Eukaryotic cell- Eukaryotic cells are defined as cells containing organized nucleus and organelles

which are enveloped by membrane-bound organelles.

A. Plant cell - Plant cells are the basic unit of life in organisms of the kingdom Plantae. They are
eukaryotic cells, which have a true nucleus along with specialized structures called organelles that
carry out different functions. Plant cells have special organelles called chloroplasts which create
sugars via photosynthesis.

Cell Wall
It is a rigid layer which is composed of cellulose, glycoproteins, lignin, pectin, and hemicellulose. It is
located outside the cell membrane. It comprises proteins, polysaccharides, and cellulose.
The primary function of the cell wall is to protect and provide structural support to the cell. The plant
cell wall is also involved in protecting the cell against mechanical stress and to provide form and
structure to the cell. It also filters the molecules passing in and out of the cell.
The formation of the cell wall is guided by microtubules. It consists of three layers, namely, primary,
secondary and the middle lamella. The primary cell wall is formed by cellulose laid down by
enzymes.
Cell membrane
It is the semi-permeable membrane that is present within the cell wall. It is composed of a thin layer
of protein and fat.
The cell membrane plays an important role in regulating the entry and exit of specific substances
within the cell. For instance, cell membrane keeps toxins from entering inside, while nutrients and
essential minerals are transported across.

Nucleus

The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that is present only in eukaryotic cells. The vital function of a
nucleus is to store DNA or hereditary information required for cell division, metabolism, and growth.
 1. Nucleolus: It manufactures cell’s protein-producing structures and ribosomes.
2. Nucleopore: Nuclear membrane is perforated with holes called nucleopore that allows proteins and
nucleic acids to pass through.

Plastids
They are membrane-bound organelles that have their own DNA. They are necessary to store starch,
to carry out the process of photosynthesis. It is also used in the synthesis of many molecules which
form the building blocks of the cell. Some of the vital types of plastids and their functions are stated
below:

Leucoplasts
They are found in non-photosynthetic tissues of plants. They are used for the storage of protein, lipid,
and starch.

Chloroplasts
It is an elongated organelle enclosed by phospholipid membrane. The chloroplast is shaped like a
disc and the stroma is the fluid within the chloroplast that comprises a circular DNA. Each
chloroplast contains a green coloured pigment called chlorophyll required for the process of
photosynthesis. The chlorophyll absorbs light energy from the sun and uses it to transform carbon
dioxide and water into glucose.

Chloroplasts
They are heterogeneous, coloured plastid which is responsible for pigment synthesis and for storage
in photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. Chloroplasts have red, orange and yellow coloured pigments
which provide colour to all ripe fruits and flowers.

Central Vacuole
It occupies around 30% of the cell’s volume in a mature plant cell. Tonoplast is a membrane that
surrounds central vacuole. The vital function of central vacuole apart from storage is to sustain turgid
pressure against the cell wall. The central vacuole consists of cell sap. It is a mixture of salts,
enzymes, and other substances.

Golgi apparatus
They are found in all eukaryotic cells which are involved in distributing synthesized macromolecules
to various parts of the cell.

Ribosomes
They are the smallest membrane-bound organelles which comprise RNA and protein. They are the
sites for protein synthesis, hence, also referred to as the protein factories of the cell.

Mitochondria
They are the double-membraned organelles found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. They
provide energy by breaking down carbohydrate and sugar molecules, hence they are also referred to
as the “Powerhouse of the cell.”
Lysosome
Lysosomes are called as suicidal bags as they hold digestive enzymes in an enclosed membrane.
They perform the function of cellular waste disposal by digesting worn-out organelles, food particles
and foreign bodies in the cell.

Plant Cell Types

Cells of a matured and higher plant become specialized to perform certain vital functions that are
essential for their survival. Few plant cells are involved in the transportation of nutrients and water,
while others for storing food.
The specialized plant cells include parenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells, collenchyma cells, xylem
cells, and phloem cells.

Following are some of the different types of plant cells:

Collenchyma Cells
They are hard or rigid cells, which play a primary role in providing support to the plants when there is
restraining growth in a plant due to lack of hardening agent in primary walls.

Sclerenchyma Cells
These cells are more rigid compared to collenchyma cells and this is because of the presence of a
hardening agent. These cells are usually found in all plant roots and mainly involved in providing
support to the plants.

Parenchyma Cells
Parenchyma cells play a significant role in all plants. They are the living cells of plants, which are
involved in the production of leaves. They are also involved in the exchange of gases, production of
food, storage of organic products and cell metabolism. These cells are typically more flexible than
others because they are thinner.

Xylem Cells
Xylem cells are the transport cells in vascular plants. They help in the transport of water and
minerals from the roots to the leaves and other parts of the plants.

Phloem Cells
Phloem cells are another transport cells in vascular plants. They transport food prepared by the
leaves to different parts of the plants.

Plant Cell Functions

Plant cells are the building blocks of plants. Photosynthesis is the major function performed by plant
cells.

Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of the plant cell. It is the process of preparing food by the
plants, by utilizing sunlight, carbon dioxide and water. Energy is produced in the form of ATP in the
process.
Few plant cells help in the transport of water and nutrients from the roots and leaves to different
parts of the plants.
B. Animal Cell - Animal cells are typical of the eukaryotic cell, enclosed by a plasma membrane and
containing a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles.

Prokaryotic Cell - A prokaryote is a unicellular organism that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus,

mitochondria, or any other membrane-bound organelle. The word prokaryote comes from the Greek
πρό "before" and κάρυον "nut" or "kernel". Prokaryotes are divided into two domains, Archaea and
Bacteria.
3. The Different Types of Microscopes
 The Compound Light Microscope
Commonly binocular (two eyepieces), the compound light microscope, combines the power of lenses
and light to enlarge the subject being viewed. Typically, the eyepiece itself allows for 10X or 15X
magnification and when combined with the three or four objective lenses, which can be rotated into
the field of view, produce higher magnification to a maximum of around 1000X generally.
The compound light microscope is popular among botanists for studying plant cells, in biology to
view bacteria and parasites as well as a variety of human/animal cells.

It is a useful microscope in forensic labs for identifying drug structures.

Compound light microscopes are one of the most familiar of the different types of microscopes as
they are most often found in science and biology classrooms.
For this reason, simple models are readily available and are inexpensive.
As well, several microscopy imaging techniques benefit scientists and researchers using the
compound microscope and are worth exploring.

 The Stereo Microscope

The Stereo microscope, also called a dissecting microscope, has two optical paths at slightly
different angles allowing the image to be viewed three-dimensionally under the lenses.
Stereo microscopes magnify at low power, typically between 10X and 200X, generally below 100x.
With this type of microscope you generally have the choice of purchasing the fixed or zoom variety
from a manufacturer and are relatively inexpensive.
Uses for this type of microscope include looking at surfaces, microsurgery, and watch making, plus
building and inspecting circuit boards.
Stereo microscopes allow students to observe plant photosynthesis in action.

 The Digital Microscope

Step into the 21st century with a digital microscope and enter a world of amazing detail.
The digital microscope, invented in Japan in 1986, uses the power of the computer to view objects
not visible to the naked eye.
Among the different types of microscopes, this kind can be found with or without eyepieces to peer
into.
It connects to a computer monitor via a USB cable, much like connecting a printer or mouse. The
computer software allows the monitor to display the magnified specimen. Moving images can be
recorded or single images captured in the computer’s memory.
An advantage of digital microscopes is the ability to email images, as well as comfortably watch
moving images for long periods.
The popularity of the digital microscope has increased at schools and among hobbyists.

 The USB Computer Microscope

Although not well suited to the same scientific applications as other light microscopes, the USB
Computer microscope, among the different types of microscopes, can be used on almost any object
and requires no preparation of the specimen.
It is essentially a macro lens used to examine images on a computer screen plugged into its USB
port.
However, the magnification is restricted and is not comparable to your standard compound light
microscope at only up to 200X with a relatively small depth of field.

 The Pocket Microscope

In examining the different types of microscopes available on the market, the pocket microscope may
be tiny but its abilities are impressive.
This is a device which is a great gift for a child or your student. It is used by scientists for hand-held
imaging of a variety of specimens/objects in the field or in the laboratory.
It is small, durable and portable with a magnification ranging from 25x to 100x. There are many
different models available.
You may even want to check out the portable digital microscopes that are available now as this is an
invaluable tool to aid in image sharing and analysis.
  The Electron Microscope
Among the different types of microscopes, the Electron Microscope(EM) is a powerful microscope
available and used today, allowing researchers to view a specimen at nanometer size.
The transmission electron microscope(TEM), the first type of EM, is capable of producing images 1
nanometer in size.
The TEM is a popular choice for nanotechnology as well as semiconductor analysis and production.

A second type of electron microscope is the scanning electron microscope(SEM)are approximately

10 times less powerful than TEMs, they produce high-resolution, sharp, black and white 3D images.
The Transmission Electron Microscopes and Scanning Electron Microscopes have practical
applications in such fields as biology, chemistry, gemology, metallurgy and industry as well as
provide information on the topography, morphology, composition and crystallographic data of
samples.

 The Scanning Probe Microscope (SPM)

Among the different types of microscopes and microscopy techniques, scanning probe
microscopy is used today in academic and industrial settings for those sectors involving
physics, biology and chemistry. These instruments are used in research and development as
standard analysis tools.
Images are highly magnified and are observed as three-dimensional-shaped-specimens in
real time. SPMs employ a delicate probe to scan the surface of the specimen eliminating
the limitations that are found in electron and light microscopy.
 The Acoustic Microscope

The Acoustic Microscope is less about resolution and more about finding faults, cracks or
errors from samples during the manufacturing process.

With the use of high ultrasound, this type of microscope is the easiest intra-cavity imaging
tool available. It is a microscope that is under used primarily due to the fact that it is less
known for its capabilities.
Scanning acoustic microscopy, or SAM, is the most current type of acoustic microscopy
available to today's scientists. They can use it to view a sample internally without staining it
or causing it any damage thanks to point focusing technology, which relies on a beam to
scan and penetrate the specimen while it is in water.
B. Proponents

Zacharias Janssen

Some historians argue Hans Janssen helped build the microscope, as Zacharias was a teenager in the
1590s. Reproduction of first compound microscope made by Hans and Zacharias Janssen, circa 1590.

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek FRS was a Dutch businessman and scientist in the Golden Age of Dutch
science and technology. A largely self-taught man in science, he is commonly known as "the Father of
Microbiology", and one of the first microscopists and microbiologists
 Marvin Minsky

The confocal microscope was invented by Marvin Minsky, who has written a nice summary about this on the
web. His original idea was to move the sample in order to scan it, rather than to use scanning mirrors. With
the invention of the laser, confocal microscopes became practical.

Manfred von Ardenne

Although Max Knoll produced a photo with a 50 mm object-field-width showing channeling contrast by the
use of an electron beam scanner, it was Manfred von Ardenne who in 1937 invented a true microscope with
high magnification by scanning a very small raster with a demagnified and finely focused electron beam.
 Ernst Ruska

The first TEM was demonstrated by Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska in 1931, with this group developing the
first TEM with resolution greater than that of light in 1933 and the first commercial TEM in 1939. In 1986,
Ruska was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for the development of transmission electron microscopy.

C. Compound Microscope

A compound microscope is an instrument that is used to view magnified images of small objects on a glass
slide. It can achieve higher levels of magnification than stereo or other low power microscopes and reduce
chromatic aberration