Cells - Structure and Function

Important Events in the Discovery of Cells

1665 - Robert Hooke looks at cork under a microscope. Calls the chambers he
see "cells"
1665 - 75 Anton van Leeuwenhoek, the person incorrectly given credit for the
invention of the microscope (actually, he was just damn good at making and
using them, and his scopes soon became the standard, and history has just given
him credit as the inventor of the microscope), studies organisms living in pond
water (like you did in lab). He calls them "Animalcules."
1830 - German scientists Schleiden and Schawann summarize the findings of
many scientists and conclude that all living organisms are made of cells. This
forms the basis of the Cell Theory of Biology
The Cell Theory of Biology
All organisms are composed of cells
The cell is the structural unit of life - units smaller than cells are not alive
Cells arise by division of preexisting cells - spontaneous generation does not
exist
Cells can be cultured to produce more cells
o in vitro = outside organism or cell
o in vivo = inside organism or cell

Properties of Cells
Cells are complex and highly organized

 They contain numerous internal structures

Some are membrane bound (organelles) while others do not
Cells contain a genetic blueprint and machinery to use it
Genes are instructions for cells to create specific proteins
All cells use the same types of information
o The genetic code is universal
o The machinery used for synthesis is interchangeable
However, for this to function properly, information transfer must be error free
o Errors are called mutations
Cells arise from the division of other cells
Daughter cells inherit the genes from the mother cells
Binary fission - cell division in bacteria
Mitosis - the genetic complement of each daughter cell is identical to the other
and to the mother cell. This is asexual reproduction
Meiosis - the genetic complement of each daughter cell is reduced by half and
each daughter cell is genetically unique. This is used in sexual reproduction
Daughter cells inherit cytoplasm and organelles from the mother cells
o Asexual - organelles from mother cell
o Sexual - organelles predominately from one parent
In eukaryotes, the chloroplasts and mitochondria come from the
egg cell
This can be used to trace the evolutionary origin of the organism

Cells acquire and utilize energy

Plant cells undergo photosynthesis
o convert light energy and CO2 to chemical energy (ATP and glucose)
Most cells respire
o release energy found in organic compounds
o convert organic compounds to CO2 and O2
o make ATP
Cells can perform a variety of chemical reactions
Transform simple organic molecules into complex molecules (anabolism)
Breakdown complex molecules to release energy (catabolism)
Metabolism = all reactions performed by cells
Cells can engage in mechanical activities
Cells can move
Organelles can move
Cells can respond to stimuli
o chemotaxis - movement towards chemicals
o phototaxis - movement towards light
o hormone responses
o touch responses
Cells can regulate activities
Cells control DNA synthesis and cell division

 Gene regulation - cells make specific proteins only when needed

Turn on and off metabolic pathways
Cells all contain the following structures:
Plasma membrane - separates the cell from the external environment
Cytoplasm - fluid-filled cell interior
Nuclear material - genetic information stored as DNA

Types of Cells
Prokaryotes

Pro = before; karyon =

nucleus

relatively small - 5 to 10 um

lack membrane-bound
organelles

earliest cell type

Archaea

Originally thought to be
prokaryotes

relatively small - 5 to 10 um

lack membrane-bound
organelles

Usually live in extreme

environments
(thermophiles, halophiles,
etc)

Eukaryotes

Eu = true; karyon = nucleus

contain membrane-bound
organelles

Evolved from prokaryotes

by endosymbiotic
association of two or more
prokaryotes

Include Protists, Fungi,

Animals, and Plants

Features of Prokaryotic Cells

Cell Structure
A cell is the smallest working unit of all living organisms on our planet earth, which is capable of
performing life functioning. Hence it can also be defined as a fundamental unit of life. The term cell was
first observed and identified by an English physicist Robert Hook in the year 1665.There were many
theories developed for cell. Later in the year 1839 a two German scientist Schwann and Schleiden
provided few basic principles of cell.
Cell Structures
There are many cells in an individual, which performs several functions throughout the life. The different
types of cell include- prokaryotic cell, plant and animal cell. The size and the shape of the cell range from

millimeter to microns, which are generally based on the type of function that it performs. A cell generally
varies in their shapes. A few cells are in spherical, rod, flat, concave, curved, rectangular, oval and etc.
These cells can only be seen under microscope.
Cell Theory

Every living organism is made up of a single cell (unicellular) (or) many cells (multicellular) and all
types of cells have certain structures in common like: genetic material and plasma membrane.

Cell is the smallest living thing.

Each cell arises only from pre-existing cells.

Cell Structure and Function

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Cell wall: It helps in protecting the plasma membrane and plays a vital role in supporting and protecting
the cells.

It is a thick outer layer made of cellulose.

Cell membrane: It is a double layered, thin barrier, surrounding the cell to control the entry and exit of
certain substances.

Cytoplasm: It is a membrane, which protects the cell by keeping the cell organelles separate from each
other. This helps to keep a cell in stable. Cytoplasm is the site, where many vital biochemical reactions
take place.
Nucleus: They are the membrane bound organelles, which are found in all eukaryotic cells. It is the very
important organelle of a cell as it controls the complete activity of a cell and also plays a vital role in
reproduction.

Nuclear membrane: The bilayer membrane, which protects the nucleus by surrounding around it and
acts as a barrier between the cell nucleus and other organs of a cell.

Nucleolus: It is an important membrane found inside the nucleus. It plays a vital role in the production of
cell's ribosome.

Chromosomes: It is made up of DNA and stored in the nucleus, which contains the instructions for traits
and characteristics.

Endoplasmic reticulum: It helps in the movement of materials around the cell. It contains an enzyme
that helps in building molecules and in manufacturing of proteins. The main function of this organelle is
storage and secretion.

Ribosome: It plays a vital role in protein synthesis.

Mitochondria: They are double membrane, filamentous organelles, which play a vital role in generating
and transforming the energy. Mitochondria play a vital role in various functions of the cell metabolisms
including oxidative phosphorylation.

Golgi Bodies: It helps in the movement of materials within the cell.

Lysosomes: It is also called as suicidal bags as it helps in cell renewal and break down old cell parts.

Vacuoles: It helps plants in maintaining its shape and it also stores water, food, wastes, etc.

Chloroplast: They are the site of photosynthesis, which are present in chlorophyll bacteria, blue-green
algae, etc.

Prokaryotic Cell Structure

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They are the first organisms to be present on our planet earth. Organisms, with this cell type are known
by the term prokaryotic organisms (or) prokaryotes. Bacteria, blue green algae and E.coli are few
examples of this category. Prokaryotic cells are single-celled organisms, with the absence of nucleus and
comprises of capsule, cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleiod, ribosome, plasmids, pili and flagella.

Prokaryotic Cell General Features

The size of a cell ranges from 1-10 microns. Few prokaryotic cells vary in their size.

They are single-celled (unicellular), which forms a colony or filamentous.

The shape of the cell includes spherical, rod and flat shaped organisms.

Mode of nutrients-- few organisms are photosynthetic (performing food with the help of sunlight),
feed on living things and dead things.

They reproduce asexually by the process called binary fission, transformation, conjugation,
transduction.

Structure and Functions of a Prokaryotic Cell

Capsule: It is the slimy outer coating of the cell wall. It is composed of the polypeptide. The main function
of the capsule is to protect the cell from getting dry and also helps in protecting cells from external
pressures.
Cell wall: It is the tougher and a rigid structure, which provides the shape and protects the internal
organelles of a cell. It is the middle layer, which is present in between the capsule and cell membrane.

Cell membrane: It is the inner delicate structure, which plays a vital role in regulating the entry and exits
of materials in the cell. It acts a permeable membrane and separates the cell from its environment. It is of
about 5-10nm in thickness, which helps in the secretion of proteins and elimination of waste products. It is
also called by a name plasma membrane.
Cytoplasm: It is the liquid membrane, which is present in between the cell membrane and nucleiod. It
plays a vital role in storing all types of materials, which are required for an organism to sustain the life.
Nucleiod: It is the cytoplasm region containing genetic material. The DNA of a prokaryotic organism is
one big loop or a circular, which is located inside the nucleiod. It plays a vital role in cell division.
Ribosome: It comprises of both RNA and proteins. It helps in protein synthesis in the cell. They are
smallest membrane present inside the cytoplasm.
Plasmids: They are smallest membrane of a cell with double stranded DNA. Plasmids are rarely present
in prokaryotic organisms. The main role of plasmids is it helps in DNA exchanging between the bacterial
cells.
Pilli: It is the thinnest membrane of a prokaryotic cell. They are composed of protein complex called pilin
and are mainly involved in sticking to the objects especially during sexual reproduction.
Flagella: It is the helical shaped membrane, whose sizes ranges from 19-20nm in diameter and plays a
vital role in motility of an organism from one place to another place. It also helps in swimming, gliding,
spinning and rotating both in clockwise and anti clockwise directions.

Eukaryotic Cell Structure

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They are the cells with the presence of true nucleus. Organisms, with this cell type are known by the term
eukaryotic organisms (or) eukaryotes. Animals, plants and other organisms excluding bacteria, blue green
algae and E.coli have been grouped into this category. Eukaryotic cells are more complex than
prokaryotic cells. These organisms have membrane bound nucleus with many cell organelles to perform
several cellular functions within the system.

Eukaryotic Cell General Features

The size of a eukaryotic cell ranges from 10-100 microns. Few eukaryotic cells vary in their size.

They are large, advanced, multicellular and have membrane bound organelles.

They reproduce both by sexually and by asexually.

Mode of nutrients - Autotrophic and heterotrophic.

Kingdom protozoa, algae, fungi, Plantae and Animalia are organisms with eukaryotic cell.

Structure and Functions of a Eukaryotic Cell

Plasma membrane: They are semi permeable membrane that acts as a boundary of a cell, which
protects and separates the cell from the external environment.
Nucleus: It is surrounded by double layered of Phospho lipid bilayer called as nuclear envelope.
They are the storehouse for the cells genetic materials in the form of DNA and store all the
necessary information, which are required for a cell to control all types of activities.

Nuclear membrane: It is the double membrane layer that surrounds the nucleus and it plays a role of
entry and exits of materials within the nucleus.

Nucleolus: It is the non membrane bound organelles, which is present within the nucleus and is mainly
involved in controlling all types of cellular activities including cellular reproduction.

Mitochondria: They are the double smooth membrane, which are present in all eukaryotic cells. They are
the powerhouse of the cell. It plays a vital role in the synthesis of ATP and converts glucose to ATP.
Endoplasmic reticulum: They are the double membrane organelle, which divides the cell into
compartments. It is connected to the nuclear membrane of the cell. It plays a vital role in protein
synthesis, biosynthesis of lipids and steroids, stores and regulates calcium and metabolism of
carbohydrates. Endoplasmic reticulum is of two types rough and smooth Endoplasmic reticulum.

Ribosome: It is present in the cytoplasm. They are the site for cells protein synthesis, which are
composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins.

Golgi Bodies: It is the flattened membrane, which are mainly used to store the substances made by the
cell. This membrane also helps in preserving, transporting materials within the cell. Hence it is also called
as the post office of a cell.

Lysosomes: They are the membrane bound organelles, which contains digestive enzymes to break
down macromolecules. Lysosome plays a vital role in protecting cell by engulfing or destroying foreign
bodies entering the cell.

Cytoplasm: They are the jelly types of organelles, which are present in the inner region of a cell. It plays
a vital role in keeping a cell in a stable and keeps the cell organelles separate from each other.

Chromosomes: The rod shaped structures, which are composed of proteins and DNA. Chromosomes
also play a vital role in determining a sex of an individual. All human cells contain 46 numbers of
chromosomes.

Plant Cell Structure

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A plant cells are eukaryotic cells, with the presence of true nucleus, multicellular large and advanced
membrane bound organelles. These plant cells are quite different from animal cells like in shape and

other few organelles which are only found in animal cells but are absent in plant cells. Based on structure
and functions, plant cells comprise of:

Cell wall: It is the outer layer of a plant cell, which helps a providing the shape and strength to the entire
plant. A cell wall is composed of cellulose that protects and supports the plant to grow.
Cell membrane: It is a biological membrane that separates living cell organelles from non living
structures. This membrane plays a vital role in helping a cell to communicate with the external
environment and also in transporting proteins and other molecules throughout the cell.

Chloroplasts: They are green coloured oval shaped double membrane organelles, which are the sites of
photosynthesis. The green colour pigment (chlorophyll) present in the leaves helps plants in absorbing
solar energy to prepare food.

Cytoplasm: A jelly types double membrane organelles, which are present in the inner region of a cell. It
helps by keeping a cell in stable and protects the cell organelles by separating them from each other.

Lysosomes: They are single membrane round organelles, which helps in digesting proteins, fats and
carbohydrates. It also helps in excretion of undigested materials from the plant cells. It also helps in cell
renewal and breakdown of large cells into smaller cells, old and dead cells.

Golgi Bodies (or) Gogi complex: The sac like structures, which are present in a cell to manufacture,
store, packing and shipping the materials throughout the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum: The network of membrane, which helps in transporting materials around the
cell. It forms a connection between nuclear envelope and the cell membrane of a cell.

Mitochondria: They are rod shaped organelles, plays an important role in releasing energy and they are
the powerhouse of a cell. In plant cell, they are the sites of cellular respiration.

Nucleus: They are large, oval shaped organelle that contains one or more nucleoli with DNA. The main
role of nucleus in plant cell is it controls all types of cellular activities.

Nucleolus: They are the spherical membranes, present inside the nucleus. This membrane contains
RNA, which is used to build proteins. They are the sites of RNA synthesis.
Vacuole: They are the fluid sacs, which are present in large numbers in plant cells. The main function is
this membrane is to store food and other waste materials. Vacuoles are the largest organelles present in
the plant cells.

Animal Cell Structure

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Animal cells are eukaryotic cells, with the presence of true nucleus; multicellular large and advanced
membrane bound organelles. Like plant cells, animal cells have same organelles except the cell wall,
chloroplasts, number of vacuoles and many more. Due to the absence of cell wall the shape of an animal
cell is irregular. Based on structure and functions, animal cells comprise of:

Cell membrane: They are semi-permeable membrane surrounding the cell. It helps in holding the cell
together and allows entry and exits of nutrients into the cell.
Nucleus: The largest organelle in the cell, which contains DNA and other cell's hereditary information.
The main role of nucleus in animal cell is it controls all cellular activities.
Vacuole: They are the fluid sacs, which are present in less numbers in animal cells compared to plant
cells. The main function is this membrane is to store food and other waste materials.
Golgi Bodies (or) Gogi complex: The sac like structures, which are present in a cell to manufacture,
store, packing and shipping the selected particles throughout the cell.

Ribosome: It is present in the cytoplasm. They are the site of protein synthesis, which are composed of
ribosomal RNA and proteins.

Endoplasmic reticulum: The network of membrane, which helps in transporting materials around the
cell and also helps in the synthesis of lipids and proteins. It forms a connection between nuclear envelope
and the cell membrane of a cell.
Mitochondria: They are rod shaped organelles, plays an important role in releasing energy and they are
the powerhouse of a cell.

Cytoplasm: A jelly types double membrane organelles, which are present in the inner region of a cell. It
helps by keeping a cell in stable and protects the cell organelles by separating them from each other.

Lysosomes: They are round single membrane round organelles, which helps in recycling of cell
organelles. Lysosome of an animal cell contains some digestive enzymes that help in the digesting out
the cell debris.

All types of cells eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell, animal and plant cells have many similarities and
also differences in them, which all depends on its structure and functions of each cell organelles.

Capsule - outer sticky

protective layer

Cell Wall - rigid

structure which helps
the bacterium maintain
its shape
o this is in NO
way the same as
the cell wall of a
plant cell

Plasma membrane separates the cell from

the environment

Mesosome - infolding
of plasma membrane to
aid in
compartmentalization

Nucleoid - region where

nakedDNA is found

Cytoplasm
o semi-fluid cell
interior
o no membrane-

bound
organelles
o location for
metabolic
enzymes
o location of
ribosomes for
protein synthesis

Properties of Eukaryotic Cells

 Features shared with Prokaryotic cells

o Rigid cell wall
Plant cells, some Fungi, some Protists
Animal cells lack cell wall

o Plasma membrane
o Cytoplasm with ribosomes
o Nuclear material
Cytoskeleton - flexible tubular scaffold of microfilaments
o maintains cell shape and provides support
o anchors organelles & enzymes to specific regions of the cell
o contractility and movement (amoeboid movement)
o intracellular transport - tracks for vesicle and organelle movement by
motor proteins
Cytoskeleton components
o Microfilaments
solid protein (actin) which is assembled at one end and
disassembled at the other end
o Intermediate filaments - rope-like fibrous proteins
provide structural reinforcement
anchor organelles
keep nucleus in place
o Microtubules - hollow tubes of tubulin (a globular protein)
maintains cell shape
anchor organelles
movement of organelles
track for motor proteins

 Cilia and Flagella - involved in cellular movement

o composed of microtubules
o cilia - short, numerous, complex
o flagella - longer, fewer, less complex
o both arranged in a 9+2 pattern with dynein arms projecting outward
Nucleus
o Double membrane with pores
o Outer membrane continuous with ER
o Nuclear matrix - protein-containing fibrilar network
o Nucleoplasm - the fluid substance in which the solutes of the nucleus are
dissolved
o Chromosomes - protein and DNA complexes
o Nucleolus - involved in the synthesis and assembly of ribosomes
Endomembrane System
o Endoplasmic Reticulum - an extensive membranous network
continuous with the outer nuclear membrane.
Rough ER - has ribosomes and is involved in secreted protein
synthesis
Smooth ER - lacks ribosomes and is involved in membrane lipid
synthesis
o Golgi Apparatus
Flattened vesicles in stacks which receive protein from ER

 Form secretory vesicles to transport proteins to different parts of

the cell (vacuole, lysosome, etc) or for secretion
cis face - "receiving" side of Golgi apparatus
trans face - "shipping" side of Golgi apparatus
o Lysosome
found only in animal cells
contain enzymes for use in the hydrolytic breakdown of
macromolecules
o Peroxisome
Eukaryotic organelle that degrades fatty acids and amino acids
Also degrades the resulting hydrogen peroxide
Plant Central Vacuole - major storage space in center of plant cell with many
functions
o Digestive - break down of macromolecules
o Storage - ions, sugars, amino acids, toxic waste
o Maintain cell rigidity - high ionic concentration generates high water
potential
Images of Vesicle Transport Between Endomembrane Organelles
Mitochondria
o Found in ALL eukaryotic cells (yes, even in plant cells)
o Site of aerobic respiration
sugars + O2 - - > ATP + CO2 + H2O
o Contain DNA which codes for mitochondrial proteins, ribosomes, etc.

o Divide by a process similar to binary fission when cell divides

o Enclosed in a double membrane system
Inner Membrane forms the Cristae (invaginations into interior
region)
Site of energy generation
Matrix is the soluble portion of the mitochondira
Site of carbon metabolism
Location of mDNA
Site of mitochondrial protein synthesis
Chloroplasts
o Found only in plant cells
o Site of photosynthesis
conversion of solar energy to chemical energy in the form of ATP
and sugars
o Contain DNA which codes for chloroplast proteins, ribosomes, etc.
o Divide when plant cell divides
o Enclosed in a double membrane envelope that does not invaginate into
the chloroplast
o Thylakoid is a third internal membrane system
contains membrane-bound photosynthetic pigments
site of photochemistry (the conversion of light energy to ATP)
site of O2 generation
o Stroma is soluable portion of chloroplast

 site of CO2 fixation

site of sugar synthesis (carbon metabolism)
location of cpDNA
site of chloroplast protein synthesis
Ribosomes
o Technically not an organelle, since there is no membrane, but they are
prominent cellular structures and usually lumped in with the organelles
o The "factories" of the cell - involved in protein synthesis
o Facilitate the specific coupling of tRNA anticodons with mRNA codons
during protein synthesis
o May either be free or bound to ER
o Made up of two subunits, the large and the small subunit
o Both subunits are constructed out of protein and RNA (called rRNA)
o The ribosomes of prokaryotes and eukaryotes vary slightly with regard
to size and shape

Endosymbiotic Origin of Chloroplasts and Mitochondria

Free-living prokaryote eaten by host
Genes transferred to host nucleus
Some genes retained but most lost - can no longer survive outside of host
Symbiotic relationship
o photosynthetic symbiont provides sugar - degenerates to form
chloroplast

o aerobic symbiont provides a more efficient energy generation system degenerates to form mitochondria
o host provides stable environment, nutrients, energy, and most proteins
Evidence for Endosymbiotic Theory
o Chloroplasts and mitochondria have DNA
does not code for all proteins
some genes in nucleus
proteins imported rom cytoplasm
o Organelle proteins similar to bacterial form
o Ribosome structure and metabolic enzymes more similar to bacterial
forms