Structure of Atom Introduction

Democritus 460 B.C was the first to

theorize that matter was made of small
pieces.

Leucippus was the first to use the term

atom (atomon), which meant "indivisible"
in Greek.
Matter consists of tiny particles
 Structure of Atom
The existence of atoms has been proposed since
the time of early Indian and Greek philosophers (400
B.C.) who were of the view that atoms are the
fundamental building blocks of matter. According to
them, atoms are indivisible.
The word ‘atom’ has been derived from the Greek
word ‘a-tomio’ which means ‘uncut-able’ or
‘non-divisible’.
Dalton’ atomic theory
 Dalton’ atomic theory

The atomic theory of matter was first proposed on a

firm scientific basis by John Dalton, a British school teacher in
1808.
Dalton’s atomic theory was able to explain the
law of conservation of mass, law of constant composition and
law of multiple proportion very successfully.
Failed to explain the results of many experiments, for
example, it was known that substances like glass or ebonite
when rubbed with silk or fur get electrically charged.
 Atoms are made of sub-atomic particles,
i.e., electrons, protons and neutrons

Experiment No.1 Discovery of Electron (1897) J J Thomson

When sufficiently high voltage is applied through an
inert gas (He, Ar) across the electrodes, current starts
flowing through a stream of particles moving in the
Cathode ray discharge tube from the negative electrode
(cathode) to the positive electrode (anode). These were
called cathode rays or cathode ray particles.
Cathode ray discharge tube experiment :
Discovery of an Electron
 Properties of Cathode Rays
1. Cathode rays travel in a straight line.
2. Cathode rays produces mechanical effect,
because they rotate a light paddle wheel placed
in their path.
3. Cathode rays produces Heating effect when they
hit a heavy metal.
4. Cathode rays produce flourescent effect on
fluorescent material.
 Properties of Cathode Rays
6. Cathode rays deflect towards a positive terminal in an
electric field.
7. Cathode rays deflect towards the direction determined by
Fleming’ left hand rule.
8. Cathode rays are Negatively charged.
8. Cathode rays can ionize gasses.
9. Cathode rays can produce X rays.
10. Cathode rays do not depend upon the nature of the gas
and material.
 Charge to mass (e/m) ratio determination of an electron
• This experiment measures e/m, the charge to mass ratio of the electron.
This ratio was first measured by J. J. Thomson in 1897. He won a Nobel
prize for his study of electrons.

Procedure :
• (i) In the present experiment a beam of electrons is accelerated through a
known potential, so the velocity of the electrons is known.
• (ii) A pair of Helmholtz coils produces a uniform and measurable magnetic field at right
angles to the electron beam. This magnetic field deflects the electron beam in a
circular path. By measuring the accelerating potential, the current to the Helmholtz
coils, and the radius of the circular path of the electron beam, the ratio e/m is
calculated.
 In 1897, British physicist J.J. Thomson measured the ratio
of electrical charge (e) to the mass of electron (me ) by using
cathode ray tube and applying electrical and magnetic field
perpendicular to each other as well as to the path of electrons.
Arguements :
Thomson argued that the amount of deviation of the particles
from their path in the presence of electrical or magnetic field depends
upon:
(i) the magnitude of the negative charge on the particle, greater the
magnitude of the charge on the particle, greater is the interaction
with the electric or magnetic field and thus greater is the
deflection.
(ii) the mass of the particle — lighter the particle, greater the
deflection.
(iii) the strength of the electrical or magnetic field — the deflection of
electrons from its original path increases with the increase in the
voltage across the electrodes, or the strength of the magnetic field.
Conclusion :
By carrying out accurate measurements on the amount
of deflections observed by the electrons on the electric field
strength or field strength,
Thomson was able to determine the value of e/me as:
e/me = 1.758820 × 1011 C kg–1
Where me is the mass of the electron in kg and e is the
magnitude of the charge on the electron in coulomb (C). Since
electrons are negatively charged, the charge on electron is –
e.
 Charge of an electron (1909)
(Millikan oil drop experiment)
• In 1909, Robert Millikan and Harvey Fletcher conducted the oil drop
experiment to determine the charge of an electron.
• They suspended tiny charged droplets of oil between two metal
electrodes by balancing downward gravitational force with upward
drag and electric forces. The density of the oil was known, so Millikan
and Fletcher could determine the droplets’ masses from their
observed . Using the known electric field and the values of gravity
and mass, Millikan and Fletcher determined the charge on oil
droplets in mechanical equilibrium.
• They calculated this value to be 1.5924 × 10−19Coulombs (C), which is
within 1% of the currently accepted value of -1.602176487 × 10−19 C.
 At the time of Millikan and Fletcher’s oil drop experiments, the existence of subatomic
particles was not universally accepted.
George FitzGerald and Walter Kaufmann found similar results.
In 1923, Millikan won the Nobel Prize in physics in part because of this experiment.
Experiment No.2 : Discovery of Proton (1919) Eugene
Goldstein
• Eugene Goldstein noted stream of particles in Cathode
rays in 1886. These particles move in opposite direction to
Cathode rays are called Canal rays because they passed
through holes drilled through a negative plate (Cathode)
• When sufficiently high voltage is applied through an
inert gas (He or Ar) at low pressure across the electrodes,
he observed a new type of rays carrying a positive charge
streaming behind the cathode moving from the positive
electrode (Anode) to the negative electrode (cathode).
These were called Anode rays .
Anode ray discharge tube experiment :
Discovery of an Proton
 Properties of Anode Rays
1. Anode rays travel in a straight line.
2. Anode rays produces mechanical effect, because they
rotate a light paddle wheel placed in their path.
3. Anode rays produces Heating effect when they hit a
heavy metal.
4. Anode rays produce flourescent effect on fluorescent
material.
5. Anode rays are Positively charged.
 Properties of Anode Rays
6. Anode rays deflect towards a Negative terminal in an electric
field.
7. Anode rays deflect towards the direction determined by
Fleming’ left hand rule in magnetic field.
8. Anode rays can ionize gasses.
9. Anode rays do not depend upon the nature of the gas and
material, but mass of positively charged particles depends
upon the nature of gas present in the cathode ray tube.
Experiment.3 :Discovery of Neutron (1932)
The British Physicist Sir James Chadwick smashed alpha particles
into Beryllium, a rare metallic element, allowed the radiation that was
released to hit another target paraffin wax, This led to the production
of an uncharged, penetrating radiation. the unusually penetrating
radiation consisted of uncharged particles having (approximately) the
same mass as a proton. These particles were later termed ‘neutrons’.
Characteristics of sub atomic particles
 Atomic models
The structure of an atom,
theoretically consisting of a positively
charged nucleus surrounded and neutralized
by negatively charged electrons revolving in
orbits at varying distances from the nucleus,
the constitution of the nucleus and the
arrangement of the electrons differing with
various chemical elements.
Atomic model no.1 (1904)
 Shortcomings and achievements
An important feature of this model is that the mass of the
atom is assumed.
• It failed to explain the stability of an atom because his model of
atom failed to explain how a positive charge holds the negatively
charged electrons in an atom.
• Thomson’s model failed to explain the scattering of alpha
particles by thin metal foils.
• Thomson’ model does not accout for the existence of nucleus.
• No experimental evidence.

J.J.Thomson was awarded the Nobel prize in 1906 for

discovery of electron. He also received Knighthood from British
Empire.
 Rutherford’ α-scattering experiment(1911)
Objective:
To demonstrate the scattering of alpha
particles by gold foil.

Ernest Rutherford was interested in knowing

how the electrons are arranged within an atom.
In this experiment, fast moving alpha (α)-particles were
made to fall on a thin gold foil.
He selected a gold foil because he wanted as
thin a layer as possible of about 1000 atoms thick,
around it a circular fluorescent ZnS screen is present.
α-particles are doubly-charged helium ions
(He+2 ) having a mass of 4µ, the fast-moving α-particles
have a considerable amount of energy.
It was expected that α-particles would be
deflected by the sub-atomic particles in the gold atoms.
Since the α-particles were much heavier than the
protons, he did not expect to see large deflections.
 Observations of Rutherford's scattering experiment
1.Most of the fast moving α-particles passed straight through the gold foil.
2.Some of the α-particles were deflected by the foil by small angles.
3.Surprisingly one out of every 20,000 alpha particles appeared to rebound.
 Conclusions of Rutherford's scattering experiment :

• Most of the space inside the atom is empty because most of the α-
particles passed through the gold foil without getting deflected.
• Very few particles were deflected from their path, indicating that the
positive charge of the atom occupies very little space.
• A very small fraction of α-particles were deflected by very large
angles, indicating that all the positive charge and mass of the gold
atom were concentrated in a very small volume within the atom
called nucleus.
• From the data he also calculated that the radius of the nucleus
(10–15 ) is about 105 times less than the radius of the atom (10-10 m)
 Rutherford’ Nuclear model of an atom
On the basis of above observations and conclusions,
Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of atom.
According to this model:
(i) Atom is assumed to be hollow sphere.

(ii) The positive charge and most of the mass of the

atom was densely concentrated in extremely small
region. This very small portion of the atom was
called nucleus by Rutherford.
Rutherford’ Nuclear model of an atom
(iii)The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around
the nucleus with a very high speed in circular paths called
orbits, like the planets revolve around the Sun in Solar family.

(iv) Electrons and the nucleus are held together by

electrostatic forces of attraction.
 Drawbacks of Rutherford’ atomic model
1. Rutherford could not explain the stability of an atom.
According to the electromagnetic theory of Maxwell,
charged particles when accelerated should emit electromagnetic
radiation . The energy carried by radiation comes from electronic
motion. The orbit will thus continue to shrink and ultimately
electron fall into the ground of Nucleus.
 Drawbacks of Rutherford’ atomic model
2.If the electron loss energy continuously the observed
spectrum should be continuous, but the actual observed
spectrum consists of well defined lines of definite
frequencies (i.e. discontinuous).

3. Rutherford model failed to say nothing about distribution

of
the electrons around the nucleus and the energies of these
electrons.

4. Line spectra of atoms

 Atomic number
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, which is
characteristic of an chemical element and determines its place in the
periodic table. It was discovered by This was Henry Gwyn-Jefferies
Moseley's. Or
The number of positive charges or protons in the nucleus of
an atom of a given element, and therefore also the number of
electrons normally surrounding the nucleus. It is represented by the
letter “Z.” The atomic number symbol, Z, stands for “Zahl,” meaning
German number.
 Mass number
Mass number is an integer (whole number) equal to the sum of
the number of protons and neutrons of an atomic nucleus.
In other words, it is the sum of the number of nucleons in an
atom. It is represented by the letter “A.” Symbol A, from the German
word Atomgewicht [atomic weight]
• In 1913 radio chemist Frederick Soddy while experimenting with
the products of radioactive decay discovered that there
appeared to be more than one element at each position on the
periodic table.

• The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd.

• Experimental evidence: J.J.Thomson conducted an experiment
in which he channeled a stream of Neon ions through magnetic
and electric fields, striking a photographic plate at the other
end. He observed two glowing patches on the plate, which
suggested two different deflection trajectories.
Thomson concluded this was because some of the Neon
ions had a different mass.
 Isotopes
Isotopes are the atoms of same element have same atomic
number, but have different mass numbers. They have same chemical
properties as they have same electron and proton number.

An important point to mention regarding isotopes is that chemical properties of atoms are controlled by
the number of electrons, which are determined by the number of protons in the nucleus. Number of neutrons
present in the nucleus have very little effect on the chemical properties of an element.
 Isobars
Isobars are the atoms of different elements with same mass
number, but have different atomic numbers. They have different
chemical properties as they have different electron and proton
number.
The name was given by Alfred Walter Stewart in 1918. It is
originally taken from the combination of Greek words- isos
means equal and bar means weight.
Examples
Ar40 K40 Ca40 Ce76, Se76
18 19 20 32 34

24 24 58 Ni58
11Na 12Mg 26Fe , 27
DEVELOPMENTS LEADING TO THE BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM

Two developments played a major role in the

formulation of Bohr’s model of atom. These were:

(i) Dual character of the electromagnetic radiation which

means that radiations possess both wave like and particle
like properties.

(ii) Experimental results regarding atomic spectra.

 1. Dual nature of electromagnetic radiation
Introduction

James Maxwell (1870) was the first to give a

comprehensive explanation about the interaction between
the charged bodies and the behaviour of electrical and
magnetic fields on macroscopic level.

He suggested that when electrically charged particle

moves under accelaration, alternating electrical and
magnetic fields are produced and transmitted. These fields
are transmitted in the forms of waves called
electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation.
 Dual nature of electromagnetic radiations

Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy that is

transmitted through space in the form of a wave. It can be
treated as discrete packets of energy or particles called photons
or quanta.
Light is the form of radiation known from early days and it
was supposed to be made of particles (corpuscules) by Newton.
Maxwell was again the first to reveal that light waves are
associated with oscillating electric and magnetic character.
Electromagnetic radiation wave
General properties of electromagnetic radiation
1. The oscillating electric and magnetic fields produced
by oscillating charged particles are perpendicular to
each other and also perpendicular to the direction
of propagation of the wave.
2. Electromagnetic waves are transverse.
3. Unlike sound waves or water waves,
electromagnetic waves do not require medium and
can travel in vacuum.
General properties of electromagnetic
radiation
4. Electromagnetic waves can travel at the speed of
light in vaccum.
5. Electromagnetic waves can bounce off from a
surface.(i.e reflected)
6. Electromagnetic waves can change direction (i.e. can
be refracted)
7. Electromagnetic waves can spread around
corners.(i.e. diffracted)
 Electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic spectrum consists of different electromagnetic
radiations which are arranged in the increasing order of their
wavelengths and decreasing order their frequencies.
 Characteristics of a wave
1.Wavelength
Wavelength can be defined as the distance between two
successive crests or troughs of a wave. It is measured in the direction
of the wave. Wavelength is represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ).
Units : Wavelength can be measured in meters, centimeters,
or nanometers (1 m = 109 nm)
 2. Frequency
Wave frequency is the number of waves that pass a fixed point
in a given amount of time.
SI unit for wave frequency is the hertz (Hz), where 1 hertz
equals 1 wave passing a fixed point in 1 second.
A higher-frequency wave has more energy than a lower-
frequency wave with the same amplitude.
 3. Amplitude
The amplitude of a wave refers to the maximum amount of
displacement of a particle on the medium from its rest position. or
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum disturbance or
displacement of the medium from the equilibrium (rest) position.
The SI unit of amplitude is the metre (m).
 4. Wavenumber

Wavelength is defined as the number of

wavelengths per unit length.
The wavenumber (k) is simply the reciprocal of the
wavelength, given by the expression. k = 1 / λ
The wavenumber (k) is therefore
the number of waves or cycles per unit distance.
Units for wavenumber are (1/distance), such as 1/m, 1/cm or
1/mm.
Drawbacks of the Wave nature of
Electromagnetic radiations

1. Black body radiation

2. Photoelectric effect
3. Heat capacity of solids as a function of temperature
4. Line spectra of atoms
 2.Particle nature of Electromagnetic radiation
Black body Radiation
Black body :
An object that absorbs all radiation falling on it, at all
wavelengths, is called a black body.
Black body radiation :
When a black body is at a uniform temperature,
its emission has a characteristic frequency distribution that
depends on the temperature. Its emission is called black-body
radiation.
Or
An ideal body, which emits and absorbs radiations of all
frequencies uniformly, is called a black body and the radiation
emitted by such a body is called black body radiation.
Example of a Black body
Carbon black approximates fairly closely to black
body. A good physical approximation to a black body is a
cavity with a tiny hole, which has no other opening. Any
ray entering the hole will be reflected by the cavity walls
and will be eventually absorbed by the walls.
A black body is also a perfect radiator of radiant energy.
 Planck’ quantum theory
1. Matter radiate or absorb energy in discrete quantities .
discontinuously in the form of small packets or bundles called
‘quanta’. In case of light, a quantum light radiation is called ‘photon’.
2. The energy of the quantum absorbed or emitted is directly
proportional to the frequency of the light radiation.
The energy of radiation is expressed in terms of frequency as,
E=hν
Where,
E = Energy of the radiation
h = Planck’s constant (6.626×10–34 J.s)
ν= Frequency of radiation
3. A body or matter radiate or absorb energy in whole number multiples
of a quantum as nhʋ. Where n is a positive integer. So energy can be
absorbed or radiated as hʋ, 2hʋ, 3hʋ, 4hʋ -------- etc.
Evidences in support of Planck’ quantum
theory :
• A prism can separate the light accordinig
to their wavelengths. If light behaves only
as a wave, then a prism should give a
continuous rainbow, but in reality it does
not.
• Emission spectrum of nitrogen gas.
 Photoelectric efffect
In 1887, H. Hertz performed a very interesting experiment in
which electrons (or electric current) were ejected when certain metals
(for example potassium, rubidium, caesium etc.) were exposed to a
beam of light. The phenomenon is called Photoelectric effect.
 Threshold energy
“The minimum amount of energy, that is required
to eject an electron from the surface of a metal is
called threshold energy or photoelectric work
function".
Although the work function specifically refers to
the energy that needs to be put in, and the threshold
energy refers to the frequency required to eject an
electron, they are the same thing when calculating
with the equation.
 Threshold frequency

Threshold frequency is the

minimum frequency of incident light which can cause
emission of photo-electrons from the metal surface.
Photo-emission of electrons is not possible
below threshold frequency.
V ˃ V0
 Photoelectric effect explanation
When a photon of sufficient energy strikes an electron in
the atom of the metal, it transfers its energy instantaneously
to the electron during the collision and the electron is ejected
without any time lag or delay.
Greater the energy possessed by the photon, greater
will be transfer of energy to the electron and greater the
kinetic energy of the ejected electron.
In other words, kinetic energy of the ejected electron is
proportional to the frequency of the electromagnetic
radiation.
 K E of the ejected electron

hv = Energy of the striking photon

hv0 = threshold energy
hv - hv0 = Kinetic energy of the photoelectron
BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM:-
1. The electrons in Hydrogen atom revolve around
the nucleus only in certain selected circular paths
of fixed radius and definite energy. These paths
are called orbits or energy shells or energy levels.

1. The energy of an electron in the orbit does not

change with time. As long as electron remains in a
particular orbit, it does not lose or gain energy.
Therefore these orbits are called “Stationary
states”.
•
 APPLICATIONS
•
 Atomic Spectrum

Meaning : The spectrum is the range

of different colours which is produced when
light passes through a glass prism or through a drop of
water. A rainbow shows the colours in the spectrum.

Atomic spectra is the study of atoms (and atomic

ions) through their interaction with electromagnetic
radiation.
 Absorption spectrum
A spectrum of electromagnetic radiation transmitted
through a substance, showing dark lines or bands due to
absorption at specific wavelengths.
Formation of Absorption spectrum
 Emission spectrum
The spectrum of radiation emitted by a substance that
has absorbed energy is called an emission spectrum. Atoms,
molecules or ions that have absorbed radiation are said to be
“excited”.
Formation of Emission spectra
Emission spectrum and Spectral lines of
Hydrogen
Electron transitions in the Hydrogen atomic
spectrum :
 Line spectrum of Hydrogen :
When an electric discharge is passed through gaseous hydrogen,
the H2 molecules dissociate and the energetically excited hydrogen
atoms produced emit electromagnetic radiation of discrete
frequencies.
Balmer showed in 1885 on the basis of experimental
observations that if spectral lines are expressed in terms of
wavenumber , then the visible lines of the hydrogen spectrum obey the
following formula:
 Rydberg’ formula
The Swedish spectroscopist, Johannes Rydberg, noted that all
series of lines in the hydrogen spectrum could be described by the
following expression :

The value 109,677 cm is called the Rydberg constant for hydrogen.

–1

The first five series of lines that correspond to n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are known

1

as Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, Bracket and Pfund series, respectively.

Explanation of Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
Atom

80
 WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY
Wave Nature of light:
• Diffraction
• Interference

Particle nature of light:

• Photoelectric effect
• Scattering of light

Thus light has a dual nature possessing the properties of both wave and a
particle.
h is known as Planck’s constant and its value is 6.626 × 10-34 js.
p = mv is the linear momentum of the particle.

• The de Broglie wavelength of a body is inversely proportional to

its momentum. Since the magnitude of h is very small, the
wavelength of the objects of our everyday world would be too
small to be observed.
 HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY
PRINCIPLE
•
 QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF
ATOM
• Erwin Schrodinger and Heisenberg developed the quantum mechanical
model of an atom in 1926.
• Erwin described the wave motion of electron in three dimensional space
around the nucleus by a mathematical equation known as Schrodinger
wave equation.
 QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL
OF ATOM
• In short the wave equation may be written as:

• The wave function ψ is a solution of the Schrodinger equation and describes

the behavior of an electron in a region of space called the atomic orbital.
• We can find energy values that are associated with particular wave
functions.
 QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL
OF ATOM
• The solutions of wave equation gives the possible energy levels the electron
can occupy.
• The quantized energy states and corresponding wave functions are
characterized by three quantum numbers:
1) Principle quantum number (n)
2) Azimuthal quantum number (l)
3) Magnetic quantum number ( ml)
 ORBITAL AND QUANTUM NUMBERS
• Principle Quantum number (n ) : This quantum number determines the
size and energy of the orbital. It also identifies the shell.
With the increase in the value of “n” the number of allowed orbitals
increases. Size of an orbital also increases with increase of “n”.
The number of orbitals = n2 ,where n = 1,2,3,4,…………( non zero integer)

“n value” and shell designation:

Value of n 1 2 3 4

Shell K L M N
designation
 ORBITAL AND QUANTUM NUMBERS
• Azimuthal Quantum Number (l) : This quantum number defines the three
dimensional shape of the orbital.
For a given value of n, l can have values ranging from 0 to n-1.
so possible values of l = 0,1,2,3,………….(n-1)
This quantum number thus tells us about the no. of subshells or sub levels
in a given shell.

Value 0 1 2 3 4 5 ………
of l ……
Notatio s p d f g h ………
n for ……
sub-
shell
ORBITAL AND QUANTUM NUMBERS
Value Value of Subshell No. of
of n l Notation subshells in
a Shell
1 0 1s One

2 0 2s Two
1 2p
3 0 3s Three
1 3p
2 3d
4 0 4s four
1 4p
2 4d
3 4f
 ORBITAL AND QUANTUM NUMBERS
• Magnetic Orbital Quantum Number ( ml ): It describes the behavior of
electron in a magnetic field.

Under the applied magnetic field, electrons in a given subshell orient

themselves in certain preferred regions of space around the nucleus.
These are called orbitals.

For any sub-shell, 2l+1 values of ml are possible.

so for a given value of l, ml can have values ranging from –l to +l.

ml = -l………..0…………..+l
ORBITAL AND QUANTUM NUMBERS
 ORBITAL AND QUANTUM NUMBERS
•
 IMPORTANT POINTS
• No. of subshells in nth shell = n

• No. of orbitals in a subshell = 2l + 1

• No. of electrons in a subshell = 2 (2l + 1) = 4l + 2

 SHAPES OF ATOMIC ORBITALS
•
SHAPES OF ATOMIC ORBITALS

S-orbital

P-Orbital
SHAPES OF D-ORBITALS
 NODES IN ATOMIC ORBITALS
• Nodes are the positions where the probability of finding the electron is
zero.

• Total no. of nodes = n-1

• Angular nodes = l
• Radial nodes = n-l-1
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
• The distribution of electrons in different orbitals is known as electronic configuration.

Aufbau Principle: “In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their
increasing energies”.
The orbital energy is defined by a rule known as Bohr-Bury Rule or (n+l) rule.
• Rule 1: An orbital with a lower value for (n + l) has lower energy.
• For example,

• The 4s orbital (n + l = 4+0 = 4) will be filled before a 3d orbital (n + l = 3 + 2 = 5).

• Rule 2: If the value of (n + l) is same for two orbitals then the orbital with lower value of n will
be filled first.

• For example, the 3d orbital (n + l = 3+2=5) will be filled before a 4p orbital (n + l = 4 + 1 =5).
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
• The energies of different orbitals thus
follows the order

1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d<4p<5s……..
and so on.
 PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
•

n=1 l=0 ml = 0

n=1 l=0 ml = 0
 HUND’S RULE OF MAXIMUM
MULTIPLICITY
• According to this Rule, "Electron pairing will not take place in orbitals of
same energy (same subshell) until each orbital is singly filled”.

• For example: The six electrons in Carbon atom are distributed as

1s22s22px12py1 not as 1s22s22px2 as shown in figure below.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF
ELEMENTS
 Exceptional configuration of Chromium and
Copper
• Chromium (atomic no. 24) :
expected configuration = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d4
actual configuration = 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d5

• Copper (atomic no. 29) :

expected configuration = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d9
actual configuration = 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d10
STABILITY OF COMPLETELY FILLED AND
HALF FILLED SUBSHELLS
• Symmetry of Orbital

• Exchange energy