to each other; the difference came to be called the Lamb shift. About the same time, Polykarp
Kusch, working with Henry M. Foley, discovered the magnetic moment of the electron is slightly
larger than predicted by Dirac's theory. This small difference was later called anomalous magnetic
dipole moment of the electron. This difference was later explained by the theory of quantum
electrodynamics, developed by Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger and Richard Feynman in the
late 1940s.[59]

Particle accelerators

With the development of the particle accelerator during the first half of the twentieth century,
physicists began to delve deeper into the properties of subatomic particles.[60] The first successful
attempt to accelerate electrons using electromagnetic induction was made in 1942 by Donald Kerst.
His initial betatron reached energies of 2.3 MeV, while subsequent betatrons achieved 300 MeV. In
1947, synchrotron radiation was discovered with a 70 MeV electron synchrotron at General Electric.
This radiation was caused by the acceleration of electrons through a magnetic field as they moved
near the speed of light.[61]

With a beam energy of 1.5 GeV, the first high-energy particle collider was ADONE, which began
operations in 1968.[62] This device accelerated electrons and positrons in opposite directions,
effectively doubling the energy of their collision when compared to striking a static target with an
electron.[63] The Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) at CERN, which was operational from 1989
to 2000, achieved collision energies of 209 GeV and made important measurements for the Standard
Model of particle physics.[64][65]

Confinement of individual electrons

Individual electrons can now be easily confined in ultra small (L = 20 nm, W = 20 nm) CMOS
transistors operated at cryogenic temperature over a range of −269 °C (4 K) to about −258 °C
(15 K).[66] The electron wavefunction spreads in a semiconductor lattice and negligibly interacts with
the valence band electrons, so it can be treated in the single particle formalism, by replacing its mass
with the effective mass tensor.

Characteristics

Classification

In the Standard Model of particle physics, electrons belong to the group of subatomic particles called
leptons, which are believed to be fundamental or elementary particles. Electrons have the lowest
mass of any charged lepton (or electrically charged particle of any type) and belong to the first-
generation of fundamental particles.[67] The second and third generation contain charged leptons, the
muon and the tau, which are identical to the electron in charge, spin and interactions, but are more
massive. Leptons differ from the other basic constituent of matter, the quarks, by their lack of strong
interaction. All members of the lepton group are fermions, because they all have half-odd integer
spin; the electron has spin 21 .[68]
Fundamental properties

The invariant mass of an electron is approximately

9.109 × 10−31 kilograms,[69] or 5.489 × 10−4 atomic mass
units. On the basis of Einstein's principle of mass–
energy equivalence, this mass corresponds to a rest
energy of 0.511 MeV. The ratio between the mass of a
proton and that of an electron is about 1836.[11][70]
Astronomical measurements show that the proton-to-
electron mass ratio has held the same value, as is
predicted by the Standard Model, for at least half the age
of the universe.[71]

Electrons have an electric charge of

−1.602 176 634 × 10−19 coulombs,[69] which is used as a
Standard Model of elementary particles. The
standard unit of charge for subatomic particles, and is
electron (symbol e) is on the left.
also called the elementary charge. Within the limits of
experimental accuracy, the electron charge is identical to
the charge of a proton, but with the opposite sign.[72] As
−
the symbol e is used for the elementary charge, the electron is commonly symbolized by e , where the
+
minus sign indicates the negative charge. The positron is symbolized by e because it has the same
properties as the electron but with a positive rather than negative charge.[68][69]

The electron has an intrinsic angular momentum or spin of 21 .[69] This property is usually stated by
referring to the electron as a spin- 21 particle.[68] For such particles the spin magnitude is ħ2 ,[73][d]
while the result of the measurement of a projection of the spin on any axis can only be ± ħ2 . In addition
to spin, the electron has an intrinsic magnetic moment along its spin axis.[69] It is approximately
equal to one Bohr magneton,[74][e] which is a physical constant equal to
9.274 009 15(23) × 10−24 joules per tesla.[69] The orientation of the spin with respect to the
momentum of the electron defines the property of elementary particles known as helicity.[75]

The electron has no known substructure.[1][76] Nevertheless, in condensed matter physics, spin–
charge separation can occur in some materials. In such cases, electrons 'split' into three independent
particles, the spinon, the orbiton and the holon (or chargon). The electron can always be theoretically
considered as a bound state of the three, with the spinon carrying the spin of the electron, the orbiton
carrying the orbital degree of freedom and the chargon carrying the charge, but in certain conditions
they can behave as independent quasiparticles.[77][78][79]

The issue of the radius of the electron is a challenging problem of modern theoretical physics. The
admission of the hypothesis of a finite radius of the electron is incompatible to the premises of the
theory of relativity. On the other hand, a point-like electron (zero radius) generates serious
mathematical difficulties due to the self-energy of the electron tending to infinity.[80] Observation of
a single electron in a Penning trap suggests the upper limit of the particle's radius to be
10−22 meters.[81] The upper bound of the electron radius of 10−18 meters[82] can be derived using the
uncertainty relation in energy. There is also a physical constant called the "classical electron radius",
with the much larger value of 2.8179 × 10−15 m, greater than the radius of the proton. However, the
terminology comes from a simplistic calculation that ignores the effects of quantum mechanics; in
reality, the so-called classical electron radius has little to do with the true fundamental structure of
the electron.[83][84][f]
There are elementary particles that spontaneously decay into less massive particles. An example is the
muon, with a mean lifetime of 2.2 × 10−6 seconds, which decays into an electron, a muon neutrino
and an electron antineutrino. The electron, on the other hand, is thought to be stable on theoretical
grounds: the electron is the least massive particle with non-zero electric charge, so its decay would
violate charge conservation.[85] The experimental lower bound for the electron's mean lifetime is
6.6 × 1028 years, at a 90% confidence level.[8][86][87]

Quantum properties

As with all particles, electrons can act as waves. This is called the wave–particle duality and can be
demonstrated using the double-slit experiment.

The wave-like nature of the electron allows it to pass through two parallel slits simultaneously, rather
than just one slit as would be the case for a classical particle. In quantum mechanics, the wave-like
property of one particle can be described mathematically as a complex-valued function, the wave
function, commonly denoted by the Greek letter psi (ψ). When the absolute value of this function is
squared, it gives the probability that a particle will be observed near a location—a probability
density.[88]:162–218

Electrons are identical particles because they cannot be

distinguished from each other by their intrinsic physical
properties. In quantum mechanics, this means that a pair of
interacting electrons must be able to swap positions without an
observable change to the state of the system. The wave function
of fermions, including electrons, is antisymmetric, meaning that
it changes sign when two electrons are swapped; that is,
ψ(r1, r2) = −ψ(r2, r1), where the variables r1 and r2 correspond to
the first and second electrons, respectively. Since the absolute
value is not changed by a sign swap, this corresponds to equal Example of an antisymmetric wave
probabilities. Bosons, such as the photon, have symmetric wave function for a quantum state of two
functions instead.[88]:162–218 identical fermions in a 1-dimensional
box. If the particles swap position,
In the case of antisymmetry, solutions of the wave equation for the wave function inverts its sign.
interacting electrons result in a zero probability that each pair
will occupy the same location or state. This is responsible for the
Pauli exclusion principle, which precludes any two electrons from occupying the same quantum state.
This principle explains many of the properties of electrons. For example, it causes groups of bound
electrons to occupy different orbitals in an atom, rather than all overlapping each other in the same
orbit.[88]:162–218

Virtual particles

In a simplified picture, which often tends to give the wrong idea but may serve to illustrate some
aspects, every photon spends some time as a combination of a virtual electron plus its antiparticle,
the virtual positron, which rapidly annihilate each other shortly thereafter.[89] The combination of
the energy variation needed to create these particles, and the time during which they exist, fall under
the threshold of detectability expressed by the Heisenberg uncertainty relation, ΔE · Δt ≥ ħ. In effect,
the energy needed to create these virtual particles, ΔE, can be "borrowed" from the vacuum for a
period of time, Δt, so that their product is no more than the reduced Planck constant,
ħ ≈ 6.6 × 10−16 eV·s. Thus, for a virtual electron, Δt is at most 1.3 × 10−21 s.[90]
While an electron–positron virtual pair is in existence, the
Coulomb force from the ambient electric field surrounding an
electron causes a created positron to be attracted to the original
electron, while a created electron experiences a repulsion. This
causes what is called vacuum polarization. In effect, the vacuum
behaves like a medium having a dielectric permittivity more than
unity. Thus the effective charge of an electron is actually smaller
than its true value, and the charge decreases with increasing
distance from the electron.[91][92] This polarization was
confirmed experimentally in 1997 using the Japanese TRISTAN A schematic depiction of virtual
particle accelerator.[93] Virtual particles cause a comparable electron–positron pairs appearing at
shielding effect for the mass of the electron.[94] random near an electron (at lower
left)
The interaction with virtual particles also explains the small
(about 0.1%) deviation of the intrinsic magnetic moment of the
electron from the Bohr magneton (the anomalous magnetic moment).[74][95] The extraordinarily
precise agreement of this predicted difference with the experimentally determined value is viewed as
one of the great achievements of quantum electrodynamics.[96]

The apparent paradox in classical physics of a point particle electron having intrinsic angular
momentum and magnetic moment can be explained by the formation of virtual photons in the
electric field generated by the electron. These photons cause the electron to shift about in a jittery
fashion (known as zitterbewegung),[97] which results in a net circular motion with precession. This
motion produces both the spin and the magnetic moment of the electron.[10][98] In atoms, this
creation of virtual photons explains the Lamb shift observed in spectral lines.[91] The Compton
Wavelength shows that near elementary particles such as the electron, the uncertainty of the energy
allows for the creation of virtual particles near the electron. This wavelength explains the "static" of
virtual particles around elementary particles at a close distance.

Interaction

An electron generates an electric field that exerts an attractive force on a particle with a positive
charge, such as the proton, and a repulsive force on a particle with a negative charge. The strength of
this force in nonrelativistic approximation is determined by Coulomb's inverse square
law.[99](pp58–61) When an electron is in motion, it generates a magnetic field.[88](p140) The Ampère-
Maxwell law relates the magnetic field to the mass motion of electrons (the current) with respect to
an observer. This property of induction supplies the magnetic field that drives an electric motor.[100]
The electromagnetic field of an arbitrary moving charged particle is expressed by the Liénard–
Wiechert potentials, which are valid even when the particle's speed is close to that of light
(relativistic).[99](pp429–434)

When an electron is moving through a magnetic field, it is subject to the Lorentz force that acts
perpendicularly to the plane defined by the magnetic field and the electron velocity. This centripetal
force causes the electron to follow a helical trajectory through the field at a radius called the
gyroradius. The acceleration from this curving motion induces the electron to radiate energy in the
form of synchrotron radiation.[101][g][88](p160) The energy emission in turn causes a recoil of the
electron, known as the Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac Force, which creates a friction that slows the
electron. This force is caused by a back-reaction of the electron's own field upon itself.[102]

Photons mediate electromagnetic interactions between particles in quantum electrodynamics. An

isolated electron at a constant velocity cannot emit or absorb a real photon; doing so would violate
conservation of energy and momentum. Instead, virtual photons can transfer momentum between
two charged particles. This exchange of virtual photons, for example, generates the Coulomb
force.[103] Energy emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged particle, such
 as a proton. The acceleration of the
electron results in the emission of
Bremsstrahlung radiation.[104]

An inelastic collision between a

photon (light) and a solitary (free)
electron is called Compton
scattering. This collision results in a
transfer of momentum and energy
between the particles, which
modifies the wavelength of the A particle with charge q (at left) is
photon by an amount called the moving with velocity v through a
Here, Bremsstrahlung is Compton shift.[h] The maximum magnetic field B that is oriented
produced by an electron e magnitude of this wavelength shift is toward the viewer. For an electron, q
deflected by the electric h/mec, which is known as the is negative so it follows a curved
field of an atomic nucleus. [105] trajectory toward the top.
The energy change E2 − E1
Compton wavelength. For an
determines the frequency f
electron, it has a value of
of the emitted photon. 2.43 × 10−12 m.[69] When the
wavelength of the light is long (for instance, the wavelength of the visible
light is 0.4–0.7 μm) the wavelength shift becomes negligible. Such
interaction between the light and free electrons is called Thomson scattering or linear Thomson
scattering.[106]

The relative strength of the electromagnetic interaction between two charged particles, such as an
electron and a proton, is given by the fine-structure constant. This value is a dimensionless quantity
formed by the ratio of two energies: the electrostatic energy of attraction (or repulsion) at a
separation of one Compton wavelength, and the rest energy of the charge. It is given by
1 [69]
α ≈ 7.297 353 × 10−3, which is approximately equal to 137 .

When electrons and positrons collide, they annihilate each other, giving rise to two or more gamma
ray photons. If the electron and positron have negligible momentum, a positronium atom can form
before annihilation results in two or three gamma ray photons totalling 1.022 MeV.[107][108] On the
other hand, a high-energy photon can transform into an electron and a positron by a process called
pair production, but only in the presence of a nearby charged particle, such as a nucleus.[109][110]

In the theory of electroweak interaction, the left-handed component of electron's wavefunction forms
a weak isospin doublet with the electron neutrino. This means that during weak interactions, electron
neutrinos behave like electrons. Either member of this doublet can undergo a charged current
interaction by emitting or absorbing a W and be converted into the other member. Charge is
conserved during this reaction because the W boson also carries a charge, canceling out any net
change during the transmutation. Charged current interactions are responsible for the phenomenon
of beta decay in a radioactive atom. Both the electron and electron neutrino can undergo a neutral
0
current interaction via a Z exchange, and this is responsible for neutrino-electron elastic
scattering.[111]

Atoms and molecules

An electron can be bound to the nucleus of an atom by the attractive Coulomb force. A system of one
or more electrons bound to a nucleus is called an atom. If the number of electrons is different from
the nucleus's electrical charge, such an atom is called an ion. The wave-like behavior of a bound
electron is described by a function called an atomic orbital. Each orbital has its own set of quantum
numbers such as energy, angular momentum and projection of angular momentum, and only a
discrete set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus.
According to the Pauli exclusion principle each orbital
can be occupied by up to two electrons, which must
differ in their spin quantum number.

Electrons can transfer between different orbitals by the

emission or absorption of photons with an energy that
matches the difference in potential.[112]:159–160 Other
methods of orbital transfer include collisions with
particles, such as electrons, and the Auger effect.[113] To
escape the atom, the energy of the electron must be
increased above its binding energy to the atom. This
occurs, for example, with the photoelectric effect, where
an incident photon exceeding the atom's ionization
energy is absorbed by the electron.[112]:127–132 Probability densities for the first few hydrogen
atom orbitals, seen in cross-section. The
The orbital angular momentum of electrons is quantized. energy level of a bound electron determines
Because the electron is charged, it produces an orbital the orbital it occupies, and the color reflects
magnetic moment that is proportional to the angular the probability of finding the electron at a given
momentum. The net magnetic moment of an atom is position.
equal to the vector sum of orbital and spin magnetic
moments of all electrons and the nucleus. The magnetic
moment of the nucleus is negligible compared with that of the electrons. The magnetic moments of
the electrons that occupy the same orbital (so called, paired electrons) cancel each other out.[114]

The chemical bond between atoms occurs as a result of electromagnetic interactions, as described by
the laws of quantum mechanics.[115] The strongest bonds are formed by the sharing or transfer of
electrons between atoms, allowing the formation of molecules.[13] Within a molecule, electrons move
under the influence of several nuclei, and occupy molecular orbitals; much as they can occupy atomic
orbitals in isolated atoms.[116] A fundamental factor in these molecular structures is the existence of
electron pairs. These are electrons with opposed spins, allowing them to occupy the same molecular
orbital without violating the Pauli exclusion principle (much like in atoms). Different molecular
orbitals have different spatial distribution of the electron density. For instance, in bonded pairs (i.e.
in the pairs that actually bind atoms together) electrons can be found with the maximal probability in
a relatively small volume between the nuclei. By contrast, in non-bonded pairs electrons are
distributed in a large volume around nuclei.[117]

Conductivity

If a body has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei,
then that object has a net electric charge. When there is an excess of electrons, the object is said to be
negatively charged. When there are fewer electrons than the number of protons in nuclei, the object is
said to be positively charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal,
their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral. A macroscopic body
can develop an electric charge through rubbing, by the triboelectric effect.[121]

Independent electrons moving in vacuum are termed free electrons. Electrons in metals also behave
as if they were free. In reality the particles that are commonly termed electrons in metals and other
solids are quasi-electrons—quasiparticles, which have the same electrical charge, spin, and magnetic
moment as real electrons but might have a different mass.[122] When free electrons—both in vacuum
and metals—move, they produce a net flow of charge called an electric current, which generates a
magnetic field. Likewise a current can be created by a changing magnetic field. These interactions are
described mathematically by Maxwell's equations.[123]
At a given temperature, each material has an electrical
conductivity that determines the value of electric current when an
electric potential is applied. Examples of good conductors include
metals such as copper and gold, whereas glass and Teflon are
poor conductors. In any dielectric material, the electrons remain
bound to their respective atoms and the material behaves as an
insulator. Most semiconductors have a variable level of
conductivity that lies between the extremes of conduction and
insulation.[124] On the other hand, metals have an electronic
band structure containing partially filled electronic bands. The
presence of such bands allows electrons in metals to behave as if
they were free or delocalized electrons. These electrons are not
associated with specific atoms, so when an electric field is
applied, they are free to move like a gas (called Fermi gas)[125] A lightning discharge consists
through the material much like free electrons. primarily of a flow of electrons.[118]
The electric potential needed for
Because of collisions between electrons and atoms, the drift lightning can be generated by a
velocity of electrons in a conductor is on the order of millimeters triboelectric effect.[119][120]
per second. However, the speed at which a change of current at
one point in the material causes changes in currents in other
parts of the material, the velocity of propagation, is typically about 75% of light speed.[126] This occurs
because electrical signals propagate as a wave, with the velocity dependent on the dielectric constant
of the material.[127]

Metals make relatively good conductors of heat, primarily because the delocalized electrons are free
to transport thermal energy between atoms. However, unlike electrical conductivity, the thermal
conductivity of a metal is nearly independent of temperature. This is expressed mathematically by the
Wiedemann–Franz law,[125] which states that the ratio of thermal conductivity to the electrical
conductivity is proportional to the temperature. The thermal disorder in the metallic lattice increases
the electrical resistivity of the material, producing a temperature dependence for electric current.[128]

When cooled below a point called the critical temperature, materials can undergo a phase transition
in which they lose all resistivity to electric current, in a process known as superconductivity. In BCS
theory, pairs of electrons called Cooper pairs have their motion coupled to nearby matter via lattice
vibrations called phonons, thereby avoiding the collisions with atoms that normally create electrical
resistance.[129] (Cooper pairs have a radius of roughly 100 nm, so they can overlap each other.)[130]
However, the mechanism by which higher temperature superconductors operate remains uncertain.

Electrons inside conducting solids, which are quasi-particles themselves, when tightly confined at
temperatures close to absolute zero, behave as though they had split into three other quasiparticles:
spinons, orbitons and holons.[131][132] The former carries spin and magnetic moment, the next carries
its orbital location while the latter electrical charge.

Motion and energy

According to Einstein's theory of special relativity, as an electron's speed approaches the speed of
light, from an observer's point of view its relativistic mass increases, thereby making it more and
more difficult to accelerate it from within the observer's frame of reference. The speed of an electron
can approach, but never reach, the speed of light in a vacuum, c. However, when relativistic electrons
—that is, electrons moving at a speed close to c—are injected into a dielectric medium such as water,
where the local speed of light is significantly less than c, the electrons temporarily travel faster than
light in the medium. As they interact with the medium, they generate a faint light called Cherenkov
radiation.[133]
The effects of special relativity are based on a quantity known as
the Lorentz factor, defined as where v is the speed of
the particle. The kinetic energy Ke of an electron moving with
velocity v is:

where me is the mass of electron. For example, the Stanford

linear accelerator can accelerate an electron to roughly
51 GeV.[134] Since an electron behaves as a wave, at a given
velocity it has a characteristic de Broglie wavelength. This is given
by λe = h/p where h is the Planck constant and p is the
Lorentz factor as a function of
momentum.[51] For the 51 GeV electron above, the wavelength is
velocity. It starts at value 1 and goes
about 2.4 × 10−17 m, small enough to explore structures well to infinity as v approaches c.
below the size of an atomic nucleus.[135]

Formation
The Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted scientific theory
to explain the early stages in the evolution of the Universe.[137]
For the first millisecond of the Big Bang, the temperatures were
over 10 billion kelvins and photons had mean energies over a
million electronvolts. These photons were sufficiently energetic
that they could react with each other to form pairs of electrons
and positrons. Likewise, positron-electron pairs annihilated each
other and emitted energetic photons: Pair production of an electron and
positron, caused by the close
+ − approach of a photon with an atomic
γ+γ↔e +e nucleus. The lightning symbol
represents an exchange of a virtual
An equilibrium between electrons, positrons and photons was
photon, thus an electric force acts.
maintained during this phase of the evolution of the Universe. The angle between the particles is
After 15 seconds had passed, however, the temperature of the
very small.[136]
universe dropped below the threshold where electron-positron
formation could occur. Most of the surviving electrons and
positrons annihilated each other, releasing gamma radiation that briefly reheated the universe.[138]

For reasons that remain uncertain, during the annihilation process there was an excess in the number
of particles over antiparticles. Hence, about one electron for every billion electron-positron pairs
survived. This excess matched the excess of protons over antiprotons, in a condition known as baryon
asymmetry, resulting in a net charge of zero for the universe.[139][140] The surviving protons and
neutrons began to participate in reactions with each other—in the process known as nucleosynthesis,
forming isotopes of hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of lithium. This process peaked after
about five minutes.[141] Any leftover neutrons underwent negative beta decay with a half-life of about
a thousand seconds, releasing a proton and electron in the process,
−
n → p + e + νe

For about the next 300 000–400 000 years, the excess electrons remained too energetic to bind with
atomic nuclei.[142] What followed is a period known as recombination, when neutral atoms were
formed and the expanding universe became transparent to radiation.[143]
Roughly one million years after the big bang, the first generation of stars began to form.[143] Within a
star, stellar nucleosynthesis results in the production of positrons from the fusion of atomic nuclei.
These antimatter particles immediately annihilate with electrons, releasing gamma rays. The net
result is a steady reduction in the number of electrons, and a matching increase in the number of
neutrons. However, the process of stellar evolution can result in the synthesis of radioactive isotopes.
Selected isotopes can subsequently undergo negative beta decay, emitting an electron and
antineutrino from the nucleus.[144] An example is the cobalt-60 (60Co) isotope, which decays to form
60
nickel-60 ( Ni).[145]

At the end of its lifetime, a star with more than about 20 solar
masses can undergo gravitational collapse to form a black
hole.[146] According to classical physics, these massive stellar
objects exert a gravitational attraction that is strong enough to
prevent anything, even electromagnetic radiation, from escaping
past the Schwarzschild radius. However, quantum mechanical
effects are believed to potentially allow the emission of Hawking
radiation at this distance. Electrons (and positrons) are thought
to be created at the event horizon of these stellar remnants.

An extended air shower generated When a pair of virtual particles (such as an electron and positron)
by an energetic cosmic ray strikingis created in the vicinity of the event horizon, random spatial
the Earth's atmosphere positioning might result in one of them to appear on the exterior;
this process is called quantum tunnelling. The gravitational
potential of the black hole can then supply the energy that
transforms this virtual particle into a real particle, allowing it to radiate away into space.[147] In
exchange, the other member of the pair is given negative energy, which results in a net loss of mass-
energy by the black hole. The rate of Hawking radiation increases with decreasing mass, eventually
causing the black hole to evaporate away until, finally, it explodes.[148]

Cosmic rays are particles traveling through space with high energies. Energy events as high as
3.0 × 1020 eV have been recorded.[149] When these particles collide with nucleons in the Earth's
atmosphere, a shower of particles is generated, including pions.[150] More than half of the cosmic
radiation observed from the Earth's surface consists of muons. The particle called a muon is a lepton
produced in the upper atmosphere by the decay of a pion.
− −
π → μ + νμ

A muon, in turn, can decay to form an electron or positron.[151]

− −
μ → e + νe + νμ

Observation
Remote observation of electrons requires detection of their radiated energy. For example, in high-
energy environments such as the corona of a star, free electrons form a plasma that radiates energy
due to Bremsstrahlung radiation. Electron gas can undergo plasma oscillation, which is waves caused
by synchronized variations in electron density, and these produce energy emissions that can be
detected by using radio telescopes.[153]

The frequency of a photon is proportional to its energy. As a bound electron transitions between
different energy levels of an atom, it absorbs or emits photons at characteristic frequencies. For
instance, when atoms are irradiated by a source with a broad spectrum, distinct dark lines appear in
the spectrum of transmitted radiation in places where the corresponding frequency is absorbed by the
atom's electrons. Each element or molecule displays a characteristic set of spectral lines, such as the
hydrogen spectral series. When detected, spectroscopic
measurements of the strength and width of these lines allow the
composition and physical properties of a substance to be
determined.[154][155]

In laboratory conditions, the interactions of individual electrons

can be observed by means of particle detectors, which allow
measurement of specific properties such as energy, spin and
charge.[156] The development of the Paul trap and Penning trap
Aurorae are mostly caused by
allows charged particles to be contained within a small region for
energetic electrons precipitating into
long durations. This enables precise measurements of the particle
the atmosphere.[152]
properties. For example, in one instance a Penning trap was used
to contain a single electron for a period of 10 months.[157] The
magnetic moment of the electron was measured to a precision of eleven digits, which, in 1980, was a
greater accuracy than for any other physical constant.[158]

The first video images of an electron's energy distribution were captured by a team at Lund University
in Sweden, February 2008. The scientists used extremely short flashes of light, called attosecond
pulses, which allowed an electron's motion to be observed for the first time.[159][160]

The distribution of the electrons in solid materials can be visualized by angle-resolved photoemission
spectroscopy (ARPES). This technique employs the photoelectric effect to measure the reciprocal
space—a mathematical representation of periodic structures that is used to infer the original
structure. ARPES can be used to determine the direction, speed and scattering of electrons within the
material.[161]

Plasma applications

Particle beams

Electron beams are used in welding.[163] They allow energy

densities up to 107 W·cm−2 across a narrow focus diameter of
0.1–1.3 mm and usually require no filler material. This welding
technique must be performed in a vacuum to prevent the
electrons from interacting with the gas before reaching their
target, and it can be used to join conductive materials that would
otherwise be considered unsuitable for welding.[164][165]

Electron-beam lithography (EBL) is a method of etching

semiconductors at resolutions smaller than a micrometer.[166] During a NASA wind tunnel test, a
This technique is limited by high costs, slow performance, the model of the Space Shuttle is
need to operate the beam in the vacuum and the tendency of the targeted by a beam of electrons,
electrons to scatter in solids. The last problem limits the simulating the effect of ionizing
resolution to about 10 nm. For this reason, EBL is primarily used gases during re-entry.[162]
for the production of small numbers of specialized integrated
circuits.[167]

Electron beam processing is used to irradiate materials in order to change their physical properties or
sterilize medical and food products.[168] Electron beams fluidise or quasi-melt glasses without
significant increase of temperature on intensive irradiation: e.g. intensive electron radiation causes a
many orders of magnitude decrease of viscosity and stepwise decrease of its activation energy.[169]
Linear particle accelerators generate electron beams for treatment of superficial tumors in radiation
therapy. Electron therapy can treat such skin lesions as basal-cell carcinomas because an electron
beam only penetrates to a limited depth before being absorbed, typically up to 5 cm for electron
energies in the range 5–20 MeV. An electron beam can be used to supplement the treatment of areas
that have been irradiated by X-rays.[170][171]

Particle accelerators use electric fields to propel electrons and their antiparticles to high energies.
These particles emit synchrotron radiation as they pass through magnetic fields. The dependency of
the intensity of this radiation upon spin polarizes the electron beam—a process known as the
Sokolov–Ternov effect.[i] Polarized electron beams can be useful for various experiments.
Synchrotron radiation can also cool the electron beams to reduce the momentum spread of the
particles. Electron and positron beams are collided upon the particles' accelerating to the required
energies; particle detectors observe the resulting energy emissions, which particle physics studies
.[172]

Imaging

Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a method of bombarding a crystalline material with a

collimated beam of electrons and then observing the resulting diffraction patterns to determine the
structure of the material. The required energy of the electrons is typically in the range 20–
200 eV.[173] The reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED) technique uses the reflection of
a beam of electrons fired at various low angles to characterize the surface of crystalline materials. The
beam energy is typically in the range 8–20 keV and the angle of incidence is 1–4°.[174][175]

The electron microscope directs a focused beam of electrons at a specimen. Some electrons change
their properties, such as movement direction, angle, and relative phase and energy as the beam
interacts with the material. Microscopists can record these changes in the electron beam to produce
atomically resolved images of the material.[176] In blue light, conventional optical microscopes have a
diffraction-limited resolution of about 200 nm.[177] By comparison, electron microscopes are limited
by the de Broglie wavelength of the electron. This wavelength, for example, is equal to 0.0037 nm for
electrons accelerated across a 100,000-volt potential.[178] The Transmission Electron Aberration-
Corrected Microscope is capable of sub-0.05 nm resolution, which is more than enough to resolve
individual atoms.[179] This capability makes the electron microscope a useful laboratory instrument
for high resolution imaging. However, electron microscopes are expensive instruments that are costly
to maintain.

Two main types of electron microscopes exist: transmission and scanning. Transmission electron
microscopes function like overhead projectors, with a beam of electrons passing through a slice of
material then being projected by lenses on a photographic slide or a charge-coupled device. Scanning
electron microscopes rasteri a finely focused electron beam, as in a TV set, across the studied sample
to produce the image. Magnifications range from 100× to 1,000,000× or higher for both microscope
types. The scanning tunneling microscope uses quantum tunneling of electrons from a sharp metal
tip into the studied material and can produce atomically resolved images of its surface.[180][181][182]

Other applications

In the free-electron laser (FEL), a relativistic electron beam passes through a pair of undulators that
contain arrays of dipole magnets whose fields point in alternating directions. The electrons emit
synchrotron radiation that coherently interacts with the same electrons to strongly amplify the
radiation field at the resonance frequency. FEL can emit a coherent high-brilliance electromagnetic
radiation with a wide range of frequencies, from microwaves to soft X-rays. These devices are used in
manufacturing, communication, and in medical applications, such as soft tissue surgery.[183]
Electrons are important in cathode ray tubes, which have been extensively used as display devices in
laboratory instruments, computer monitors and television sets.[184] In a photomultiplier tube, every
photon striking the photocathode initiates an avalanche of electrons that produces a detectable
current pulse.[185] Vacuum tubes use the flow of electrons to manipulate electrical signals, and they
played a critical role in the development of electronics technology. However, they have been largely
supplanted by solid-state devices such as the transistor.[186]

See also
Anyon List of particles
Beta radiation Periodic systems of small molecules
Electride Spintronics
Electron bubble Stern–Gerlach experiment
Exoelectron emission Townsend discharge
g-factor Zeeman effect
Lepton

Notes
a. The fractional version's denominator is the inverse of the decimal value (along with its relative
standard uncertainty of 4.2 × 10−13 u).
b. The electron's charge is the negative of elementary charge, which has a positive value for the
proton.
c. Note that older sources list charge-to-mass rather than the modern convention of mass-to-charge
ratio.
d. This magnitude is obtained from the spin quantum number as

for quantum number s = 12 .

See: Gupta (2001).
e. Bohr magneton:
f. The classical electron radius is derived as follows. Assume that the electron's charge is spread
uniformly throughout a spherical volume. Since one part of the sphere would repel the other parts,
the sphere contains electrostatic potential energy. This energy is assumed to equal the electron's
rest energy, defined by special relativity (E = mc2).
From electrostatics theory, the potential energy of a sphere with radius r and charge e is given by:

where ε0 is the vacuum permittivity. For an electron with rest mass m0, the rest energy is equal to:

where c is the speed of light in a vacuum. Setting them equal and solving for r gives the classical
electron radius.
See: Haken, Wolf, & Brewer (2005).
g. Radiation from non-relativistic electrons is sometimes termed cyclotron radiation.
h. The change in wavelength, Δλ, depends on the angle of the recoil, θ, as follows,

where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and me is the electron mass. See Zombeck
(2007).[70](p393, 396)
i. The polarization of an electron beam means that the spins of all electrons point into one direction.
In other words, the projections of the spins of all electrons onto their momentum vector have the
same sign.

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External links
"The Discovery of the Electron" (http://www.aip.org/history/electron/). Center for History of
Physics. American Institute of Physics.
"Particle Data Group" (http://pdg.lbl.gov/). University of California.

Bock, R.K.; Vasilescu, A. (1998). The Particle Detector BriefBook (http://physics.web.cern.ch/Phy

sics/ParticleDetector/BriefBook/) (14th ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-64120-9.
Copeland, Ed. "Spherical Electron" (http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/electron_sphere.htm).
Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.

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